ADOLESCENT PEER COUNSELLING · Adolescent peer counselling as a social support strategy to assist...

ADOLESCENT PEER COUNSELLING

Kathryn Geldard

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy. July 2005

School of Learning and Professional Studies Faculty of Education

Queensland University of Technology

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KEYWORDS

Adolescents, Communication, Conversation, Coping, Coping resources, Coping

strategies, Counselling microskills, Counsellor training, Developmental stage

differences, Emotional competence, Help seeking, Helping conversations,

Intervention research, Peer counselling, Peer counsellor training, Prosocial

behaviour, Resilience, Role attribution, School climate, Self-concept, Skill

implementation, Social support, Status differences, Stress.

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ABSTRACT

Adolescent peer counselling as a social support strategy to assist adolescents

to cope with stress in their peer group provides the focus for the present thesis. The

prosocial behaviour of providing emotional and psychological support through the use

of helping conversations by young people is examined. Current programs for training

adolescent peer counsellors have failed to discover what skills adolescents bring to the

helping conversation. They ignore, actively discourage, and censor, some typical

adolescent conversational helping behaviours and idiosyncratic communication

processes. Current programs for training adolescent peer counsellors rely on teaching

microcounselling skills from adult counselling models. When using this approach, the

adolescent peer helper training literature reports skill implementation, role attribution

and status differences as being problematic for trained adolescent peer counsellors

(Carr, 1984; de Rosenroll, 1988; Morey & Miller, 1993). For example Carr (1984)

recognised that once core counselling skills have been reasonably mastered that young

people “may feel awkward, mechanical or phoney” (p. 11) when trying to implement

the new skills. Problematic issues with regard to role attribution and status differences

appear to relate to the term ‘peer counsellor’ and its professional expectations,

including training and duties (Anderson, 1976; Jacobs, Masson & Vass, 1976;

Myrick, 1976). A particular concern of Peavy (1977) was that for too many people

counselling was an acceptable label for advice giving and that the role of counsellor

could imply professional status. De Rosenroll (1988) cautioned against creating

miniature mirror images of counselling and therapeutic professionals in young people.

However, he described a process whereby status difference is implied when a group

of adolescent peer counsellors is trained and invited to participate in activities that

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require appropriate ethical guidelines including competencies, training, confidentiality

and supervision. While Carr and Saunders (1981) suggest, “student resentment of the

peer counsellor is not a problem” they go on to say, “this is not to say that the problem

does not exist” (p. 21). The authors suggest that as a concern the problem can be

minimised by making sure the peer counsellors are not ‘forced’ on the student body

and by providing opportunities for peer counsellors to develop ways of managing

resentment. De Rosenroll (1988) acknowledges that the adolescent peer counsellor

relationship may fall within a paraprofessional framework in that a difference in status

may be inferred from the differing life experiences of the peer counsellor when

compared with their student peers.

The current project aimed to discover whether the issues of skill

implementation, role attribution and status differences could be addressed so that

adolescent peer counselling, a valuable social support resource, could be made more

attractive to, and useful for adolescents.

The researcher’s goal was to discover what young people typically do when

they help each other conversationally, what they want to learn that would enhance

their conversational helping behaviour, and how they experience and respond to their

role as peer counsellor, and then to use the information obtained in the development

of an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program. By doing this, the

expectation was that the problematic issues cited in the literature could be addressed.

Guided by an ethnographic framework the project also examined the influence of an

adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program on the non-peer counsellor

students in the wider adolescent community of the high school.

Three sequential studies were undertaken. In Study 1, the typical adolescent

conversational and communications skills that young people use when helping each

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other were identified. In addition, those microcounselling skills that young people

found useful and compatible with their typical communication processes were

identified. In Study 2, an intervention research process was used to develop, deliver,

and evaluate an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program which combined

typical adolescent helping behaviours with preferred counselling microskills selected

by participants in Study 1. The intervention research paradigm was selected as the

most appropriate methodology for this study because it is designed to provide an

integrated perspective for understanding, developing, and examining the feasibility

and effectiveness of innovative human services interventions (Bailey-Dempsey &

Reid, 1996; Rothman & Thomas, 1994). Intervention research is typically conducted

in a field setting in which researchers and practitioners work together to design and

assess interventions. When applying intervention research methodology researchers

and practitioners begin by selecting the problem they want to remedy, reviewing the

literature, identifying criteria for appropriate and effective intervention, integrating the

information into plans for the intervention and then testing the intervention to reveal

the intervention’s strengths and flaws. Researchers then suggest modifications to

make the intervention more effective, and satisfying for participants. In the final stage

of intervention research, researchers disseminate information about the intervention

and make available manuals and other training materials developed along the way

(Comer, Meier, & Galinsky, 2004). In Study 2 an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor

training manual was developed. Study 3 evaluated the impact of the peer counsellor

training longitudinally on the wider school community. In particular, the project was

interested in whether exposure to trained peer counsellors influenced students who

were not peer counsellors with regard to their perceptions of self-concept, the degree

of use of specific coping strategies and on their perceptions of the school climate.

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Study three included the development of A School Climate Survey which focused on

the psychosocial aspects of school climate from the student’s perspective. Two factors

which were significantly correlated (p<.01) were identified. Factor 1 measured

students’ perceptions of student relationships, and Factor 2 measured students’

perceptions of teachers’ relationships with students.

The present project provides confirmation of a number of findings that other

studies have identified regarding the idiosyncratic nature of adolescent

communication, and the conversational and relational behaviours of young people

(Chan, 2001; Noller, Feeney, & Peterson, 2001; Papini & Farmer, 1990; Rafaelli &

Duckett, 1989; Readdick & Mullis, 1997; Rotenberg, 1995; Turkstra, 2001; Worcel et

al., 1999; Young et al., 1999). It extends this research by identifying the specific

conversational characteristics that young people use in helping conversations.

The project confirmed the researcher’s expectation that some counselling

microskills currently used in training adolescent peer counsellors are not easy to use

by adolescents and are considered by adolescents to be unhelpful. It also confirmed

that some typical adolescent conversational helping behaviours which have been

proscribed for use in other adolescent peer counsellor training programs are useful in

adolescent peer counselling. The project conclusively demonstrated that the

adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program developed in the project

overcame the difficulties of skill implementation identified in the adolescent peer

counselling literature (Carr, 1984). The project identified for the first time the process

used by adolescent peer counsellors to deal with issues related to role attribution and

status difference.

The current project contributes new information to the peer counselling

literature through the discovery of important differences between early adolescent and

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late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to acquiring and mastering counselling

skills, and their response to role attribution and status difference issues among their

peers following counsellor training. As a result of the substantive findings the current

project makes a significant contribution to social support theory and prosocial theory

and to the adolescent peer counselling literature. It extends the range of prosocial

behaviours addressed in published research by specifically examining the

conversational helping behaviour of adolescents from a relational perspective. The

current project provides new information that contributes to knowledge of social

support in the form of conversational behaviour among adolescents identifying the

interactive, collaborative, reciprocal and idiosyncratic nature of helping conversations

in adolescents. Tindall (1989) suggests that peer counsellor trainers explore a variety

of ways to approach a single training model that can augment and supplement the

training process to meet specific group needs. The current project responded to this

suggestion by investigating which counselling skills and behaviours adolescent peer

counsellor trainees preferred, were easy to use by them, and were familiar to them,

and then by using an intervention research process, devised a training program which

incorporated these skills and behaviours into a typical adolescent helping

conversation.

A mixed method longitudinal design was used in an ecologically valid setting.

The longitudinal nature of the design enabled statements about the process of the peer

counsellors’ experience to be made. The project combined qualitative and

quantitative methods of data gathering. Qualitative data reflects the phenomenological

experience of the adolescent peer counsellor and the researcher and quantitative data

provides an additional platform from which to view the findings. The intervention

research paradigm provided a developmental research method that is appropriate for

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practice research. The intervention research model is more flexible than conventional

experimental designs, capitalises on the availability of small samples, accommodates

the dynamism and variation in practice conditions and diverse populations, and

explicitly values the insights of the researcher as a practitioner. The project combines

intervention research with involvement of the researcher in the project thus enabling

the researcher to view and report the findings through her own professional and

practice lens.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Adolescence, Stress and Coping 1

Research into Prosocial Behaviour in Adolescents 5

Adolescent Peer Counsellor Training and Evaluation 8

Research Project Outline 16

Structure of Doctoral Thesis 17

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

RELATED TO THE STUDY OF ADOLESCENT PEER COUNSELLING 19

Theories on Stress and Coping 19

Theories of Social Support 25

Theories of Prosocial Behaviour 28

Adolescent Communication Processes and Patterns 32

The Contribution of the Current Project to the Literature 36

Pro social behaviour 36

Methodological design 37

Social support 37

CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ON PEER COUNSELLING

AND PEER HELPER TRAINING 39

Counsellor Education Models 42

Peer Helper Training 45

Evaluating Peer Helper Training Programs 52

Summary 55

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY 59

Theoretical Framework 59

Intervention Research 61

Project Design 63

Mixed Method Design 63

Longitudinal Design 65

School-Researcher Relationship 67

Participant recruitment 70

The Current Project 70

Study 1 73

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Study 2 74

Study 3 75

Measures 78

Qualitative Measures 78

Focus Groups 78

Analysis of Focus Groups 81

Researcher Reflections 83

Analysis of Researcher Reflections 84

Open-ended surveys 85

Analysis of Open-ended surveys 85

Quantitative measures 86

Questionnaires 86

Analysis of Questionnaires 86

The self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire 87

Analysis of The self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire 90

Piers Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale 90

Analysis of Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 93

Adolescent Coping Scale 93

Analysis of Adolescent Coping Scale. 98

School Climate Survey 98

CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOMETRIC ANALYSIS

OF THE SCHOOL CLIMATE SURVEY 103

School Climate 103

Standardised School Climate Surveys 103

Individualised School Climate Surveys 104

Constructing a school climate survey to identify change 106

Operational definition of the topic 107

Survey themes and categories 108

Developing survey items 109

Statistical analysis of the survey’s psychometric properties 112

Participants 112

Procedure 112

Analysis 113

Results 113

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Conclusion 118

CHAPTER 6: STUDY 1 121

Research Questions 121

Participants 121

Procedure and Materials 122

Analysis 125

Analysis of Focus Groups 125

Analysis of Questionnaires 127

Analysis of researchers field notes 127

Results 129

Research Question 1 129

Conversational responses 129

Listening 130

Reassurance 130

Emotional regulation 131

Involvement 132

Understanding 132

Giving advice 133

Confidentiality 133

Trust 134

Helping others to talk 134

Personal disclosure 134

Respect 135

Another point of view 135

Mediation 136

Making contact 136

Endorsements 136

Collaborative problem solving 137

Safe relationship 137

Distracting 138

Evaluative responses 138


Results from Subgroup A (Client Centred Counselling) 142

Results from subgroup B (Reality Therapy) 143

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Results from subgroup C (Solution Focused Counselling) 143

Results from subgroup D (Validation and enhancement of

typical adolescent helping behaviours) 145

Discussion 145


Goals of counselling 146

The helping relationship 146

Personal disclosure 147

Adolescent conversational characteristics and behaviours 148

Peer counsellor training 151

Research question 2 152

Active listening skills 152

Instilling hope and optimism 154

Problem solving 156

Conclusion 160

CHAPTER 7: STUDY 2 QUALITATIVE DATA RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 163



Participants 164

Description of the Intervention 164

Procedure and measures 167

Time 1 168

Time 2 168

Time 3 169

Time 4 169

Results of Qualitative Data 171

Skill Implementation 172

Time 2 –Immediately post-intervention 172

Most useful skills 173

Using the counselling skills and processes 174

The training experience 174

Time 3 - Three months post-intervention 175

Training components most valued and preferred 176

Skill use 176

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Time 4 -six months post-intervention 177

Skill awareness 178

Skill use 178

Role Attribution 179

Time 2 –Immediately post-intervention 179

Enhancers of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor 180

Emotional experience of the conversation 181

Perception of success 182

Constraints of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor 183

Time 3 - three months post-intervention 184

Rewarding aspects of helping 184

Unrewarding aspects of helping 185

Time 4 - six months post-intervention 186

Role limitations 187

Role involvement 188

Adjustment to role 188

Status 189

Time 2 – Immediately post-intervention 189

Personal Characteristics contributing to peer counsellor status 190

Status with regard to relationships with others 191

Status with regard to training 191

Time 3 - three months post-intervention 191

Behaviours that indicate Status difference 193

Status as perceived by peer counsellors 194

Status as perceived by others 195

Status enhancers 196

Time 4 - six months post-intervention 196

Overall relationship with others 197

Relationship with others with regards to skill acquisition 197

Status with regard to role 198

Summary of qualitative results 198

Overall summary of qualitative results 198

Summary of qualitative results over time 199

Summary of qualitative results for early & late adolescent peer counsellors 200

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Summary for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time 201

Discussion 202


Skill implementation 202

Role Attribution 209

Status 217

CHAPTER 8: QUANTITATIVE DATA RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 227


Participants 228




Analysis 229

Results 230

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire 230

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 233

The Adolescent Coping Scale 241



Results 248

The School Climate Survey 248

Discussion of Quantitave Data 255

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire 255

The Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 259


School Climate Survey 265

Conclusion 270

CHAPTER 9: STUDY 3 IMPACT OF THE INTERVENTION

ON NON-PEER COUNSELLOR STUDENTS 273


Participants 273



Quantitative Data Results 277

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Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 277


The Adolescent Coping Scale 279



Discussion 282

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 283



Summary 289

CHAPTER 10: DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE

CURRENT PROJECT 293

Contribution of Qualitative Findings 295

Adolescent Conversational Helping Behaviour 295

Adolescent Peer Counsellors’ Experience with regard

to their Training and Role as Peer Counsellors 298

Developmental Age Differences 302

Contribution of quantitative findings 303

Theoretical Contribution 308

Prosocial behaviour among adolescents 308

Social support 309

Peer counsellor training 310

Methodological contributions 310

Longitudinal design 311

Evaluation of the wider school environment 312

Intervention Research 312

Development of the School Climate Survey 314

Contribution of the researcher as part of the intervention and evaluation 316

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Limitations of the current study 317

Implications and recommendations of the current study 321

Implications with regards to developmental stage differences 321

Recommendations with regard to methodology 322

Recommendations with regard to adolescent peer counsellor training 323

REFERENCES 329

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LIST OF TABLES

4.1 Outline of Mixed Method Design 71

4.2 Timeline identifying Project Milestones 77

5.1 Description of categories in the school climate survey and their classification

according to Moos’ dimensions 111

5.2 Pattern matrix for orthogonal factors of the School Climate Survey 114

5.3 Correlations between the school climate factors 117

6.1 Categories of conversational helping skills and behaviours and the number and

frequency of times mentioned 129

6.2 Percentages of responses summarising the ease of use for each of the counselling

microskills within each subgroup 140

6.3 Percentages of responses summarising the usefulness of each of the counselling

microskills within each subgroup 141

7.1 Data gathering procedures, times used and subjects included 170

7.2 Skill implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2 173

7.3 Skill Implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T3 176

7.4 Skill Implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T4 178

7.5 Role Attribution themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2 180



7.8 Status themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2 190



7.11 Peer counsellor responses 199

7.12 Peer counsellor responses over time 199

7.13 Early and late adolescent peer counsellors’ responses 200

7.14 Early and late adolescent peer counsellor responses over time 201

8.1 Means scores for emotional competence for peer counsellors over time 230

8.2 Emotional competence total mean scores for early and late adolescent peer

counsellors over time 232

8.3 Mean scores and standard deviations for peer counsellors on the Piers Harris

Children’s Self-concept subscales over time 234

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8.4 Status subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

over time 236

8.5 Appearance subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over

time 238

8.6 Freedom from anxiety subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer

counsellors over time 239

8.7 Popularity subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over

time 240

8.8 Problem solving style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors 243

8.9 Reference to Others style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer

counsellors 243

8.10 Non-Productive style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors 243

8.11 Mean scores and standard deviations for peer counsellors on factor scores

and total school climate score of the School Climate Survey over time 250

8.12 Mean scores for School Climate Total for early adolescent peer counsellors

and late adolescent peer counsellors over time 252

8.13 Mean scores for student Perceptions of Student Relationships for early

and late adolescent peer counsellors over time 253

8.14 Mean scores for student perceptions of Teachers Relationships with Students

and Other Staff for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time 254

9.1 Number and gender of subjects in each group 274

9.2 Number of subjects in each group 277

9.3 Differences over time for Total Sample of Non-Peer counsellors for

Piers-Harris Subscales 278

9.4 Piers Harris subscales for early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors 279

9.5 Differences over time for Total Sample of Non-Peer counsellors for

Adolescent Coping Styles 280

9.6 Adolescent Coping Subscales for Non-Peer Counsellors 280

9.7 Differences over time for non-peer counsellors for school climate total

and subscales 281

9.8 School climate mean scores for early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors 282

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LIST OF FIGURES

4.1 The conceptual areas of coping 96

8.1 Emotional Competence mean scores for all peer counsellors 231

8.2 Mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors on

Emotional competence 232

8.3 Difference between subscale scores of Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 234

8.4 Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Status subscale 237

8.5 Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Appearance

Subscale 238

8.6 Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Freedom from

Anxiety subscale 239

8.7. Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on

Popularity subscale 240

8.8. Difference between the degree of use of coping styles over time for early

adolescent peer counsellors 244

8.9. Difference between the degree of use of coping styles over time for late

adolescent peer counsellors 244

8.10 Differences between the degree to which early and late adolescent

peer counsellors use the Problem Solving style 245


peer counsellors use the Reference to Others style 246


peer counsellors use the Non-productive style 247

8.13 Total school climate score for all peer counsellors over time 250

8.14 Differences between factor scores on school climate for all peer counsellors

over time 251

8.15 Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on

Student perceptions of student relationships 252

8.16 Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on

Student perceptions of Teachers Relationships with Students and Other Staff 253

8.17 Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Student

Perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other Staff 254

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LIST OF APPENDICES ON CD

APPENDIX A Advertising Brochure

APPENDIX B Information Package

APPENDIX C Study 1 Focus group Questions

APPENDIX D Study 1 Sub group training outline

APPENDIX E Study 1 Subgroup Questionnaire

APPENDIX F Study 1 Subgroup, discussion session Questions

APPENDIX G Transcribed statements from Study 1 subgroup discussion sessions

with regard to the ease of use and usefulness of micro-counselling

skills and peer counsellors experience of using skills

APPENDIX H Transcribed statements relevant for each category identified in Study 1

focus groups

APPENDIX I Adolescent Peer Helper Training Program

APPENDIX J Study 2 Open-ended survey questions

APPENDIX K School Climate Survey

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and

belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another

person except where due reference is made.

Signed...........................................................................................

Date...............................................................................................

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deep appreciation to Professor Wendy Patton for the

encouragement I received through her continual belief that I was capable of

executing this project, for her guidance, sound advice and untiring interest in the

topic.

I would like to thank my second supervisor Dr Kym Irving for her skilled and

experienced feedback and her confidence in my ability to contribute, through this

project, to the field of education and counselling.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr Marilyn Campbell for her help

and advice with regard to the preparation of this thesis. Her meticulous attention to

detail has been of considerable value and was greatly appreciated.

My sincere thanks goes to Immanuel Lutheran College for their willingness to

participate as a partner in this project and most of all to the young people who

participated with unwavering sincerity and commitment.

Finally, I wish to thank my husband David Geldard whose encouragement and

love enabled me to embark on, and complete this project.

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Adolescence, Stress and Coping

Everyday it is common to read of the demands and stresses increasingly faced by

individuals. Finding employment in competitive conditions and developing relationships

with others, coupled with the increased demands of self-organisation and adaptation to

technology, can contribute to life being experienced as stressful. Additionally, many

individuals experience anxiety and stress related to personal safety and security in an age

of national and international events which are often alarmingly disturbing. Stress cannot

be avoided and it should not be assumed that stress is necessarily bad. Indeed, a certain

amount of stress is necessary for providing energy required to adapt and accomplish

goals. Additionally, it needs to be recognised that whether an event is perceived to be

significantly stressful depends on an individual's ability to cope with stress and

interpretation of the event as stressful.

Because adolescence is a stage of human development during which a young

person must move from dependency to independence and develop autonomy and

maturity, young people, in particular, are faced with many challenges (Dacey & Kenny,

1997; Maybe & Sorensen, 1995; White, 1996; Winefield & Tiggeman, 1990). Some

young people are more successful than others when confronting and dealing with the

stress associated with the challenges of adolescent life; they are more resilient and have

better coping strategies (Baumrind, 1991a, 1991b; Borrine, Handal, Brown & Seawright,

1991; Chassin & Barrera, 1993; Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002; Patton & Noller, 1990;

Schoon & Bynner, 2003). However, some adolescents are unable to confront and deal

with these challenges successfully.

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During adolescence, young people inevitably face physiological and biological

changes. These changes influence the young person's emotional state. Additionally, the

emergence of sexual drives predisposes the young person to explore new relationships

which produce social and interpersonal challenges.

During adolescence young people also experience cognitive changes. They

develop a capacity for abstract thinking, discern new ways of processing information and

learn to think creatively and critically. How young people make use of these new

cognitive skills so that they can experience positive outcomes is a challenge. Forming an

identity, parental expectations, societal expectations, and managing the influence of peers

are also challenging for most young people (Geldard & Geldard, 2004). These adolescent

challenges combined with the stresses and demands of life lead many young people to

become disillusioned, overwhelmed and unable to cope.

It is clearly relevant and important to carry out research into adolescent coping

and to discover ways to prevent the development of unhelpful psychological, emotional

and behavioural consequences resulting from the inability to manage stress and anxiety.

Additionally, it is important to discover ways to promote and enhance adolescent mental

health and well being.

To date, research attention has been directed towards linking coping with social

support in order to evolve an interpersonal theory of coping with stress (Delongis &

O’Brien, 1990; Greenglass, 1993; Hobfoll, Dunahoo, Ben-Porth, & Monnier, 1994).

Johnson and Johnson (2002) identify this approach as useful in teaching adolescents how

to cope with stress. They view the individual as being part of a network of relationships.

Therefore, stress is dealt with within the social network, drawing on resources above and

beyond that of the individual. Coping is viewed and described by Johnson and Johnson

(2002) as involving joint problem solving, social support, social comparison, joint

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identity and intimate confidential conversations. The authors continue by suggesting that

adolescents need to be taught how to interact in relationships where they can receive the

help and assistance they need to cope. They point out that there is a danger in viewing the

individual as an independent and separate entity who deals with stress in his/her own way

using only his/her own resources. They claim that viewing coping as an individual

activity leads to a self-orientation and delusion that each person lives his/her life separate

from others. Such a social isolationist view may in fact decrease coping ability. Taking

this into account, the current project explores how adolescents cope with stress within

their peer group by using the strategy of social support. It describes the process whereby

this coping strategy can be encouraged and examines and reports the outcomes of a social

support intervention.

A number of factors influence the implementation of helpful coping strategies.

Important among these are shifts in societal thinking, policy, attitudes and values. At

times it seems that the questioning of societal norms and a shift away from traditional

religious beliefs has undermined the usefulness of spirituality as a means of coping and

support for some young people. Self-help strategies such as the use of relaxing diversions

and physical recreation rely on personal initiative and insight, and making use of these

strategies is probably easier with a past history and experience of constructive modelling

from others. Other tension reduction strategies such as drug and alcohol use run the risk

of developing into substance abuse behaviours. This is particularly so among the

adolescent population who typically take risks and experiment with new behaviours

(Geldard & Geldard, 2004; Ponton, 1997). Seeking professional help in the form of

counselling can be useful but is limited to a prescribed relationship often with a one-way

focus on personal disclosure, problem solving, and challenging self-destructive thought

processes. Seeking professional help is not generally a preferred option for young people

4

(Gibson-Cline, 1996). It is well documented that young people generally prefer to seek

help from their peers (Buhrmester & Prager, 1995; Carr, 1984; Gibson-Cline, 1996;

Turner, 1999) suggesting that it is unlikely that they will seek adult counselling help in

the first instance. Up to 90% of adolescents tell their peers rather than a professional of

their distress (Kalafat & Elias, 1995; Offer et al., 1991). However research has identified

a number of factors that influence help-seeking behaviour, including gender, availability

of social support (Rickwood & Braithwaite, 1994), expectations about outcomes (Simoni

et al., 1991) type of psychological problem (Deane et al., 2001), and emotional

competence (Ciarrochi, Wilson, Deane & Rickwood, 2003). Additionally Boldero and

Fallon (1995) identified that older adolescents asked peers for help frequently while

greater numbers of the younger respondents in their study asked family members.

However these findings may simply reflect the changing amount of time young people

spend with family and peers across adolescence (eg., Beinstein and Lane, 1991).

Consistent with previous research Wilson and Dean (2001) report that students repeatedly

suggest that strong positive relationships with potential help givers are very important in

influencing their current help seeking from either peers or adults. However students in

their study extend this information by suggesting that adolescents are more amenable to

help from a helper perceived to have “gone through the same sort of thing” so that the

helper can describe how they went about resolving their problem. This is more likely

when young people talk with other young people who are experiencing similar troubles

and as a result adolescents are likely to experience some relief in feeling less isolated

because their problems are normalised. Adolescents are on a developmental journey

where they are trying to attain their own individuality and establish their autonomy and

so, are often reluctant to consult with adults about their problems as they see adults as

generally taking a parental stance (Carr, 1984). A consequence of this communication

5

barrier between parents and teenagers has been identified by the American Academy of

Child Psychiatry who note that adolescent suicide is most frequently associated with

communication difficulties with parents (Peach & Reddick, 1991). It is therefore not

surprising that adolescents, and not adults, are usually the first to know that their

adolescent peers are experiencing distress which may lead to undesirable consequences.

Research into Prosocial Behaviour in Adolescents

Clearly it is important to examine and understand the phenomenon of prosocial

behaviour among adolescents because of its influence on adolescent coping strategies.

Bergin, Talley and Hamer (2003), in their review of the literature, define prosocial

behaviour as a voluntary behaviour that benefits others or promotes harmonious relations

with others. They state that this definition could encompass a wide variety of behaviours,

including social conventions, for example politeness, and domination in the form of

breaking up a fight in spite of resistance from peers. They point out that most of the

research addressing prosocial development in youth has focused on only a few

behaviours, such as sharing (Miller, 1991), helping (Eberley & Montemayor, 1998) or

volunteering (Roker, Player & Coleman, 1999) and that in addition to a narrow focus on

the type of prosocial behaviour examined, research has often used artificial measures of

these behaviours in contrived settings. Radke-Yarrow and Zahn-Waxler (1986) point out

that unless researchers sacrifice internal validity for external validity "this field of

research will be relatively limited in predicting or controlling prosocial behaviour in ways

that make a difference in the lives of individuals and groups" (p. 230). They call for new

field approaches when undertaking future research in the area. This can be achieved by

using focus groups and a qualitative methodology to obtain descriptions of the

conversational helping behaviours of young adolescents and their experience of helping

peers in an ecologically valid setting as perceived and described by young people.

6

Helping others and making sacrifices of personal goals to help others are valued

behaviours in adolescence (Killen & Turiel, 1998). However it is clear that published

research has typically emphasised overt behaviours, such as instrumental helping and

sharing (Bergin, Talley & Hamer, 2003; Miller, 1991). In their meta-analysis of the

research on prosocial behaviours in the community of adolescents, Bergin, et al (2003)

point out that research on authentic prosocial behaviours described by young adolescents

has not been conducted in the field of prosocial development. In their study, they found

that the relational prosocial behaviours of providing emotional support, complementing

and encouraging others, keeping confidences, emotional regulation, and remaining calm,

were behaviours identified and valued by young people. These prosocial behaviours are

usefully investigated in this present project, which focuses specifically on conversational

helping behaviour among adolescent peers where these behaviours are likely to occur.

With this in mind, ways to teach or enhance conversational helping behaviour in the

adolescent population was explored.

While children, adolescents and adults help each other in their peer environments,

there are differences in the way they do it. Children have limited cognitive skills and are

largely dependent on adults in their social environment for finding solutions and making

decisions. The child's capacity for self-reflection is limited because it is a developmental

skill which comes through maturation, social experiences and the development of

communications skills (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). As a consequence, children’s helping

behaviour is limited to practical gestures based on empathic responses (Eisenberg &

Fabes, 1998).

Adults are generally relatively free to make decisions and choices without

excessive influence from family or others. Helping in an adult environment is based on

the assumption that adults have personal autonomy and choice regarding their actions as

7

individuals, and the belief that the helper need not directly intervene or provide solutions.

Helping others in an adult environment is based on listening and communicating in ways

that enable people to share their troubles and as a consequence feel better (Jones &

Burleson, 2003). Sometimes providing material aid and practical help will be an

extension of the helping behaviour in adult relationships (Sanders, 1996).

Unlike children, adolescents have less dependence on their families. Their

relationships with their families are changing as they seek more independence. Young

people often doubt whether any adult is capable of understanding them, or their situation,

so consequently they may believe that any assistance or advice they may be given by an

adult will be irrelevant and unhelpful. In contrast to this, there is reciprocity in peer

relationships (Henry, Reed, & McAllister, 1995) and this is central to self-disclosure

(Sullivan, 1953). Additionally, adolescents use specific verbal conversational

characteristics and relational processes when communicating with each other, which are

different from the way they communicate with adults (Beaumont, 1996; Rotenberg, 1995;

Sullivan, 1953). It is because of these differences, between adolescents, children, and

adults, that any program designed to teach or enhance adolescent conversational helping

behaviours should be compatible with the typical conversational and relational behaviours

of adolescents, and also compatible with an adolescent learning style. For example, in a

helping conversation personal disclosure by the person being helped is central to the

conversation if the person being helped is to feel better and find solutions to problems.

Many authors (Beaumont, 1996; Chan, 2001; Rotenberg, 1995; Sullivan, 1953; Worcel

Shields & Paterson, 1999) make it clear that adolescents use specific verbal and non-

verbal conversational characteristics while self-disclosing. While the current prosocial

literature explores helping behaviours, it does not focus on the possibility that unique

communication characteristics occur in helping conversations among adolescents.

8

However, information from the literature on adolescent communication and disclosure

processes can inform further research on the typical conversational and relational

processes used by adolescents with their peers and be used to determine better ways to

enhance the conversational helping behaviours of adolescents.

Adolescent Peer Counsellor Training and Evaluation

The literature on peer helping is useful with regard to understanding issues related

to teaching prosocial behaviour in adolescents. A number of authors (Carr & Saunders,

1980; de Rosenroll, 1988; Morey & Miller, 1993; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter,

1989; Tindall, 1989; Turner, 1999) have designed programs for training adolescents to

help each other using conversational skills. In these program there has been little

consistency in the way trainees have been recruited or selected. Additionally, all

programs have relied on teaching the use of skills and strategies taken from adult

communication and counselling approaches. As a consequence of the recruitment and

training practices used, problems with these programs have arisen. These have been

identified as including difficulties for adolescent peer helpers with role attribution and

status difference when compared with their peers (Carr & Saunders, 1980; de Rosenroll,

1988) and difficulty when initially trying to use typical adult counselling skills in a

helping conversation (Carr & Saunders, 1980). For example, Carr (1984) observed that

once the core counselling skills had been reasonably mastered that young people “may

feel awkward, mechanical or phoney” (p. 11) when trying to implement the new skills.

He also recognised that certain skills may need refreshing (Car & Saunders, 1980) and

suggests that evaluation using video and/or audio equipment is important to evaluate

whether skills have been mastered and the performance of the students in using these

skills. Issues with regard to role attribution appear to be particularly problematic with

regard to helping activities undertaken by young people (de Rosenroll, 1988). Concerns

9

relate to use of the term “counsellor” which carries with it professional expectations,

regarding training and duties. Myrick (1976), Anderson (1976), and Jacobs, Masson and

Vass (1976) suggest that students do not receive the depth of training necessary to fully

undertake a counselling relationship and that the role “counsellor” presents a

misinterpretation of the concept. Peavy (1977) was concerned not only that the role of

counsellor could imply professional status but also that for too many people counselling

was an acceptable label for advice giving. Attempts to address the issue of skill

implementation difficulties have been made by allocating specific training sessions to

deal with these issues. Carr and Saunders, (1980) also suggest teaching participants

specific responses that can be used to assist them when dealing with silence, when talking

to peers whose behaviours are difficult to condone, and when experiencing rejection,

rather than encouraging the young person to rely on their own communication and

relationship skills with their peers to overcome these problems. Similarly, when

addressing issues related to role attribution and status differences, these authors suggest

encouraging peer counsellors to establish a trusting relationship without forcing

themselves onto their peers and to manage issues related to resentment from their peers

during supervision sessions.

Recruitment and selection processes appear to have contributed to difficulties with

regard to role attribution and status differences. Three criteria which appear to have been

utilised by many programs in selecting adolescent peer counsellors include perceptions of

the peer counsellors’ similarity to students with whom they might work, recommendation

by key adults such as teachers, counsellors, or a school principal, and recommendation by

psychometric assessments (Downe, Altman, & Nysetvold, 1986). All three selection

criteria have the potential to contribute to role attribution and status difference issues. For

example, when considering a peer counsellors’ similarity to the population with whom

10

they will be working, de Rosenroll (1988) points out that cliquing of peer groups during

junior and senior high school indicate that adolescents do react to perceived differences.

Peer counsellors recommended by key adults are at risk of being rejected by their peers

due to the perceived difference in social standing of the peer counsellor compared with

their peers. Similarly, peer counsellors who are selected based on the results of

psychometric testing are at risk of being rejected by their peers due to the perceived

differences in ability of the peer counsellors compared with their peers.

Most adolescent peer counsellor training programs include self-awareness

promotion and the acquisition of basic counselling skills of attending, listening,

facilitative problem solving and interpersonal relationship skills. In his meta-analysis of

adolescent peer helper training, de Rosenroll’s (1988) summary claimed that the training

programs studied offer skills and awareness so that trainees’ natural communication skills

are enhanced and augmented to enable them to be more effective when helping their

peers. However, examination of existing adolescent peer counsellor training programs

does not support his claim. It is well-known that adolescents use distinctive ways of

communicating with each other (Beaumont, 1996; Reed, Macleod & McAllister, 1999;

Rotenberg, 1995; Worcel, Shields, & Paterson, 1999). Communication strategies such as

persuading, advising, recommending, praising, supporting, sympathising, diverting, and

kidding, appear to be commonly used by young people. However these responses are

described as ‘roadblocks’ and ‘communication stoppers’ in the counselling literature and

have been actively discouraged when training young people to become peer counsellors

(Carr & Saunders, 1980; Painter, 1989; Sanders, 1999; Tindall, 1989). De Rosenroll

cautions against iatrogeny (helper-caused problems) and suggests that many roadblocks to

communication might represent inappropriate interventions whereby a peer counsellor

could confound or worsen client issues. As such he suggests that trainers must ensure that

11

iatrogenic issues are minimised. It is suggested that by discouraging the young person’s

typical communication processes iatrogenic issues will be minimised. Indeed, it appears

that existing training programs have not been designed to specifically enhance and

augment the unique and typical conversational and helping behaviours of adolescents.

Instead they have been based on teaching conventional adult counselling skills and

processes and prohibiting the use of some typical adolescent conversational and helping

behaviours.

Evaluations of existing adolescent peer counsellor training programs have focused

on the outcomes of peer helping such as the benefits for the peer counsellor and those

being helped (Abu-Rasain & Williams, 1999; Morey & Miller, 1993; Price & Jones,

2001; Varenhorst, 1992). However evaluation of training programs could extend previous

research by additionally exploring whether the problems of skill implementation, role

attribution, and status differences could be minimised or eliminated by training adolescent

peer counsellors in a program which is more compatible with their typical conversational

helping behaviours. If these differences can be reduced, it may be, that adolescent peer

counsellors will be more approachable and the coping strategy of using social support will

be more readily available within school communities.

The school community provides an ethnographically and ecologically valid setting

to investigate adolescent behaviours. Where most research designs have relied on

investigations remaining separate from the lived environment, studies emphasising the

implementation of change on-site as part of the research provide an opportunity to employ

research models which are more flexible than conventional experimental designs. Studies

that emphasise implementing change on-site can accommodate the dynamism and

variation in practice conditions with diverse populations (Bailey-Dempsey & Reid, 1996;

Rothman & Thomas, 1994). Additionally, the presence or absence of resources available

12

in the environment is a key determinant of the coping process (Frydenberg & Lewis,

2002). Because different resources are used by some groups and not others (Cohen &

Edwards, 1989; Turner & Roszell, 1994; Vanderzeil, 2000), and because some

environments may be particularly sensitive to change than others at specific times

(Frydenberg & Lewis), situating the current project within the school community enables

careful investigation of the resource of social support from peers and of the availability of

the support in the school environment.

Boekaerts (2002) notes a major shift in the psychology of education with young

people. In discussing her views with regard to the emerging field of positive psychology

she describes a teaching process that invites students to adopt a new learner role by being

active, constructive, self-regulated, and responsible learners. Most peer counsellor

training programs are based on the assumption that teaching effective helping skills is

best done in discrete and finite blocks, each with a beginning and an end, and then

integrating all that has been learned (Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter, 1989; Tindall,

1989). This is not consistent with Boekaerts’ (2002) views with regard to current trends

in teaching. An exhaustive literature search shows a lack of empirical research on

teaching adolescent peer counsellors using Boekaerts’ proposed methodology. Her

discussion suggests that it might be useful to apply the latest teaching methods when

training adolescents to become peer counsellors. It can be argued that implementing and

evaluating an alternative peer counsellor training model can best be accomplished through

the practice of intervention research. Rather than providing recommendations for action

as a result of the research the research itself acts as a vehicle for implementing change.

Participants’ participation and control over the research process is maximised and the

relationship between the researcher and participants is enhanced thereby increasing the

potential richness of the data gathered.

13

School climate refers to the general atmosphere of the school site (Krug, 1989).

Schools can be perceived as caring and supportive of students or hostile and non-

supportive. Positive school climates include factors such as trust, respect, mutual

obligation and concern for others' welfare and can have powerful effects on teacher-

student interpersonal relationships, student academic achievement and overall school

progress (Manning & Saddlemire, 1996).

The literature strongly suggests that there is a relationship between students’

interpersonal development, well-being, academic achievement, school completion, stress

and school climate (Buddeberg-Fischer, Klaghofer & Leuthold, 2000; Gottfredson &

Hollifield, 1988; Howe, 1995; Manning & Saddlemire, 1996; Persaud & Madak, 1992;

Rojewski & Wendel, 1990; Whelage, 1989a, 1989b; Whelage & Rutter, 1986).

Buddeberg-Fischer et al. (2000) studied the relationship between school climate, school

stress, sense of coherence, and physical and psychological symptoms in adolescent high

school students. Their results showed a significant negative correlation between school

stress and school climate, and argued for the consideration of developing health

promotion programs for high school students. Existing research is very clear in drawing

attention to the positive effects associated with a positive school climate (Buddeberg-

Fischer, Klaghofer & Leuthold, 2000; Gottfredson & Hollifield, 1988; Howe, 1995;

Manning & Saddlemire, 1996; Persaud & Madak, 1992; Rojewski & Wendel, 1990;

Rumburger, 1987; Whelage, 1989a, 1989b; Whelage & Rutter, 1986).

Positive school climate does not necessarily occur naturally (Dewey, 1997;

Kelley, 1980). School climate improvements rely either on changes in the school’s culture

or changes in perceptions of the climate held by the school’s staff and students. The

literature suggests that to influence school climate inclusion of a number of factors in

programs or interventions are likely to enhance positive outcomes (Benson & Benson,

14

1993; Bulach & Malone, 1994; Burrell & Vogl, 1990; Crary, 1992; Gottfredson &

Gottfredson, 2001; Greer, 1991; Hannah, 1998; Kelley, 1980; Lochman, Dunn & Klimes-

Dougan, 1993; Marcus & Nurius, 1986; Shepherd, 1994; Stevhan, Johnson, Johnson,

Green, & Laginski 1997; Toepfer, 1999). These factors include purposeful intervention to

change school climate, preventative interventions which aim to address the possibility of

particular problems occurring, and the inclusion of students in these interventions.

Programs adopted by a school to influence the academic outcomes and the well-

being of students are more likely to impact on school climate positively where programs

are integrated into the school curriculum (Hannah, 1998; Toepfer, 1999). Additionally,

Gottfredson and Gottfredson (2001) have developed a classification of prevention

activities which can reduce problem behaviour or promote school safety. Included in the

strategies are therapeutic interventions, mentoring, giving youth roles in responding to

student conduct, and creating distinctive culture or climates for interpersonal exchanges.

Taking account of the literature, there is a strong case for suggesting that school

climate will change positively if a peer counsellor training program is introduced as a

purposeful intervention which is preventative in orientation and includes active

participation by students. Peer counsellor training programs fit comfortably with the

strategies suggested by Gottfredson and Gottfredson (2001), because adolescent peer

counselling relies strictly on young people being involved in responding to peer

behaviour and because the programs are likely to create a distinctive climate for

interpersonal exchange. Additionally, if the suggestions of Hannah (1998) and Toepfer

(1999) are accommodated, a peer counsellor training program integrated into the

classroom timetable is likely to maximise positive perceptions of school climate.

Assessing school climate can shed light on the impact of particular programs or

interventions. Where programs or interventions have been implemented to influence the

15

well-being of students, pre- and post-assessment of school climate can measure the

impact of those programs or interventions on school climate. For example Abu-Rasain

and Williams (1999) used a pre- and post-individualised school climate survey to

discover whether a peer-counselling program influenced student perceptions of school

climate. Most commonly, teachers are canvassed to provide perceptions of school climate

(Burden & Fraser, 1994; Fisher & Grady, 1998; Gust, 1999; Johnson, 1999; Johnson &

Stevens, 2001) and it is difficult to find school climate surveys which rely on student

perceptions only. One is more likely to find studies where school climate surveys are

conducted drawing on teacher perceptions in conjunction with classroom environment

surveys drawing on student perceptions (Fisher & Fraser, 1991; Fisher, Fraser &

Wubbels, 1993; Fraser, Williamson & Tobin, 1987).

Fisher and Fraser (1991) make an important distinction between school and class

environment. Their research indicates a need to separate student perceptions from teacher

perceptions of environments. The importance of focusing on student perceptions of

school climate is demonstrated in studies which provide evidence that learning outcomes

and student attitudes towards learning are closely linked to the classroom environment

(Fraser, 1981, 1986) and in studies which indicate the relationship between positive

student perceptions of school climate and positive student outcomes with regard to

achievement (Anderson, 1982; Baker, 1998). The separation of perceptions between

students and teachers would seem to be essential when investigating the impact of

intervention programs where peers use strategies that directly target the emotional and

psychological health of other students. Student perceptions clearly outweigh teacher

perceptions when examining the impact of such interventions. Using student perceptions

would seem to be quite acceptable as Perkins, Guerin and Schlech (1990) found that

16

pupils’ ratings were valid enough to be considered reliable ways of measuring

interactions between two parties.

The above research lends support for the use of school climate surveys, completed

by students, to evaluate the impact of an adolescent peer counsellor intervention on the

wider adolescent community in a high school. More importantly, the use of a school

climate survey that obtains student perceptions of their relationships with teachers and

other students, and the interaction of those relationships, provides more accurate

information with regard to the impact of the intervention on the young people who may

benefit, than information obtained from teachers.

Research Project Outline

Galambos and Leadbeater (2000) suggest that adolescent research for the new

millennium should focus on positive psychosocial outcomes and resilience. They point

out that with the current focus on the problems of youth, it is easy to neglect consideration

of their competencies and prosocial activities. It is clear that more knowledge is needed

about adolescents’ health enhancing behaviours so that successful interventions can be

designed to promote these behaviours. With this in mind, this research project addresses

these recommendations by exploring the adolescent coping strategy of using social

support in the adolescent peer group. Also, an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training

program which is compatible with typical adolescent prosocial behaviours was developed.

The current project comprised three studies. The first study explored how

adolescents typically support and help each other and what they say and do to help each

other feel better and find solutions to problems. The second study examined how

conversational helping behaviours can be taught to adolescents with an emphasis placed

on developing an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program in collaboration

with young people. The training program integrated those counselling microskills that

17

young people value and find useful and easy-to-use. In particular, Study 2 examined the

experience of trained adolescents in their role as peer counsellors in a high school. For

most adolescents their social system involves peer relationships. The school experience

can provide a continuous and familiar environment involving peer relationships and has

the potential to offer a positive climate where seeking and giving support can occur

among peers. According to Resnick et al. (1997), school connectedness is a protective

factor against health risk behaviours such as violence, suicidal thoughts, substance abuse,

and early pregnancy. The third study explored how the peer counsellor training program,

designed in the second study, and the role of the peer counsellor impact on the responses

of the wider community of the school environment.

Structure of Doctoral Thesis

To support the viability and value of this research, the theoretical perspectives of

adolescent coping using social support as a resource and adolescent communication is

presented first. Second, a review of existing research on training and teaching prosocial

behaviours to adolescents in the form of conversational helping behaviours is outlined.

This literature provides the empirical base which contributes to the rationale of the current

research program. The methodology of the research is detailed in accordance with the

research questions and finally the results of each study and discussion of the findings

complete this document.

19

CHAPTER 2

Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Support related to the Study of Adolescent Peer

Counselling

During the last 35 years a number of theories to explain stress, coping and social

support have been suggested. These theories are useful when exploring and considering

the adolescent’s use of social support as a resource for dealing with stress. Perhaps the

most salient theory which underpins the use of social support as a coping strategy comes

from Hobfoll’s (1988) conservation of resource (COR) theory which views social support

as ‘the building block for successfully mastering environmental demands’ (Freedy &

Hobfoll, 1994, p.320). Since Hobfoll’s COR theory there has been interest in resource

investment in environments (Quick & Gavin, 2001). Hobfoll’s COR theory parallels

theories on preventative stress management which are concerned with health promotion

achieved by investing in programs that enhance positive coping strategies. One way to

invest in programs that enhance positive coping strategies is to focus on interventions that

encourage, teach and enhance people's ability to be supportive in their social

environments.

In this chapter relevant theoretical perspectives related to stress, coping and social

support will be discussed in terms of their current status and in relation to their suitability

in exploring peer counselling among adolescents. In addition, two perspectives related

directly to the study of adolescent peer counselling will be outlined. Firstly the research

and literature on prosocial behaviours will be presented. Secondly the research and

literature on adolescent communication processes will be discussed.

Theories on Stress and Coping

Resource-based theories of stress and coping, of which Hobfoll’s COR theory is

one, have received increased attention as they directly challenge appraisal-based stress

20

theories which previously dominated research in the area. Resources have been defined as

those objects, personal characteristics, conditions or energies that are valued because they

act as conduits to the achievement or protection of other valued resources. By contrast,

according to appraisal based theories, when transactions with the environment are

appraised by the individual as threatening or challenging, they result in stress being

regulated by emotion focused strategies designed to reduce the stress or manage the

problem (Folkman & Lazarus, 1998; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

Thoits (1995) raises a concern about appraisal based theory which may be useful

to pursue in future research into stress and coping, and this is the influence of structural

constraints. She suggests that if we pursue questions about the relationship between

personality resources and effective coping, then we will also need to attend more closely

to the objective features of individuals’ situations that constrain action. Holahan and

Moos (1987) have offered a model of coping where there is an emphasis on the

interaction between multiple resources. They suggest taking into account both subjective

coping resources and environmental resources.

The multiple resource model of stress is arguably best illustrated by COR theory.

According to COR theory, people strive for more resources and build up resistance

factors to ward off future crises. In his discussion of COR theory, Hobfoll (2001)

includes resources that have a perceptual component. However, in concert with Thoits

(1995), he emphasises that it is changes in the real conditions or actual circumstances that

encourage or constrain an individual from successfully developing resources that the

individual believes will be useful. Although using interventions that help people reframe

their perceptions of stress and coping may have value at some level (Brandstadter, 1989),

COR theory supports the development of interventions that change people's resources or

their environments. This perspective opens new research questions and helps to overcome

21

research which focuses on the use of traditional coping models that overemphasise the

reactive nature of coping.

Differences in coping with stress have usually been attributed to a lack of inherent

coping resources, in particular to low self-esteem and an individual's perception of their

level of control. Historically, these two personal coping resources, that is self-esteem and

a sense of control or mastery over life, have most frequently been studied. These coping

resources are presumed to influence the choice and/or the efficacy of the coping strategies

that people use in response to stressors. An impressive number of studies show that a

sense of control or mastery directly reduces psychological disturbance and buffers the

deleterious effects of stress on physical and mental health (see Thoits, 1995). However,

the stress literature indicates that some groups appear to be more vulnerable than others to

stressors (Thoits). For example females, minority group members, unmarried persons,

and especially those of lower education, and of lower socioeconomic status, exhibit a

lower sense of mastery, personal control, and internal locus of control in response to

stress (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; Turner & Roszell, 1994). Similarly self-esteem varies

with social status (Turner & Roszell, 1994). The research doesn't identify whether

personal coping resources or availability of resources in the environment are responsible

for the differences in the way individuals cope with stress (Cohen & Edwards, 1989;

Turner & Roszell, 1994). For example, in their summary of recent developments in theory

and research on resilience, Schoon and Bynner (2003) indicated that particular personal

attributes could serve as protective factors, but that these attributes are substantially

shaped by life circumstances and that positive adaptation, or resilience, does not only

reside within the person, but in the active interactions between the person and aspects of

the environment they experience.

22

With regard to developing coping skills in adolescents, there has been an emphasis

on programs that develop young people's coping skills through the development of

positive cognitions. Because of the critical part that appraisal is seen to play, it has been

suggested that any programs that attempt to develop young people's coping skills through

the development of positive cognitions also need to teach skills of positive cognitive

appraisal (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002). Additionally, there is a growing interest in the

development of direct instruction programs to address coping with stress, and there are

also resources available to help clinicians and instructors to develop tailor made programs

aimed at coping skills for dealing with stress (Forman, 1993). Similarly there is a growing

interest in the development of direct instruction programs focusing on coping skills

provided to young people in school settings (Brandon, Cunningham & Frydenberg 1999;

Cunningham, 2001; Forman, 1993; Rice, Herman & Petersen, 1993; Shochet & Osgarby,

1999). However these programs, while indicating that coping efficacy beliefs were

stronger post program, have emphasised the intrapersonal competency and agency of the

young person without considering whether there were support resources available for the

young person to access in the young person’s environment. Additionally, researchers

generally have focused on programs aimed at children and young people who are at risk

rather than prevention programs for all children (Roberts, 1999). Consequently, the need

for a “fit” of coping skills programs with particular groups of young people is

increasingly being recognised (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002). Also, there is an implication

that future preventative interventions should focus more on the reduction of maladaptive

coping strategies rather than the more common goal of increasing problem-focused

coping (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002). By emphasising the use of productive coping

strategies such as social support, adolescent peer counselling as an intervention can go

23

part way to addressing this need for a “fit” between coping skills programs and

adolescents.

According to Hobfoll’s COR theory, social support can be seen as a resource used

by individuals to cope with stress. The building of social resources, in particular those

that are valued by young people, is likely to be of benefit. The COR model is currently

being examined with populations of young people (Mackenzie, 2001; Vanderzeil, 2000)

and appears to have validity and utility for adolescents. However the resources identified

by Hobfoll (1989) as being important to adults (car, house, good marriage, good personal

characteristics, self-esteem, and mastery) are not generally the same resources (peers,

friendship, school, health and possessions) that adolescent’s value (Vanderzeil, 2000). As

a consequence, when discussing the outcomes of current adolescent coping research it is

likely that we may lose sight, not of the young person’s personal agency, but of structural

constraints on that agency. In particular, this may be so for adolescents as a group.

Results from longitudinal studies indicate that in order to avert the development of

non-productive coping strategies we need to consider both the sex of the person for whom

the intervention is being developed, as well as their age (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002). For

example, there appear to be indications that it is useful to intervene in the psychosocial

development of adolescents of 14-16 years of age in order to attract their interest and

commitment, and to capitalise on the particular developmental stage that they are

traversing (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002). These findings provide researchers with a

window of opportunity to conduct research which explores the structural constraints to

the availability of, and access to, social support resources within the adolescent

population.

According to Hobfoll’s COR theory, stress occurs when resources are threatened

or where there is a loss of resources. The theory goes on to speculate that where there is a

24

resource loss, the resource pool is diminished for subsequent encounters. For example, if

social support is a frequently utilised resource and a particular friendship is lost there is

depletion of the individual's resource pool. The encounter may result in a loss spiral in

that the loss of friendship may lead to depression which in turn may account for poor

school performance and subsequent failure to get into an educational or training program.

Resources act to protect and preserve other resources (Hobfoll, Freedy, Green, &

Solomon, 1996). Even though resources available in the environment for some groups to

cope with stress may be different from the resources available for use by other groups and

even though some environments may be particularly sensitive to change than others at

specific times, what is not in dispute is that the ever expanding or diminishing body of

resources is a key determinant of the coping process (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002).

When considering new directions in coping resources and coping strategies

research, it has been suggested that it may be useful to pursue issues concerning the

influence of structural constraints (Thoits, 1995). COR theory has definite implications

for practice that distinguish it from most other currently held stress and coping theories.

Quick and Gavin (2001) point out that the COR theory focuses attention on resource

investment in environments. When looking at environmental change this will often mean

removing obstacles to people's successful application of, or access to resources, or

altering environments so that they better fit the resources of those in that environment.

For example, Quick and Gavin suggest that on a social level, this might require removing

ethnic, religious or gender biases from environments that prevent groups from utilising

the environment’s resources. The assumption is that interventions that focus on expanding

resources or making resources more available may also be of benefit. Because social

support is considered a coping resource, a social fund in the environment from which

people may draw when handling stressors, then intentionally altering environments so

25

that social support is more accessible in the environment, contributes to resource

investment in that environment.

Theories of Social Support

Many theoreticians have argued that the theoretical definitions of social support

are too restrictive and inadequate because the concept is multifaceted. Vaux (1988) argues

that social support encompasses three constructs: support networks, supportive

behaviours and a subjective appraisal of support. Cohen (1992) agrees that an all-

encompassing definition should not be used and also suggests measuring three aspects of

social support which are very similar to Vaux’s position. These are social networks,

perceived support and supportive behaviours. Limitations of both the Vaux (1988) and

Cohen (1992) definitions are that types of relationships and interactions between the

provider and recipient of social support are not emphasised. Additionally, reasons for

providing support, reciprocity, and recipient and provider characteristics, are other facets

of the multidimensional concept of social support which are not captured in their

theoretical definitions. Similarly, models used to examine the concept of social support

typically found in the research literature are limited and can generally be categorised as

provider models (Ben-Ari & Gill, 2002; Dayan, Doyle & Markiewicz, 2001; Dunkel-

Schetter& Skokan, 1990; Hupcey, 2001). Though these models are important because

they provide the opportunity to examine social support in terms of the provision of a

resource, they are extremely narrow in their helpfulness as models to investigate the

phenomena of social support. In provider models one or more individuals provide helpful

support to a recipient and information with regard to satisfaction with the support

provided is obtained from the recipient. Because the characteristics and perceptions of

both the provider and recipient influence the provision and acceptance of support, other

aspects of social support interactions, such as reciprocal relationships, stressful

26

relationships, the provision of negative or harmful support and nonreciprocal relationships

influence the recipient’s perception of satisfaction with the support provided (Hupcey,

1998). These influencing factors are not taken into account when using provider models

to research social support.

Social support is not a concrete concept as it appears in the provider models but is

a dynamic process that includes the interaction between the provider and recipient and

varies by recipient and provider (Hupcey, 1998). A more realistic view, comes from Vaux

(1988) who states that "social support phenomena involve both objective and inherently

subjective elements: both actual events and activities and the participant’s perceptions and

appraisal of these. Both must be addressed for a complete understanding of social

support" (Vaux, 1988 p.17).

Social support is viewed as an exchange of resources between at least two

individuals. The importance of social exchange is evident in many definitions of social

support (Langford, Bowsher, Maloney, & Lillis, 1997). Social exchange has been

identified by Stevens (1992) as a positive relationship between life satisfaction and the

receiving of social support, as well as the giving of social support.

Because the characteristics and perceptions of both the provider and recipient

influence the provision and acceptance of support, other aspects of social support

interactions have been proposed as potential models to guide research in social support

(Dunkel-Schetter & Bennett, 1990; Kahn, 1994; Rook & Dooley, 1985; Sarason et al.,

1990). Proposed models of social support interactions that have been suggested include; a

non-reciprocal relationships model where someone perceives they are providing more

support than they receive, a delayed reciprocation model, and a secondary reciprocation

model where issues of reciprocity are examined (Hupcey, 1998). These models include

the examination of personality, social obligation, and cultural and social roles.

27

Additionally, other factors identified by Cohen and Syme (1985) include such things as

the type of support provided in terms of matching the support to the need at the

appropriate time and for the proper length of time, perceptions of the support received

versus what was actually provided, negative support such as non-reciprocity, and

recipient and provider characteristics. For example, there are many personal

characteristics associated with both recipients and providers of support that influence the

potential availability of support and whether one requests, gives, needs or receives

support. These personal characteristics include those traits or features of the individual

which are thought to have a determining influence on both the structure and function of

an individual's support network (Antonucci, 1985). Hupcey’s (1998) summary of the

social support research studies from 1993 to 1996 revealed that what was measured has

remained unchanged. Social support was measured by examining the type of social

support and/or social network characteristics but only in terms of the recipient's

perceptions. Provider-recipient interactions and the other identified facets of social

support that were discussed theoretically were rarely included in this past research.

In their review of research examining coping in adolescence, Boldero and Fallon

(1995) found that asking for help with a problem, as a social support strategy, was an

adaptive mode of coping with concerns or problems for adolescents. Many authors agree

that when adolescents seek help they prefer to consult their peers rather than adults

particularly for interpersonal problems (Boldero & Fallon, 1995; Carr & Saunders, 1980;

Cowie, 1999; de Rosenroll & Dey, 1990; Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993; Morey & Miller,

1993; Shiner, 1999; Tishby, et al., 2001). However, as in adult studies, models used to

examine the phenomena of social support in adolescents have relied predominantly on

provider models as described by Abu-Rasain and Williams (1999), Backett-Milburn and

Wilson (2000), Morey and Miller (1993), Price and Jones (2001), and Varenhorst (1992).

28

There is a plethora of research to identify and support the notion that young

people helping each other is a valuable source of social support which benefits young

people. For example, a number of adolescent programs have been evaluated as having

positive outcomes for the providers and recipients. Examples of these programs are

prevention of youth suicide (Morrison, 1987), drug education and prevention (Shiner,

1999), bullying, mediation/conflict resolution (Cowie, 1999; Osterman, Bjorkqvist,

Lagerspetz, Landau, Fraczek, & Pastorelli, 1997), befriending (Demetriades, 1996;

Ortega & del Rey, 1999), mentoring (Frisz, 1999; Topping & Ehly, 1998) and

counselling-based programs (Cartwright, 1996; Naylor, 2000). However, studies which

examine structural constraints in the environment which inhibit social support being used

by adolescents as a resource, are absent. Similarly, studies of social support with

adolescents which explore how recipient and provider characteristics, behaviours,

reciprocity and relationship characteristics enhance, or constrain access to resources in the

environment, are scarce and of limited value.

Theories of Prosocial Behaviour

It is well documented in the literature that when confronted with personal,

stressful, or troubling issues, young people have varying expectations about whether or

not friends and professional counsellors have the ability to provide relief, advice, and

assistance (Carr, 1998; Gibson-Cline, 1996; Papini & Farmer, 1990). For example,

disclosure between adolescents and their parents is often restricted to discussion of daily

issues and they are more likely to share age related concerns with peers (Noller, Feeney,

& Peterson, 2001; Papini & Farmer, 1990; Rafaelli & Duckett, 1989). It is clear that

social support within the adolescent peer group is a valuable environmental resource for

adolescents.

29

Social support can be reflected in behaviours that are intended to benefit others

such as a tendency to think about the welfare and rights of other people, to feel concern

and empathy for them, and to act in a way that benefits them. This description matches

Penner and Finkelstein's (1998) definition of the prosocial personality. In their definition,

altruism is described as the essence of the prosocial personality. However, they

acknowledge that other modes of prosocial behaviour are evident such as behaviour

motivated by the expectation of social rewards. Today there is a body of research

indicating that there are individual differences in prosocial behaviour in specific settings

or at particular points in time (Eisenberg, et al., 1999).

Eisenberg et al. (1999) in their review of the literature suggest that prosocial

behaviour and empathy-related responding have a genetic basis, that prosocial behaviour

and empathy are linked to temperamental predispositions, and that environmental factors

such as parental child rearing practice and secure attachment contribute to the

development of a prosocial disposition. These authors concluded that there are individual

differences in prosocial dispositions, that these differences are consistent over time, and

that they emerge in adolescents as behaviours which reflect an understanding of higher-

level moral principles and sophisticated perspective-taking abilities. This would suggest

that some young people might be potentially more able to provide social support to their

peers than others. However, Johnson and Johnson (2002) suggest that adolescents can be

taught how to build and maintain interdependent relationships within which individuals

will receive the help and assistance they need to cope effectively with the adversity in

their lives. To do this, adolescents need to be taught how to establish a network of

relationships and how to manage conflicts constructively. Training needs to promote the

values underlying mutual support and assistance.

30

Published research on prosocial behaviour has typically emphasised overt

behaviours such as sharing, helping, or volunteering (Eberley & Montemayor, 1998;

Miller, 1991; Roker, Player & Coleman, 1999). The restricted range of prosocial

behaviours addressed in research may be limiting our understanding of the development

of socially significant prosocial behaviours. Eberley and Montmayor (1998) contend that

studying prosocial behaviour from a relational perspective is different from previous

approaches. Most importantly the focus of investigation when studying behaviours from

a relational perspective is on prosocial behaviour that occurs between members in a

relationship. Because the occurrence of prosocial behaviour is considered to be a function

of relationship qualities, the provider and the recipient of the behaviour become an

important consideration. Research examining relational prosocial behaviour in

adolescence has relied on measures of these behaviours in contrived settings (Bergin,

Talley & Hamer, 2003). Although researchers have raised concerns about the validity of

such measures (Mussen, 1977) this line of research has continued (e.g. Burford, Foley,

Rollins, & Rosario, 1996; Eisenberg, Carlo, Murphy, & Van court, 1995; Froming,

Nasby, & McManus, 1998; Litvack-Miller, McDougall, & Romney, 1997; Moore, Barresi

& Thomson, 1998; Roberts & Strayer, 1996).

Because of the paucity of descriptive data on adolescent prosocial behaviour,

Bergin, Talley and Hamer (2003) examined a wide range of naturally occurring prosocial

behaviours in a non-invasive way so as not to alter the nature of the interactions or

misinterpret them. Bergin et al. used focus groups to obtain descriptions of authentic

prosocial behaviours of adolescents in their natural settings as perceived and described by

young people. Their study found that the relational prosocial behaviours of providing

emotional support, complementing and encouraging others, keeping confidences and

remaining calm were behaviours identified and valued by young people. As well the

31

overt prosocial behaviours of helping others develop skills, providing physical assistance,

sharing, and providing community service, were also valued by young people. While this

study showed that these behaviours were identified and valued by young people, the study

does not go far enough to capture the dimensions of recipient and provider characteristics,

conversational behaviours, reciprocity, and relationship characteristics, of social support.

Inclusion of relational prosocial behaviours in research, particularly when investigating

adolescent social connections and provision of emotional and psychological support,

would be useful. How these dimensions of relational prosocial behaviour influence the

availability and accessibility of social support, as a resource in the young person’s

environment, also needs to be examined.

Social support in the form of conversational prosocial behaviours is known to

enhance a person's physical and psychological well being (Esterling, Antoni, Fletcher,

Margulies, & Schneiderman, 1994; Jourard, 1971; Papini & Farmer, 1990; Pennebaker,

1995; Raphael & Dohrenwend, 1987; Wegner, 1994). However we do not understand

how the process works. One significant study attempting to understand the process of a

socially supportive conversation between adults identified an interpersonal model as a

way of describing the process (Horowitz et al., 2001). These researchers explored the

dimensions of "communion" (warmth, friendliness, hostility) and "agency" (control,

power, influence) as central components of a conversation of a prosocial nature.

Additionally, they proposed that whether a listener responds communally or agentically

reflects the type of problem being presented by the speaker and the goals of the speaker.

Their results highlighted the difference between communion and agency in supportive

reactions and the effects of these differing supportive reactions in conversation. They

acknowledge that naturally occurring socially supportive conversations would include

other responses that were neither communal nor agentic and that the participants in their

32

study may have been particularly prone to use agentic responses because of the demand

characteristics of the context. Horowitz et al. (2001) recommend that attempts to research

supportive reactions clearly need to emphasise continuous dimensions rather than

categories which are discrete and dichotomous. Problems, goals and supportive reactions

vary continuously along each of the two interpersonal dimensions identified by Horowitz

et al. (2001). Shades of grey exist along each dimension to produce various blends of

agency and communion. For example, a linguistic convention can transform agentic

responses such as "tell your mother about it" into more communal responses such as "I

wonder if it would help to tell your mother about it?”

While the interpersonal model is incomplete as a model for guiding research on

relational prosocial behaviours, it does provide a guide to exploring specific relational and

conversational behaviours in socially supportive conversations among adolescents,

particularly those aimed at social connection and provision of emotional and

psychological support.

Adolescent Communication Processes and Patterns

Studies examining adolescent conversations reflecting relational prosocial

behaviours aimed at social connection and provision of emotional and psychological

support are scarce. Studies examining conversations and relationships between

adolescents and adults have discovered differences in the way conversations occur

between adolescents and their parents and other adults as compared with communication

with peers (Rotenberg, 1995; Worcel, Shields, & Paterson, 1999). In their discussion of

dyadic interactions between adolescents and adults, Readdick and Mullis (1997) found

that interpersonal contacts during adolescence could be differentiated when comparing

contacts between adolescents and their age mates, and contacts between adolescents and

their parents. Noller and Callan (1990) attempted to identify particular

33

microconversational skills used by adolescents that elicit specific attributes such as

empathy, accuracy in encoding and decoding of non-verbal communication, and

communication skills when communicating in their families and with their parents.

Turkstra (2001) found significant differences in the speaker and listener behaviours in

conversations between adolescent peers and conversations between a young person and a

professional adult (speech pathologist). These differences included physical behaviours

such as establishing eye contact, nodding, and turning towards the listener, and

conversational behaviours such as minimal responses or asking questions. Turkstra

suggested that these differences were related to a perceived difference in status and role

between young people and professionals.

Further examination of adolescent conversations by Reed, Macleod and

McAllister (1999) identified the importance of selected communication skills when young

people are talking with peers. The rank ordering of the skills from most to least important

were: taking the conversational partner’s perspective, interpreting so-called tone,

conveying messages tactfully, appropriate turn taking, using appropriate vocal-tone,

establishing and maintaining eye contact, comprehending non-verbal communication,

employing conversational clarification and repair strategies, selecting conversational

topics, presenting different points of view or thoughts logically, relating narratives,

comprehending verbal humour, maintaining topics, and using appropriate adolescent

slang.

Additionally, according to Beaumont (1996), there are differences in relationship

style in general conversations between adolescent peers compared with adolescents and

adults. Adolescents’ conversational characteristics with friends tend to involve a fast-

paced conversational style which includes frequent interruptions, overlaps, and

simultaneous speech. Such conversational behaviours are rated as significantly more

34

friendly by adolescents than conversations with a maternal parent. Reed et al. (1999)

explored the importance assigned by adolescents to specific communication skills when

talking to peers and talking to adult teachers. These authors concluded that it is reasonable

to think that the way adolescents adapt their communication characteristics to either

adults or peers is likely to influence what those partners think about them and how

successful their relationships are with those people. Young et al. (1999) described how

the egalitarian and reciprocal aspect of peer relationships contrasts sharply with the

hierarchical parent-adolescent relationship and that reciprocity in adolescent peer

relationships allows autonomy to develop through such behaviours as co-operation,

collaboration, intimacy, sharing, affording the parties mutual acceptance and respect.

These conversational and relational behaviours characterise peer relationships and serve

to facilitate adolescent interactions and thus their socialisation.

A number of authors (Beaumont, 1996; Chan, 2001; Rotenberg, 1995; Sullivan,

1953; Worcel et al., 1999) point out that it is well known that personal disclosure by

adolescents occurs in close friendship relationships where the young person feels

accepted, trusted, and validated. Additionally, many authors have identified

conversational and relational differences in the way adolescents communicate between

their peers and between adolescents and their parents (Noller, Feeney, & Peterson, 2001;

Papini & Farmer, 1990; Rafaelli & Duckett, 1989; Readdick & Mullis, 1997; Rotenberg,

1995; Turkstra, 2001; Worcel et al., 1999; Young et al., 1999). In particular,

communication barriers between parents and teenagers have been identified by the

American Academy of Child Psychiatry as a situation most frequently associated with

adolescent suicide (Peach & Reddick, 1991). These findings suggest that personal

disclosure by adolescents, which lead to supportive reactions by their peers, is more likely

to occur in adolescent peer conversations than in conversations with parents or other

35

adults. Buhrmester (1990) noted that peer friendships create an environment where

personal disclosure leads to social validation, social control, self-clarification, self-

expression, and relationship development, and that adolescent friendships became

increasingly intimate based on mutual understanding, disclosure, empathy, and trust. He

suggests that making and keeping friends in adolescence involves close relationship

competencies, including conversational skills and providing emotional support. Young et

al. (1999) propose that the nature of adolescent peer-peer relationships provides a non-

threatening atmosphere in which adolescents experience the freedom to explore ideas and

options. They further suggest that in the adolescent peer conversation goals are realised

through equitable exchanges. The quality of the relationship and the peers’ common

circumstances allows them to be mutually empathic and supportive.

Chan (2001) discovered that adolescents talk about affective and private events

through 'matching' and sharing similar experiences and subsequently rate relationships

high in friendship and rapport. Her research in peer collaboration and discourse patterns

in learning situations indicated the importance of collaborative explanation in adolescent

conversation. She extended existing research in characterising differing conversational

patterns that deepen or suppress students’ communication and found that the use of the

components of problem recognition, question formulation and explanation, promoted peer

collaboration in conversation. This process seemed particularly important in collaborative

conceptual change as peers scaffolded each other to construct explanations and generate

alternative hypotheses.

Young et al. (1999) conducted research to identify the joint actions that adolescent

peers undertake in their career-related conversations. The authors define joint action in

general terms as the intentional behaviour of people attempting to realise a common goal

or engage in a common process. They view conversation as a joint action because it is not

36

dictated by one individual's intentions or actions but results from the interactions between

people. The results of this study identified that the goals of career related conversations

were embedded in an identity process called self-refinement. The process of self-

refinement was prevalent throughout the adolescents’ conversations. Through the very

act of conversation, adolescents defined their individual position and took ownership of

their beliefs and values. The interactive nature of conversation also allowed them to re-

examine and adjust their respective positions. The study of Young et al. (1999) has

implications for examining the joint action process in conversations between adolescents

where emotional and psychological support is provided and received.

The contribution of the Current Project to the Literature

Prosocial Behaviour

Thoits’ (1995) summary of the reviewed research in stress, coping and social

support suggests that in the area of social support we need further research on the

relationships between structural and functional dimensions of social support, the social

distributions of perceived and received support, the way in which support influences

personality resources (and vice versa), the conditions under which supportive assistance is

mobilised versus eroded, and the kinds of support which optimally match individual's

needs for help. Until supportive processes and intervening mechanisms are better

understood the goal of designing more effective interventions for adolescents coping with

stress will be constrained. The current project attempts to address these issues by

developing and evaluating an intervention emphasising social support within an

adolescent population. Despite the traditional focus on appraisal based theories of dealing

with stress, the emergence of resource based theories are gathering interest in the research

literature. Both appraisal and resource based theories fail to answer the questions about

how young people utilise resources in the environment, and what constrains and enhances

37

access to resources. The current study provides information relevant to these questions

and as a consequence contributes to an understanding of stress and coping in young

people.

Methodological design

Methodological design has also constrained the study of social support.

Qualitative measures have been suggested as an alternative tool for examining social

support (Bergin, Talley & Hamer, 2003), as social support is not a concrete construct as it

appears in the provider models but is a dynamic process that includes interactions

between the recipient and the provider. The present research provides an opportunity to

challenge the historical leanings in adolescent research which have focused on variable

centred approaches. Recent trends in adolescent research suggest that social/relational

behaviours should be addressed in research with an emphasis on positive psychosocial

behaviours and outcomes for youth combining methodological approaches that focus on a

greater appreciation for emancipatory qualitative data analysis. Therefore the current

project will examine social support using an alternative methodological model.

Social Support

The research to date indicates that a focus on overt prosocial behaviours has

restricted our understanding of socially significant social behaviours (Bergin, et al.,

2003). It is expected that the current project, situated within an adolescent population,

could reveal significantly valuable information regarding socially supportive behaviours

among adolescents. To date there are no studies which explore how relational prosocial

behaviours in the form of conversational social support, occurs in the adolescent

population. Studies which explore the process of adolescent conversations aimed at social

connection with the goal of providing emotional and psychological support, are

inadequate. Distinct adolescent conversational processes have been found to impact on a

38

young person’s perception of status and role in conversations with others (Turkstra,

2001), and influence the young person’s perceptions of friendliness, trust, equality,

mutual understanding and willingness to self-disclose within the relationship (Young, et

al. 1999). These adolescent conversational processes also contribute to the realisation of a

common goal and a willingness to engage in a common process of constructing

explanations and generating alternative hypotheses which contributes to collaborative

conceptual change. These findings have implications for the current project which aims

to examine the processes which occur in conversations between young people where

emotional and psychological support is provided and received. Additionally, even though

social support in the form of conversational prosocial behaviours is known to enhance a

person's physical and psychological well being (Esterling, Antoni, Fletcher, Margulies, &

Schneiderman, 1994; Jourard, 1971; Papini & Farmer, 1990; Pennebaker, 1995; Raphael

& Dohrenwend, 1987; Wegner, 1994), there are no studies attempting to understand the

process of socially supportive conversations among adolescents. By using an

interpersonal model to guide exploration of specific relational and conversational

behaviours in socially supportive conversations among adolescents the current project

will contribute to the literature on adolescent pro social behaviour.

Peer counselling is a social support resource which contributes to the social

support resource pool. A review of existing research on training and teaching adolescents

to provide emotional and psychological support to their peers is outlined in the following

chapter.

39

CHAPTER 3

Review of the Research on Peer Counselling and Peer Helper Training

Peer counselling is an activity which occurs under the umbrella term of peer

helping which covers a variety of services and activities and which occurs in various

settings with diverse populations. While peer helping can occur informally through

spontaneous prosocial behaviours, formal peer helping pursuits usually occur through

organised programs and activities and may include education and prevention programs,

mediation and conflict resolution practices, mentoring, tutoring, support groups dealing

with varying concerns (such as alcoholism), and one to one counselling. With regard to

peer helping among adolescents, programs, which first started in high schools, used group

peer counselling sessions known as rap sessions. Since then, peer programs with young

people have been initiated to address a variety of issues such as prevention of youth

suicide (Morrison, 1987), drug education and prevention (Shiner, 1999), bullying and

mediation/conflict resolution (Cowie, 1999; Osterman, et al., 1997), befriending

(Demetriades, 1996; Ortega & del Rey, 1999), mentoring (Frisz, 1999; Topping & Ehly,

1998) and face to face counselling approaches (Cartwright, 1996; Naylor, 2000).

Peer counselling is one of the most useful ways in which people can help others

by listening and communicating with them, enabling them to share their troubles and feel

better (Carr, 1984). Generally peer counselling makes use of a number of listening and

communication skills which are basic counselling skills used along with other skills and

strategies. Volunteer and professional counsellors when counselling people who have

specifically sought counselling help commonly use these skills. Counselling skills are

extremely useful skills because they are generally applicable, not just in a counselling

situation, but in a wide range of life situations (Geldard & Geldard, 2003).

40

Helping others is a prosocial behaviour and Eisenberg et al. (1999) recognise that

there are individual differences in prosocial dispositions (see chapter 2). This would

suggest that generally people may have different levels of competence and success in

their ability to join with and listen to other people. Although some people are potentially

more able to help others by listening and communicating with them, it is accepted that by

learning specific counselling skills people can become more effective in helping others

(Sanders, 1996). Most training courses now emphasise the development of skills as an

important, indeed an essential element in training as a counsellor (Sanders, 1996). The

idea that helping in general, and counselling or therapy in particular could be looked at as

a set of components which could be learned was made popular by Carl Rogers (1965).

Rogers developed an approach to counselling which is now usually referred to as the

client-centred approach. His theoretical assumptions were that people were essentially

trustworthy, had positive qualities, and had the potential for understanding themselves

and resolving their own problems. Consequently, he believed that the helper did not need

to directly intervene or provide solutions as people were capable of doing this themselves.

Additionally he believed that it was important when helping other people to avoid sharing

a great deal about yourself and instead to focus on the other person's story by reflecting

and clarifying their verbal and non-verbal communication. Empathy, congruence or

genuineness, and unconditional positive regard or non-judgemental warmth and

acceptance are the "core conditions" of a helping relationship proposed by Rogers.

However while the core conditions may be necessary they are not sufficient, and while

many people who undergo counselling training already have some of the skills necessary

to help others, adding some extra elements to those skills can make helping become

maximally effective.

41

‘Skills’ can be viewed as acquired activities for performing simple or complex

acts smoothly and precisely. The idea that human beings use skills to manage

relationships is not new. For example, social skills is a term used to indicate behaviours

which can be learned and improved with practice to help develop or enhance a particular

role or relationship with others. Similarly counselling skills can be seen as a set of verbal

and non verbal behaviours used in a helping relationship to help others feel better and/or

to change their thoughts and/or their behaviours (Geldard & Geldard, 2001). Rogers

(1965) did not see counselling as just assembling a set of skills. He also believed that

counsellors must incorporate what he described as the core conditions of the helping

relationship into their way of relating as people. Egan (1994) added to Rogers’ ideas by

constructing a theory of helping based on the skills required at different stages in the

helping process. Rogers (1965) and Egan (1975) were responsible for developing the

idea that counselling was a skilled process and most would agree that Egan incorporates

Rogers’ ideas into his framework for understanding the process of helping. Some of the

specific skills used in a helping relationship include: making and maintaining contact,

structuring, active listening and communicating empathy, reflecting thoughts, behaviours

and feelings, paraphrasing, clarifying, helping the client focus on specific issues, helping

the client move on, helping the client identify goals, problem solving, decision-making,

evaluating and reviewing plans. These skills are counselling skills when they are used

intentionally to pay close attention to another person, understand the meaning of what

they are saying and deliberately communicate care and attention to the person while

trying to help them to feel better and/or to change.

Most people who use counselling skills or are engaged in counselling others

undergo training so that they can carry out their helping behaviour ethically and with

expertise. For example, many practical helpers make use of specific counselling skills

42

which they have been taught to listen and communicate in a caring and supportive way

while the person they are helping talks to them about their troubles. Similarly professional

counsellors are trained to use counselling skills in the context of well-established

therapeutic approaches. Professional counsellors often specialise in using a specific

therapeutic approach based on particular theoretical premises. There are a number of

different theoretical counselling models. Although some counselling skills are common to

several models, others are not. Some models rely on specific counselling skills, which are

not considered important in other models. Each therapeutic approach, with its underlying

theory, guides a counsellor’s practice and will determine what counselling skills the

counsellor will use and the kind of relationship they will have with their client. However,

as well as the therapeutic approach with its accompanying skills, other factors influence

whether the client experiences positive outcomes as a result of counselling. Factors

which have been suggested as being relevant for promoting positive change in a client

include the client’s readiness for change, the client’s creativity, the client’s agency and

self-healing (Duncan, Hubble, & Miller, 1997; Gold, 1994; Tallman & Bohart, 1999).

Counsellor Education Models

Counselling education courses designed to train professional counsellors have

used various models. Historically, the client-centred approach that Rogers (1951)

originated in the early 1950s is one of the enduring cornerstones in the training of

counsellors. Training in the client-centred approach relies on a facilitative model. The

facilitative model emphasises training counsellors in specific facilitative conditions which

include empathy, understanding, unconditional positive regard and genuineness.

Counsellor training, according to Rogers (1957), needed to include a specific graded

training experience consisting of modelling by the supervisor, role-playing, recording of

interviews, and replaying them with the supervisor. This was to be done within a

43

supervisor-trainee relationship that should also involve the facilitative conditions

described previously. Following on from Rogers’ ideas, a number of training programs

designed to produce facilitator-counsellors were developed. Three of the most widely

used and researched of these programs were Human Resources Training (Truax &

Carkhuff, 1967), Microcounselling/Micro training (Ivey, Normington, Miller, Morrill, &

Haase, 1967), and Interpersonal Process Recall (Kagan, 1980).

Several other models of training have since been used to educate counsellors:

1. McWhirter (1998) discusses an empowerment model of counsellor education

describing how the critical components of empowerment as a construct can be

infused into the counsellor education curriculum.

2. Stewart (1998) discusses the principles of problem-based learning and their

application to graduate-level counsellor education. He believes this approach

helps counsellors transfer learning to diverse situations.

3. Paisley and Benshoff (1998) provide a rationale for the use of cognitive

developmental theory as a framework for counsellor education.

4. Carty and Andrew (1993) describe a counselling course designed for registered

nurses. The course relies on an experiential learning model where the nature of

change and the process for the client and the trainee counsellor develops

dynamically. This experiential learning model provides a useful framework in

designing counsellor education courses and includes two cyclical dimensions.

Firstly grasping information through concrete experience and secondly processing

information through reflective observation and active experimentation.

5. Wiseman (1998) extended research on the process experiential approach to

training counsellors and describes a model for counsellor training anchored in the

development of experiential-humanistic approaches to counselling.

44

While the main emphasis in training within a pure nondirective client-centred

approach has been on the facilitative conditions and the learning of specific counselling

microskills, the experiential models, including the process-experiential approach

proposed by Greenberg, Rice, and Elliott (1993), focus on training counsellors to be

aware of, and direct the process of, a counselling conversation. For example, Wiseman

(1998) emphasises the identification of specific markers in the counselling conversation

in order to determine exploring the cognitive-affective response of the client. This

process-experiential model to training counsellors stresses the importance of active,

process-directive interventions aimed at deepening the experience of the client within the

relationship between the counsellor and client and provides an alternative to the problem

management approach described by Egan. This approach is of interest when considering

training adolescent peer helpers as the skills taught have some parallels with typical

adolescent conversational and relational behaviours.

In contrast to Wiseman’s (1998) model, Egan (1982) added to the ideas of Rogers

by taking the work of other therapeutic approaches and constructing a theory of helping

based on the skills required at different stages in the helpful change process. Egan

suggested a three stage problem solving or problem management model. Stage one

focused on exploring and clarifying the problem. This stage incorporated the counselling

skills of active listening and communicating with the skills of identifying, acknowledging

and reflecting thoughts, behaviours and feelings, paraphrasing, and clarifying. In stage

two, Egan suggested that additional processes should be addressed where the client is

challenged so that goals can be set. Based on an action-oriented understanding of the

problem situation, stage two links and integrates individual issues and problems into

themes. This is done by using skills that show deeper understanding and help the client to

focus on specific issues, and challenge the client's views by offering new perspectives.

45

The process includes sharing the helper’s experiences and feelings, and helping the client

to move on. Goal setting was central to stage two and involved helping the client identify

what they wanted to achieve. Stage three focuses on helping the client to look at possible

ways of acting in a situation to resolve problems. Developing and using action plans

through brainstorming, creative thinking, problem solving, decision-making, and planning

are the skills focused on in this stage. Finally, evaluating consequences of actions

through record keeping, evaluation, and reviewing plans completes the counselling

process. As the client progresses through the stages proposed by Egan, the emphasis

shifts from the client's point of view and their world to a more objective perspective and

finally action in and on the client's world to cause change (Egan). Egan expresses his

understanding of the client's ability to direct their own helping process by including the

helper as a co-worker making suggestions which the client could use or not as they

choose. He referred to his model as developmental. He described it as systemic and

cumulative with the success of stage two dependent on the quality of work in stage one,

and the success of stage three dependent on the quality of work in both stages one and

two. His model emphasised a linear process with the client moving from one stage to the

next. However, he acknowledged that in practice the problem-solving process was not

linear and encouraged helpers to develop techniques that enabled them to individualise

each of its steps.

Peer Helper Training

Most peer helper training programs follow Egan’s model and teach many of the

skills suggested in all three stages of his model. Additionally, most peer helper training

programs are based on the assumption that teaching effective helping skills is best done in

discrete and finite blocks, each with a beginning and an end, and then integrating all that

46

has been learned (Carr & Saunders, 1980; de Rosenroll, 1988; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988;

Painter, 1989; Tindall, 1989).

Training of peer helpers has typically started with a series of prepared training

sessions designed to teach a variety of skills. The skills associated with effective helping

in an adult population have been described and demystified and it has also been

demonstrated that non-professional lay people, including high school adolescents, are

capable of learning them. However, Carr (1984) recognised that once the core skills have

been reasonably mastered by young people they may feel awkward, mechanical, or

phoney, and he suggests that the training model should remain adolescent centred rather

than strictly skill centred. Similarly, Tindall (1989) describes the Carkhuff (1983) model

as appearing overly restrictive and highly regimented to someone who does not

understand the reasons behind the procedures. Baumgarten and Roffers (2003) note that

Carkhuff chooses the word ‘technology’ to describe his training methods because of his

focus on the systematic, step-by-step process he takes learners through by first building

the knowledge base (facts, concepts, and principles) needed for skill development and

then delineating the skill steps from the most simple to the most complex. Carkhuff

operationalises conceptually complex terms like empathy into behavioural components,

thereby making them more amenable for skill-based training. He often refers to his

training model as a form of "human technology". Tindall (1989) suggests that trainers

explore a variety of ways to approach a single training model that can augment and

supplement the training process to meet individual needs. The adolescent peer helper

training literature fails to identify how models of training for young people have been

adapted to include these recommendations. Examination of current literature suggests that

these recommendations may never have been considered.

47

Boekaerts (2002) noted that when educating young people, recent practices

involve direct teaching being replaced or supplemented by teaching according to the

principles of social constructivism. This implies that teaching invites students to adopt a

new learner role by being active, constructive, self-regulated, and responsible learners.

Teachers share in the responsibility for learning with their students. The research

evidence, as well as classroom observation, shows that students who are encouraged to

adopt the new learner role learn in a fundamentally different way when compared with

students who passively listen to the teacher's presentation. She suggests a move away

from traditional learning environments where students are cognitively, emotionally, and

socially dependent on their teachers to formulate their learning goals and determine which

type of interaction is allowed. Her discussion has implications when considering training

adolescents in peer counselling. Boekaerts (2002) emphasises linking the world of

instruction to the world of learning and creating powerful learning environments where

students orient toward the attainment of their own goals, where they generate thoughts,

feelings, and actions in order to obtain their goals, and where they work systematically

toward the attainment of their goals.

As well as emphasising the acquisition of specific skills, traditional peer helper

training programs also caution the trainee against using particular language and phrases

that may communicate judgemental thoughts. In his ‘Students companion to basic

counselling’, Sanders (1996) cautions against generalising, debating or discussing,

pushing the person being helped too far or too fast, and making guesses or interpretations.

Additionally there are some communication processes that are described in the literature

on peer helper training as “communication stoppers” or “roadblocks” to communicating.

Carr and Saunders (1980), Painter (1989), Sanders (1999) and Tindall (1989) believe that

these communication stoppers or roadblocks are behaviours, which, although they appear

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to be helpful, are actually responses that are negative in effect and retard helpful

interpersonal relationships. Consequently adolescent peer helpers have been actively

encouraged to recognise roadblocks and communication stoppers and learn new

behaviours to use in their place. Responses such as persuading, advising, recommending,

praising, supporting, sympathising, diverting, and kidding, are all described as roadblocks

and communication stoppers and have been actively discouraged.

Typical peer helper training programs emphasise the importance of the helping

relationship. Most programs devote some time to exploring the helper’s values and

attitudes about difference and ethical issues of confidentiality, helper limitations and

referral to other sources, as well as sessions devoted to skill training. For example, in their

‘Peer Counselling Starter Kit’ Carr and Saunders (1980) include several sessions with

each session devoted to a particular topic. Sessions include topics related to awareness of

others and nonverbal attending, roadblocks to effective communication, listening and

empathy, empathic and reflective listening skills, questioning skills, self-disclosure,

values clarification, decision-making and problem solving, and a review of ethics,

confidentiality and referral. Myrick and Erney (1985) describe the essence of their

training program as enabling peer counsellors to use effective communications skills with

others. Because the helping relationship centres upon verbal communication,

considerable attention is given to sessions which focus on how students should talk with

each other. The authors focus on attentive listening, accentuating high facilitative

responses of reflecting, summarising and clarifying, providing feedback with an emphasis

on avoiding giving advice, judging or labelling, responsible decision-making, values

clarification and being accountable. Similarly, the Kids Help Line Peers Skills Program

(2003) conducts training which consists of core modules. The module of values and

attitudes explores values and how they affect us, recognition of one’s own values, and

49

exercising non-judgmental behaviour. The listening and responding module includes

active listening, attending, nonverbal interaction and reflecting feelings, open-ended

questions and problem solving skills. Specific time is spent helping the participants to

recognise and respond to their own needs, recognising their strengths and limitations,

referral to other adults or professionals and setting up supportive networks.

Most programs support the view of Egan (1994) who proposes that the helping

partnership should operate as a team where the helper and the person being helped work

together. Egan suggests that it is not enough that a helper views the other person as being

an equal or a peer. He argues that the person being helped must also recognise this

equality. Also, for the helping relationship to be perceived as mutual and equal the

relationship must be interactive and consensual. If this is not the case the relationship

will be perceived as being different from a normal relationship with the helper usually

perceived as being of superior status. However, Egan supports Kanfer’s (1980, p.336)

statement that "the therapist serves as a consultant and expert" and concludes that

‘consulting’ is a social-influence process where the helper assists the client to work

through issues. At the same time Egan emphasises a model where the client takes self-

responsibility for the outcomes of the helping process. The focus is on the client with the

helper facilitating the use of the client’s resources. Helpers influence their clients to take

responsibility for the helping process and their own lives and Egan suggests that helper

social influence and client self-responsibility are by no means contradictory terms. It can

be argued however, that executing a relationship such as this could be difficult

particularly if typical relationship characteristics of a specific population are discouraged

or denied. Egan suggests that good helpers see helping conversations as a goal-oriented,

accomplishment oriented dialogue. They respond from their client’s frame of reference

because they can see the world through their client’s eyes. He continues by stating "Good

50

helpers are concrete in their expressions, dealing with actual feelings and actual behaviour

rather than vague formulations, or generalities. Their speech, caring and human is also

lean and to the point" (Egan, 1982, p. 27). However, it can be strongly argued that unless

these characteristics match the helper’s typical relationship and conversational

behaviours, incongruence between the helper and helper behaviours, and differences

between the helper and recipient will be obvious.

Despite the need for similarity between helper and recipient, typical models used

to train adolescent peer helpers have not successfully eliminated the problematic issues of

status difference and role attribution (de Rosenroll, 1988). Status difference and role

attribution imply that the helper is more expert or competent than the person they are

helping. As a result, the question arises as to whether using training models which teach

and encourage helping behaviours which are unfamiliar and different from the typical

relationship and conversational behaviours of a specific population are likely to

accentuate status difference and role attribution difficulties. If status difference and role

attribution are to be avoided both the helper and the person being helped need to feel

equal in their relationship. One way to accomplish this equality in the relationship would

be to design training models that use different therapeutic approaches and skills than

those currently used when training peer helpers. For example, as pointed out by

O'Connell (1998) solution focused therapy provides a framework for a collaborative

working process and relies on a theory and process which focuses on identifying strengths

and resources through collaboration in a conversational process between the helper and

the person being helped. Solution focused therapy makes use of processes which very

closely match the typical, developmentally appropriate conversational processes of

adolescents. As adolescents meet new situations, face new demands, and experience

previously unmet challenges, they continually revise and replace previously held

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constructs so that their new constructs fit with their new experiences. These constructs or

personal interpretations of the world will not be fixed but will be revised and replaced as

new information becomes available (Kelly, 1955). Because solution focused therapy has

its roots in constructivist principles, and promotes the use of skills such as amplifying,

cheer leading, the use of specific conversational questions, joint action, collaborative

problem solving and counsellor self-disclosure, it has a better level of fit with typical

adolescent communication processes than other commonly used approaches.

It is not clear from the literature whether peer helper training programs check out

what strengths and skills volunteers bring with them to training. While the current

training approaches may have some merit, they have a possible unintended negative

aspect for groups representing differences in the community. For example, members of

groups reflecting differences in sexual orientation, gender, age, culture, ethnicity and

ability/disability may have significantly different communication and relationship

characteristics from each other which influence their relationship style and

communication patterns. Studies investigating the relationship between personality, age

and therapeutic approaches chosen by professional counsellors have discovered that there

are significant relationships between some aspects of personality and the approach chosen

(Scandell, Wlazelek & Scandell, 1997). For example, counsellors with a cognitive-

behavioural orientation were more likely to be younger, low in emotional expressivity and

openness to experience, committed to rational and objective beliefs and present with a

practical problem solving nature. Psychodynamic counsellors were more likely to be

older, relatively high in emotional expressivity, committed to both rationality and

subjectivity as the basis of belief and attracted to the psychodynamic approach because of

its emphasis of ongoing self-healing. Experiential counsellors were more likely to be

committed to an intuitive and subjective basis of belief and attracted to an experiential

52

approach because of its emphasis on ongoing self-exploration (Poznanski & McClennan,

2003). This suggests that people with different personal qualities may be suited to

different types of training.

Evaluating Peer Helper Training Programs

Research into the effectiveness of adolescent peer programs in schools recognises

that they are cost-effective and comprehensive approaches for preventing alcohol and

other drug abuse, reducing campus violence, generating respect for racial and ethnic

diversity, increasing school attendance and academic performance, and improving overall

student health and self-esteem (Forouzesh, Grant, & Donnelly, 2001). The California

Association of Peer Programs (CAPP) conducted and recently published the most

comprehensive evaluation of peer programs in the USA (Forouzesh, Grant, & Donnelly,

2001). This evaluation validates the reputation of peer programs as catalysts for the

creation of healthy, safe, and productive school environments. Phase one of the

Comprehensive Evaluation of Peer Programs named ‘The Statewide Assessment of Peer

Programs’ was developed to determine the status of California’s middle, intermediate,

and high school peer programs. A self-administered questionnaire was designed

containing questions regarding the number of students in the peer program, their

ethnicity, and peer program service activities. The questionnaire also ascertained the

number of years the peer program had been functioning, the counsellor-to-student ratio,

the level of support the peer program received, and the benefits of the peer program to the

community, the school, and to the students. A total of 510 schools returned the

assessment, including 191 middle schools, 236 high schools, and 73

continuation/opportunity schools. The second phase of the evaluation was designed to

collect survey data from a smaller group of schools. The goal of this phase was to

ascertain the impact of peer programs on peer program members, students served by the

53

peer program and the general school population by surveying peer program members,

students served by the peer program, peer program advisors, and school administrators.

Information gathered from the Statewide Assessment of Peer Programs indicated

that while the types of peer program organisation, operations, and services vary from one

site to another the one-to-one support programs adhered to the traditional facilitator-

counsellor model using a formally structured, skills based training process. Results

showed that the most common peer program organisational format was a daily class. A

peer program of this nature is formally structured within the academic program and is

offered as part of the academic curriculum. Generally, schools train their students in a

variety of settings: formalised classes, after-school activities, weekends and/or summer

retreat trainings. One-on-one personal support programs described training peer program

members with high level active listening and facilitation skills to provide personal support

to students who may be experiencing temporary difficulties or personal setbacks. Personal

support programs also claimed to provide an opportunity for students to take their

personal challenges to a trained peer program member and experience an effective

decision-making/problem-solving process, which they could use in dealing with future

challenges.

Information gathered from phase two of the evaluation measured the impact of

peer programs on the peer program members, students served by the peer program and the

general school population. Separate survey instruments were developed and peer helpers,

students served by the program, and school advisory bodies were asked questions related

to the impact of the peer program on the mastery of skills and reduction of behaviours. It

was determined that a benchmark of 20% or greater response by the participant survey

groups be used to indicate significant skill/ behaviour change on the three school

populations as a direct result of the peer program. Results confirmed that peer programs

54

positively impact peer program members, students served by the peer program, and the

general school population as a direct result of the peer program.

Research efforts to evaluate satisfaction with high school peer counselling

programs have been relatively unsystematic and sparse (Morey & Miller, 1993). Smaller

independent studies measuring similar parameters to those of CAPP have revealed similar

findings (Cartwright, 1996; Cowie, 1999; Demetriades, 1996; Frisz, 1999; Morrison,

1987; Naylor, 2000; Ortega & del Rey, 1999; Osterman, Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, Landau,

Fraczek, & Pastorelli, 1997; Shiner, 1999; Topping & Ehly, 1998). Other studies, which

evaluate adolescent peer helper programs examining different parameters, have also

identified the value of adolescent peer programs. For example, Varenhorst (1992)

discussed the benefits to youth of peer helping as being an increased sense of

individuality, an increased ability to make friends and participation in a meaningful role

by helpers. Abu-Rasain and Williams (1999) studied the effects of peer counselling in a

boys’ secondary school and found a significant reduction in problems presented to the

school counsellor. Price and Jones (2001) identified that year 11 pupils acting as

“counsellors” to younger students reported personal benefits for themselves through their

involvement, increased self confidence, a sense of responsibility, and feeling that they

were contributing positively to the life of the school. Other studies generally use

provider/recipient models of evaluation and rely on feedback from peer helpers or the

recipients of help. For example when studying the effects of a peer counsellor program on

school climate, Swen (2000) relied on data from peer counsellors only. Morey and Miller

(1993) studied student satisfaction with peer counselling in high schools with results

obtained from recipients of help. Similarly Abu-Rasain and Williams (1999) relied on

data from recipients of help in focus groups and self-reports from peer counsellors. These

studies rely on data collected over periods ranging from eight months to two years.

55

Additionally in those studies that do train adolescents in facilitative counselling

microskills, the impact on the wider school environment has not been evaluated by

collecting data from all students in the wider school environment but instead has relied on

data either from the peer counsellors themselves or the direct recipients of help. It has

also been noted that it may take several years for a school wide program such as a peer

counsellor program to become institutionalised and valued as a whole school activity

(Lindsay, 1998; Smith, Daunic, Miller & Robinson, 2002).

Summary

Social support has consistently established its value as a coping resource across all

developmental life stages. However, current research has not studied conversational

social support as a dynamic process that includes the interaction between people in an

adolescent population. Historically prosocial research studies use quantitative measures

and examine limited variables in contrived settings. Horowitz et al. (2001) identified an

interpersonal model as a way of describing prosocial behaviour in the form of providing

conversational support and recommends that attempts to research supportive reactions

clearly need to emphasise continuous dimensions rather than categories which are discrete

and dichotomous. Additionally, other studies have used quantitative measures and

examined limited variables using narrow provider/recipient models when investigating

the phenomena of social support. Evaluation of adolescent peer programs mirrors the

restricted research models, design and methodology used in research examining social

support and prosocial behaviour. The findings in both the Comprehensive Evaluation of

Peer Programs (Forouzesh, et al., 2001) and smaller independent studies remain

unchanged from study to study and the findings fall short in their discussion and

recommendations about the most appropriate peer helper training for young people.

56

One of the premises upon which peer counselling is based is that through training

natural helping interactions are enhanced (Cowie, Naylor, Talamilli, Chauhan, & Smith,

2002; de Rosenroll, 1988; Carr, 1998). It is assumed that peer counselling training will

validate, formalise and positively influence those informal helping activities that are

already taking place. Although this is a generally held assumption in the literature, in

practice adolescent peer helper training programs have not shown evidence of integrating

the typical communication patterns and processes of adolescents into the training model.

In fact adolescent peer helper training programs have relied on training young people in

skills from adult counselling models and approaches. There is an absence of studies in the

peer helper training literature which include the exploration of the current repertoire of

natural helping behaviours of adolescent participants within the training program. For

training models to be maximally effective it would seem to be advantageous if the skills

taught strengthen rather than replace the normal communication skills of the helper. It is

probable that strengthening the natural helping behaviours of adolescent participants will

make it more likely that peer helpers will be perceived as being similar to the target

population. As discussed earlier, many processes and responses which form part of

normal adolescent conversation have been considered unhelpful in peer helper training

programs. However, these processes and responses may not only be acceptable to

adolescents but may also be seen as matching normal behaviour in adolescent

conversations and relationships. To discourage the use of these behaviours may interfere

with normal adolescent communication processes instead of enhancing them.

Often youth programs are initiated that offer services but do not promote youth

competence, empowerment, and involvement (Fetterman, Kafterian, &Wandersman,

1996). Shortcomings in the adolescent peer helper training literature expose how current

training models fail to incorporate current trends in the psychology of education of young

57

people. As a result, current training models are not likely to enable young people to feel

empowered, capture the interest of young people and maximise their interest in the topic

being taught, particularly in view of the potential outcome for them.

It is apparent that research in resource investment in the environment remains in

the process of establishment. By providing a peer counselling program in a school

environment, young people clearly have immediate access to social support which is

known to be a valuable resource when coping with stress. Current evaluation of

adolescent peer counsellor training intervention generally relies on information collected

from either providers or recipients with regard to the usefulness of such interventions.

Few studies examine the impact of peer counsellor interventions using information from

the wider school community in which the intervention occurs. As a consequence, little

information is known about what constrains or enhances access to and availability of

adolescent peer counsellors in their high school environment. In particular, information

gathered from students in the wider school community, with regard to the impact of peer

counsellor interventions on the total school climate are absent.

The significance of the current project lies in the development of an adolescent

peer counsellor training intervention which genuinely respects, augments and enhances

the spontaneous conversational process behaviours of young people. A focus on the

problematic issues of skill implementation, role attribution and status differences will

specifically identify the experiences of peer counsellor trainees in relation to these issues.

The current project will contribute to resource theory by examining and identifying these

issues, and by examining what constrains and what facilitates the availability of and

access to peer counselling in the adolescent environment.

The outcomes from the current project provide new insights to inform practice by

seeking answers to the following research questions:

58

1. Which conversational skills and relational behaviours used by adolescents in peer

relationships are useful in a helping conversation.

2. Which counselling microskills and/or approaches, are easy for adolescents to use,

and are useful for young people.

3. How does a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program affect the

participants’ experience as peer counsellors with regard to skill Implementation,

role attribution and status?

4. How does a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program, influence

the peer counsellors’ emotional competence, self-concept, and the coping

strategies used?

5. Does a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program influence peer

counsellors’ perceptions of the current school climate?

6. In a high school, does the introduction of a new adolescent-friendly peer

counsellor training program and exposure to trained peer counsellors influence the

way students who are not peer counsellors feel about themselves?



coping strategies used by students who are not peer counsellors?



perception of students who are not peer counsellors with regard to the current

school climate?

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CHAPTER 4

Methodology

The present chapter outlines the theoretical framework and research approach to

this project. The project employs an intervention research approach within a

phenomenological and ethnographic theoretical framework. The research design which

follows a developmental process will be described, beginning with the presentation of the

theoretical framework underpinning the project and followed by a rationale for the use of

a mixed method longitudinal design. The project is divided into three studies and the

qualitative and quantitative measures used in each study will be discussed with regard to

their selection and analysis.

Theoretical Framework

Qualitative research using phenomenology enables the researcher to explore real

life experiences from the participants’ perspectives and to investigate specific phenomena

in detail (Rice & Ezzy, 1999). In the current project, a phenomenological approach is

used to explore the experiences of peer counsellors as part of the lived experience of

being a peer counsellor, drawing particularly upon Merleau-Ponty’s notion of ‘embodied

knowing’ (cited in Dreyfus, 1991) and Heidegger’s analysis of ‘being-in-the-world’

(Heidegger, 1962). Merleau-Ponty's ideas about how our relation to the world is

transformed as we acquire skills will guide the examination of how adolescents integrate

basic counselling skills with adolescent helping behaviours. Heidegger’s conclusions

about what it is to be human are crucial for the human sciences. His notion of "being-in-

the-world" describes all experiences as being "lived" experiences, that is, what it is to be

human experiencing the world. In this project, adolescents’ understandings of being a

counsellor to their peers and receiving help from their peers in a peer environment is

60

examined from the adolescent’s experience of what it is to be a helper, and to be helped

by peers.

Ethnography is a richly textured description of community life that allows us to

understand others on their own terms (Brodkey, 1987). Fieldwork involves a disciplined

study of what the world is like to people who see, hear, speak, think and act in ways that

are different. In ethnographic fieldwork “Rather than studying people ethnography means

learning from people” (Spradley, 1979, p. 3). The ethnographic framework is useful

when exploring and considering the adolescent’s use of social support as a resource for

dealing with stress, as it provides a lens which gives information with regard to the wider

field of adolescent social relationships. Guided by this framework the current project

attempts to uncover and examine tacit assumptions operating in a middle and senior high

school with regard to the provision, receipt and impact of prosocial behaviour among

peers. Giddens (1984) draws attention to the way in which individuals draw upon social

structures in day-to-day living. Human agents operate within particular sociocultural

milieux which contain a number of specific structural factors (rules and resources) that

stimulate and shape behaviour. In a school setting these might include the current explicit

school rules, mission statement and philosophy; for example, rules and resources that

emphasise discipline, self reliance and self-sufficiency, positive and not negative social

interaction, self reflection, academic excellence, and the value of family and friends.

Additionally, structural factors may be implied but not explicit, particularly those “rules”

established and approved by students in the school community. Rules about

confidentiality in friendship relationships, loyalty and betrayal issues, how to resolve

conflict, how to encourage relationships, approved ways of maintaining and dissolving

friendships are just a few. Structures operating at a macro-level need to be set alongside

human agents behaving at a micro-level. As these connections are inherently situation-

61

specific, a contextualised understanding of health-related behaviour is imperative. When

considering new directions in coping resources and coping strategies research, it has been

suggested that it may be useful to pursue issues concerning the influence of structural

constraints rather than portraying human agency as inevitable (Thoits, 1995). This is of

particular importance when studying health-related behaviours such as coping with stress.

These behaviours need to be placed within a broader perspective which examines both

structural constraints, such as the lack of availability and inaccessibility of social support,

and choices, such as using social support or other tension reduction strategies

(Thorogood, 1992). Using an ethnographic framework the current research project

considers the connections between the implied, explicit and inherent structural factors that

exist, to link the social support phenomena with peer counselling. A theoretical

framework such as ethnography, which gives information with regard to the wider field,

is useful as it provides information that is contextually sensitive with regard to the way

relationships are embedded in particular times and particular places.

Intervention Research

Intervention research focuses on research through "doing", deliberately using the

research project itself as a vehicle for implementing desired change (Reinharz, 1992).

The intervention research approach is said to further participants’ interests in the research

design, maximise participants’ control over the research process and enhance the

relationship between the researcher and participants, thereby increasing the potential

richness of the data gathered (Fryer & Feather, 1994). Such an approach is recommended

where participants are likely to be alienated from the traditional research processes.

Because of the developmental life stage characteristics, and the idiosyncratic

communication and relationship behaviours of adolescents, an intervention research

62

approach was used in the current project, as it was likely to capture the interest of young

people, particularly in view of the potential outcome for them.

Developmentally, adolescents have been identified as moving through a process of

individuation and autonomy and there are indications that it is useful to intervene in the

psychosocial development of adolescents in order to attract their interest and

commitment, and to capitalise on the particular developmental stage that they are

traversing (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002). Similarly, the typical communication processes

of adolescents suggest that joint action and collaboration are central to adolescent

communication and problem solving (Chan, 2001; Young et al., 1999). These findings fit

with the intervention research principle of maximising participants’ control over the

research project (Fryer & Feather, 1994). Additionally major shifts in the psychology of

educating young people suggest a new student function of being active, collaborative,

constructive, self-regulated, and responsible, with teachers sharing the responsibility for

learning with their students (Boekaerts, 2002). This approach is in accord with

intervention research principles of enhancing the relationship between researcher and

participants.

Patton (1999) extended research by Fryer and Feather (1994) using intervention

research with a group of unemployed people. The central feature of these studies was the

provision of assistance to unemployed people which led to participants’ perceptions of the

intervention having positive outcomes. In both studies, quantitative and qualitative

methods were used. Similarly, the current project aims to provide training for adolescents

in peer counselling as a central feature of the research, thereby enabling them to fulfil a

specific role in the school community.

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Project Design

Mixed Method Approach

The mixed method design of the present research provides an opportunity to

complement the historical leanings in adolescent research which have focused on variable

centred approaches. Galambos and Leadbeater (2000) point out that dramatic social

changes influence the lives of adolescents. For example, increases in poverty,

homelessness, and unemployment, as well as cutbacks in educational, preventative, and

health services, negatively impact on young people. They suggest that at the same time,

most young people encounter adolescence better nourished and in more optimal physical

health than ever before, and are increasingly challenged by a diversity of opportunities to

support their development. As a result, the impact of social context and social change on

adolescence is receiving more attention. The authors suggest that social/relational

behaviours should be addressed in research with adolescents, with an emphasis on

positive psychosocial behaviours and outcomes, and resilience with regard to how young

people meet these challenges. Research investigating resiliency and pathways toward

positive outcomes among adolescents has begun to reveal multiple individual, family, and

community components (Leadbeater, 1996; Way & Leadbeater, 1999). Galambos and

Leadbeater (2000) note that because social/relational behaviours are not static,

unidimensional processes but are dynamic, multidimensional processes that change over

time, that analysis used to examine adolescent development and behaviours is beginning

to move away from variable-centred approaches toward pattern-centred approaches. A

research base is accumulating on the patterns of co-occurrence of problems in

adolescence. Pattern centred approaches to examine adolescents’ development and

behaviours considers the young person as consisting of multiple attributes that are

integrated into an organised system, and emphasises understanding the context,

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prevalence, antecedents and consequences of behaviours (Magnusson & Torestad, 1993).

Advocates of the pattern centred approach argue that the adolescents' profile across a

number of indicators may carry more meaning for understanding their development and

the way they behave, than do single variables (Magnusson & Cairns, 1996). Because

methodological designs are becoming more complicated there is a growing appreciation

of the potential use of qualitative data, and in particular the combination of using both

qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. Galambos and Leadbeater (2000)

note that the adolescent study by Phinney and Devich-Navarro (1997), identifying

patterns of ethnic/American identification, incorporated and combined qualitative and

quantitative components where the scales used to measure ethnic identity validated the

qualitative analysis from interviews. Themes from the qualitative analysis were used to

provide rich descriptions of what it meant to be bicultural. Studies such as this provide

good examples of the advances that can be gained from conducting research using mixed

data collection methods. The current project makes use of both quantitative and

qualitative methods when examining adolescent peer counselling.

Some researchers (Burns & Grove, 1997; McLaughlin & Marascuilo, 1990; Morse

& Field, 1995) describe multiple sources of data in terms of triangulation, used as a

means of enhancing rigour in interpretive research. Such a concept is related to a

positivistic assumption that an objective "truth" is awaiting discovery when correct

methodological approaches are used. In this sense, collection from different data sources

aims for corroboration of results. Other researchers (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989)

describe multiple sources of data collection in terms of providing opportunity for the

results of one method to inform another method for the purpose of increased construct

validity. However the current research is influenced by the researcher’s background as a

counsellor and, as a consequence, along with other researchers (e.g. Ewan & Calvert,

65

2000) is interested in the meaning of the real world to the participants. To discover the

way adolescents describe, experience and make sense of their behaviour when helping

peers, a thorough exploration and awareness of the content and context in which the

research is situated is seen to be essential.

The current project aims to explore, understand and facilitate the way adolescents

make sense of helping behaviour among themselves by using multiple data collection

methods. While the findings from multiple sources of data will provide a means of

enhancing rigour and at times provide opportunity for the results of one method to inform

another method, the aim in this project is to use a variety of data collection measures to

form diverse platforms for understanding the meaning of the real world to the participants

and thus avoid common limiting assumptions when making conclusions.

Longitudinal Design

The research question, the researcher’s knowledge, time, and resources and the

availability and commitment of research participants determined the most appropriate

research design for the current project. The longitudinal design provides the opportunity

to examine outcomes over time, to collect interesting data on how subjects change over

time and increases the researcher’s ability to address developmental issues and offer

causal interpretations (Menard, 1991). Longitudinal research can be defined simply as one

or more groups of participants studied at several points in time, generally following the

cohort to investigate developmental variables (Powers & Knapp, 1995). The data are

compared among and between participants to assess both intra-individual and inter-

individual change. For example, Schaie (2000) notes that identifying critical factors that

contribute to understanding the influences that affect human development have emerged

from large-scale longitudinal studies. Additionally longitudinal studies which have been

conducted for long periods of time apply powerful methods of growth curve modelling

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that allow patterns of individual change over time to be separated from the group

averages that had previously represented the primary focus of inquiry. Generally a

‘prospective longitudinal design’ provides the researcher the opportunity to study a

phenomenon over time as a developmental process unfolds whereas, ‘retrospective

longitudinal designs’ generally are employed when an event or phenomena in the present

is linked to a prior event (King 2001). The current project aimed to study the

developmental processes of peer counsellors’ experiences occurring over time following

peer counsellor training.

Measurement of change is the key issue in longitudinal research (Menard, 1991).

King (2001) claims that the degree of change can more readily be determined with

quantitative data than with qualitative data. However King also recognises that patterns

of change can be represented numerically from qualitative data and explanations of

change can be made with the introduction of other variables into the theoretical model.

Studies incorporating a longitudinal design using both quantitative and qualitative data

collection methods assess subjects at several different times following an intervention.

When using both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods, measurement and

respondent recall is an issue in longitudinal designs (King 2001). However respondent

recall in ‘prospective longitudinal designs’ is less of a problem than in retrospective

longitudinal designs because recall is closer to, and captured as the phenomenon unfolds

(Baltese et al., 1988; Menard, 1991). In longitudinal designs the cohort serves as a

control mechanism so that differences and relationships between independent and

dependent variables can be established with more certainty. The current study is suited to

employing a ‘prospective longitudinal design’ as opposed to a ‘retrospective longitudinal

design’ as it aims to measure the changes in participants as they experience becoming,

and acting in the role of peer counsellor over time. The intentional inclusion of the

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researcher into the theoretical model underpinning the research design, introduces another

variable into the theoretical model, which enables unique interpretations of change from

qualitative data to be made over time. The involvement of the researcher in the research

project will be discussed later in this chapter.

School-Researcher Relationship

An important aspect of the design of this project is the relationship between the

school and researcher, and participants and the researcher. In this project the link between

the school and researcher addresses a concern in the literature regarding gaps between

research and practice, and provides support for the intervention research approach and the

importance of collaboration in university-community partnerships in research. Galambos

and Leadbeater (2000) note that researchers who investigate issues relevant to youth

programming and policy put a lot of effort into establishing informal short-lived

collaborations with schools or community programs. Often results are not always reported

back to collaborators and are usually only published in academic journals. Where

programs are used as a result of access to research findings, they often fail to incorporate

evidence of successful strategies and knowledge about the changing contexts in which

children and youth are developing. Instead, they apply adult models to prevention and

treatment programs despite lack of outcome data to support their effectiveness with

adolescents (Kellam & Anthony, 1998). Often, youth programs are initiated that offer

services but do not promote youth competence, empowerment, and involvement

(Fetterman, Kafterian, & Wandersman, 1996). Many programs fail to address contextual

factors that limit or enhance youth well-being (Leadbeater & Way, 1996).

The intervention research approach used in this project will extend the efficacy of

action research models which have begun to emerge. As with a number of action research

models (Lerner at & Miller, 1993; Small, 1996; Weinberg & Erickson, 1996) the

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proposed project specifies the principles for collaboration between the researcher,

students and the school. Without researcher-school collaboration the relevance of the

research questions asked, commitment to program implementation, and the availability of

a context for the application of findings would be compromised. Of importance to the

collaborative process in this study were issues pertaining to the process of recruitment,

individual staff participation, risk management, researcher access to timetable allocation

in the curriculum, use of a specific location within the school, administration of pre- and

post-test measures and access to and use of the results.

Because research has often used artificial measures of prosocial behaviours in

contrived settings (Radke-Yarrow & Zahn-Waxler, 1986), the current project responded

to the call for new field approaches to determine future directions of research with

adolescents in an ecologically valid setting. In this project a denominational school was

chosen as the site for the research as it was believed that the school would welcome an

intervention that might enhance the pastoral care function of the school. It was explained

that peer counselling contributes to the climate of care and respect needed by schools to

reduce violence, vandalism, truancy, emotional problems, and school drop out. Schools

are directly and indirectly affected by student problems, worries and concerns.

Consequently, it was pointed out that the school might benefit from student helping

behaviour. The interaction between trained peer counsellors and students receiving help

can make an important contribution to the pastoral life of a school and help to build a

more open caring culture.

It was decided collaboratively that pre- and post-test data examining long-term

effects of the intervention would be collected by the school as part of a larger data

collection process using a set of standardised psychometric assessments (detailed later in

this chapter). Descriptive analysis of the data would be used by the school to support

69

implementation of future programs in the school in recognition of the resources provided

for the researcher and the research project. It was decided that the researcher would be

given a set of de-identified data for use in the research project.

A wide community base for support of a project is essential in a collaborative

process as it ensures commitment to the program implementation. Therefore, in this

project, the research was explained by the researcher initially to the executive board, then

to students at an assembly, to teachers at a staff meeting and finally through an

information package to parents so that informed consent could be obtained. Support for

the project from students was obtained by encouraging motivation and offering

incentives. For example, it was agreed that all students involved in the project would

receive a certificate of participation, on University letterhead, signed by the researcher,

and co-signed by the Head of School at the University. Additionally, participants would

receive a letter of confirmation of attendance and participation in the program, outlining

the number of hours spent in training and the content of training. It was pointed out that

this letter might be useful for students when applying for employment positions in many

career areas (Hospitality, Retail, Reception, Sales, Real Estate, etc) or when gaining entry

to specific training courses and areas of study (Medicine, Psychology, Social Work,

Occupational Therapy etc.).

Support from parents focused on outlining the benefit for their children and, in

particular, by providing reassurance with regard to management of risks. For example it

was pointed out that if other students disclosed information indicating intentions of self-

harm, harm to others, issues with respect to staff or information that could have potential

to expose a criminal offence, then policies with regard to managing such risks had been

devised by school staff and the researcher that were consistent with current school

policies. In this project it was agreed that the school counsellor would play a significant

70

role by administering the assessments, moderating some focus groups, and assisting with

the analysis of data from focus group discussions.

Participant Recruitment

To promote the concept of youth empowerment and involvement, the recruitment

process was designed so that information was distributed and advertised in a school

publication rather than direct solicitation of students (Appendix A). To minimise the risk

that the potential participants would react negatively to the researcher's initial contact, the

school counsellor and pastor were available to discuss the project with students’

interested in participating in the research project.

The potential participants were given an information package so that they could

decide whether or not they were interested in participating and then invited to contact the

researcher (Appendix B.). Voluntary and informed consent to participate in the program

and the focus groups was obtained from all participants before research was conducted.

Because the project involved the participation of minors, parental/guardian consent was

obtained for all participants involved in the research.

The Current Project

The current research aimed to discover those conversational skills used by

adolescents in a helping relationship with their peers and to discover which specific micro

counselling skills are useful and easy for adolescents to use. The project focused on

developing an adolescent peer counsellor training program model which integrates

specific adolescent-friendly counselling microskills with typical adolescent

conversational and helping behaviours. Additionally how the program affects the young

person being trained and the community in which the training and practice occurs was

examined.

An outline of the mixed method design with the research divided across three

studies is presented in Table 4.1.

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Table 4.1

Outline of Mixed Method Design Study Subjects Measures Purpose Content

Study 1 Volunteer

students from

Grades 8, 9,

10, & 11

relating in a

peer

environment

Focus Group

discussions

To identify conversational

skills and relational

behaviours used by

adolescents in peer helping

relationships and to select

participants for training.

Questions about helping

experiences.

(Appendix C)

Self-selected

students from

focus group

discussions

Questionnaires,

group

discussions or

individual

interviews and

researcher

reflections.

To identify which

counselling skills and/or

approaches appeal to young

people and which skills

young people can easily use.

All self-selected students from

focus groups were trained in

issues related to understanding

and respecting difference,

confidentiality and referral,

and to develop a code of

ethics. Students formed four

subgroups. Each group was

trained in a different set of

counselling microskills

selected from:

Client centred Therapy

(facilitative counselling skills,

Group A)

Reality Therapy (problem

solving skills, Group B)

Solution Focused Therapy

(solution focussed skills,

Group C) and Recognition and

enhancement of typical

adolescent helping behaviours

(Group D).

72

Study Subjects Measures Purpose Content

Study 2 Participants

from Study 1

Focus Groups,

open-ended

surveys, and

researcher

reflections.

To discover how an

adolescent-friendly peer

counsellor training program,

affects the participants’

experience of helping (in

particular with regard to

skill implementation, role

attribution and status

differences)

Peer counsellors from Groups A,

B, C and D merge to become

one group. Using an intervention

research approach, a model of

training developed. The training

model combined typical

adolescent helping behaviours

with preferred counselling

microskills identified in Study 1

and selected by participants

Participants

from Study 1

The Self Report

Emotional

Competence

Questionnaire

(Schutte et al.,

1998), The

Adolescent

Coping Scale

(Frydenberg &

Lewis, 1993),

The Piers-Harris

Children’s Self-

concept Scale

(Piers et al.,

1984),

A School

Climate Survey

(developed by

researcher)

To discover whether the

developed adolescent-

friendly peer counsellor

training program changes

peer counsellors’

perceptions of their

emotional competence, the

way peer counsellors feel

about themselves, their

choice of coping strategies,

and their perceptions of

school climate.

Quantitative measures were

administered prior to subgroup

training in Study 1, again

immediately following the

training, at three months

following training and finally at

six months following training.

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Study Subjects Measures Purpose Content

Study 3 Grades 9, 10,

11 & 12

students

relating in a

peer

environment

The Adolescent

Coping Scale

(Frydenberg &

Lewis, 1993),

The Piers-Harris

Children’s Self-

concept Scale

(Piers et al.,

1984),

A School

Climate survey

(developed by

researcher)

To discover how middle and

senior school students feel

about themselves, and how

their coping strategies and

perception of the current

school climate change as a

result of interacting with

peer counsellors trained

using the adolescent-

friendly peer counsellor

training model.

Quantitative measures were

administered prior to subgroup

training in Study 1 and again

three months following the

intervention.

Study 1

In Study 1, the conversational skills and relational behaviours used by adolescents

in a helping relationship were identified using focus group discussions. The focus group

discussions were examined qualitatively to identify the skills and behaviours valued by

young people. In particular, those skills which facilitate perceived self-disclosure between

adolescents and contribute to perceived equality in the helping relationship were

identified. The counselling and peer helper literature and research, plus the findings from

these focus group discussions informed the selection of specific counselling microskills

that matched and fit with the typical behaviours identified in the discussion groups so that

training in those specific counselling microskills could be trialled.

Students self-selected from the focus groups and were trained in recognising

factors related to understanding and respecting difference, confidentiality and referral and

in establishing a code of ethics. The same students were then divided into subgroups and

training in counselling microskills was trialled in four subgroups with each subgroup

being trained in a separate and different set of specific counselling microskills.

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Training in Subgroup A focused on reflective listening skills, the use of minimal

responses, reflection of feeling and content and summarising and clarifying responses.

Participants in Subgroup B were trained in Reality Therapy counselling skills where the

training focused on learning a five-step problem solving process of identifying options

and choices, considering consequences and selecting and trying out new behaviours.

Training in Subgroup C, Solution Focused counselling skills, focused on the use of

questions in a step-by-step process to discover a solution to a problem. In particular the

training focussed on open and closed questions, exception oriented questions,

externalising questions and questions to address future options. Participants in Subgroup

D were trained in recognition, and enhancement of typical adolescent helping skills and

behaviours.

Subgroup training identified the specific counselling skills and/or approaches

which appealed to young people and the skills that young people could easily use. In

Study 1, the training was examined qualitatively and quantitatively using focus group

discussions, researcher reflections and questionnaires (detailed later in this chapter).

Findings from Study 1 guided the development of a peer counsellor training program for

Study 2.

Study 2

The peer counsellor training program developed in Study 2 combined typical

adolescent helping behaviours with preferred counselling microskills selected by

participants in Study 1. The content of the program was guided by intervention research

literature and aimed to develop a useful model for training adolescents as peer

counsellors. Evaluating the impact of the training program on peer counsellors’ helping

experiences and perceptions of themselves as counsellors following training was

conducted in Study 2, longitudinally over six months.

75

Research questions in Study 2 were examined qualitatively and quantitatively

using open-ended surveys, focus group discussions, researcher reflections and

standardised measures. This study aimed to discover how the training program affected

the peer counsellors’ experience of helping and their perception of themselves as peer

counsellors. Qualitative measures were used with trained peer counsellors immediately

post-intervention, at three months and then six months post-intervention to discover how

a new ‘adolescent-friendly’ peer counsellor training program affected their experience as

peer counsellors, in particular with regard to skill implementation, role attribution and

status difference. Skill Implementation was defined by those experiences described by

peer counsellors when using counselling skills in a helping conversation. Role attribution

was defined as a function assumed by peer counsellors in a particular situation and, from

a recipient’s perspective, role attribution was defined as a feature expected of peer

counsellors in a particular situation. Status was defined as the peer counsellors’ relative

social, proficient or other position or standing which was perceived to contribute to

similarities with, or differences from, their peers.

Quantitative measures were used with trained peer counsellors to discover how a

new ‘adolescent-friendly’ peer counsellor training program, influenced their perceptions

of emotional competence, self-concept, coping strategies and their perceptions of the

current school climate. Measures were administered prior to subgroup training in Study 1,

immediately post-intervention in Study 2, again at three months and six months post-

intervention.

Study 3

Study 3 evaluated the impact of the peer counsellor training longitudinally on the

wider school community. Study 3 examined changes in the self-concept, coping strategies

and perceptions of school climate of middle and senior school students from grades 9, 10,

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11 and 12 as a result of the intervention and interaction between trained peer counsellors

and themselves in the wider school community. These changes were examined

quantitatively. Study 3 administered quantitative measures prior to subgroup training in

Study 1 and at three months post-intervention. Table 4.2. Illustrates a timeline which

identifies the significant project milestones and the project's status at points in time.

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Table 4.2

Timeline identifying Project Milestones

Month Study Research Milestones

May - 2003 Study 1

Study 2

Study 3

Focus group discussions. Audiotapes from focus groups transcribed and

analysed. Findings identified specific adolescent conversational skills and

relational behaviours. Selection of peer counsellors from focus groups. Training

in understanding and respecting difference, confidentiality and referral and

establishing a code of ethics.

All pre-intervention surveys completed with peer counsellors before being

divided into subgroups (T1).

All pre-intervention surveys completed with Grades 9, 10, 11 & 12 students (T1).

June/July Study 1 Peer counsellors divided into four subgroups and each group trained in a different

set of skills; facilitative counselling skills, problem-solving skills, solution

focussed skills and enhancement of adolescents helping behaviours completed.

Subgroup training examined qualitatively and quantitatively using, focus group

discussions, questionnaires and researcher reflections. Subgroup training analysed

and counselling microskills preferred by peer counsellors identified.

August/Sept/Oct. Study 2 Findings from Study 1, contribute to the outline of an adolescent-friendly peer

counsellor training program intervention. A training program, guided by an

intervention research framework, was developed and conducted over 12-weeks.

Nov Study 2 Immediate post-intervention

The adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program intervention was

examined with peer counsellors qualitatively, using focus group discussions,

open-ended surveys, and researcher reflections. Data analysed

(T2) Post-intervention standardised surveys administered.

March - 2004 Study 2

Study 3

Three month follow-up

The adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program intervention was

examined with peer counsellors qualitatively, using focus group discussion, open-

ended surveys and researcher reflections. Data analysed

(T3) Post-intervention standardised surveys administered.

(T3) Post-intervention surveys administered with wider school community of

Grades 9, 10, 11 & 12 students.

June Study 2

Six month follow-up

The adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program intervention examined

qualitatively with peer counsellors using focus group discussion, open-ended

surveys, and researcher reflections. Data analysed

(T4). Post-intervention standardised surveys administered.

78

Measures

Qualitative Measures

Focus Groups. When discussing the merits of focus groups, Morgan (1997) points

out that they can be used as a tool in the design of an intervention and to understand

experiences and responses of program participants. Additionally, Morgan mentions that

focus groups can be used, together with other sources of data to help generate hypotheses,

and that they are useful as an aid when constructing surveys. When constructing surveys

focus groups help to collect information which contribute to the formation of domains

that need to be examined, determining the dimensions that make up the domains or

providing item wordings that effectively convey the researcher’s intent to the survey

respondents. Finally, Morgan indicates that focus groups are useful for preliminary or

exploratory research, and for follow-up data collection pursuing "exploratory" aspects of

the analysis

Focus groups were used as a self-contained method in Study 1 where they served

as the principal source of data. They were also used as a supplementary source of data in

Study 2. In this project, focus groups were used as part of the mixed method design that

combined two or more means of gathering data in which no one primary method

determined the use of the others. In Study 2, focus groups added to the data gathered

through other qualitative methods which included open-ended surveys, and researcher

reflections. The goal was to use each method so that it contributed something unique to

the understanding of the phenomenon under study.

Recommendations with regard to focus group composition stress the importance

of homogeneity. Homogeneity allows for more free-flowing conversations among

participants within the group (Morgan, 1997). Decisions regarding advantages and

disadvantages in segmented versus homogenous groups are important. Among the most

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common background variables that are considered when deciding to run homogenous

versus segmented groups with adolescents are sex and age. For example, in their study

investigating adolescents’ perceptions of their peers’ prosocial behaviours, Bergin, et al.

(2003) preferred to use focus groups segregated by gender. They believed that gender

composition affects communication in an adolescent group with boys exhibiting a more

domineering and restricting interaction style that inhibits others. They described girls as

exhibiting a more collaborative interactional style that enables others to express

agreement. They believed that these differences might result in girls having less influence

and less opportunity to talk in mixed groups. However the age range of their participant

sample might account for gender differences in their study. Participants were aged

between 11 and 13 years old, an age range where same-sex peer groups provide markedly

different socialisation experiences (Maccoby, 1990, 1998) because gender segregation is

still prevalent in this age group (Richards, Crowe, Larsson, & Swarr, 1998). Additionally,

according to a study by Furman and Buhrmester (1992), where they compared findings

from their study, investigating age and sex differences in perceptions of personal

relationships with other research (Furman & Robbins, 1985; Gavin & Furman, 1989), the

importance of distinguishing between the functions served by friendships and peer groups

and age and sex differences was highlighted. The findings of Maccoby (1990, 1998),

Richards et al., (1998) and Furman and Buhrmester (1992), mitigate the importance of

gender segregation in focus groups where the age of participants is mixed. Finally,

Morgan (1997) suggests that decisions with regard to group composition should also rely

on the basic criterion of whether a particular group of participants can comfortably

discuss the topic in ways that will be useful to the researcher. In the current project

varied gender focus groups in Study 1 were used (three same gender and five mixed

gender) with mixed age. It is believed that the topic of discussion which focused

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specifically on the functional relationships of adolescents’ helping behaviours with their

peers was a topic that could comfortably be discussed by a group of young people with

mixed age and gender.

The degree to which each participant can contribute to the group is a major factor

in decisions about group size. Focus group projects most often have six to ten participants

per group and have a total of three to five groups per project (Morgan, 1997). In Study 1

of the current project, eight focus group discussion sessions were conducted with an

average of six to seven participants in each group. Because participants volunteered for

the project they were expected to have high levels of interest and involvement with the

topic of peer helping. With such high interest it was important to keep group size small so

that an active discussion could occur and discussions could be more easily managed. This

is consistent with other studies using focus groups with adolescents. For example Bergin

et al. (2003) conducted eight focus groups each with six participants and Smith et al.

(2003) conducted 11 focus groups each with six to seven participants.

The value of using focus groups in this project rather than observation is that

social psychological topics such as beliefs, attitudes and values of peer helping behaviour

are difficult to observe, not because they are less important but, because they are less well

suited to observation. Additionally in this study the school setting, where students are

encouraged to discuss many topics of interest, paralleled the social setting of the focus

group. In fact both the educational process in high schools and the social peer group

behaviour of adolescents fits well with the use of focus group discussions.

Where information regarding young peoples’ perceptions about a specific

behaviour such as helping is required, focus groups provide the researcher with the

opportunity to guide the discussion around specific parameters. Similarly, where

information regarding young peoples’ perceptions about the broader issue of learning

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helping behaviours is required, then the free-flowing discussion, which is the original

intent of the focus group, can be fostered.

According to Morgan (1997), focus groups are advantageous for topics that are

either habit-ridden or not thought out in detail. For some young people in the adolescent

age group, prosocial behaviour occurs embedded in their peer friendship behaviour. It is

unlikely that they would have thought very much about what it is that they do when they

take part in conversational helping behaviour or how they do it. In the current study it

was thought that the focus group discussion was likely to provide an opportunity for

group members to prompt each other.

Standardisation and researcher involvement in focus groups determine how

structured the group discussion will be. Standardisation refers to whether the same

questions are asked of every group and researcher involvement refers to the management

of the group dynamics and the extent to which the researcher controls the discussion or

allows free participation. In Study 1 a compromise between more structured and less

structured approaches, called the “funnel” approach (Morgan, 1997), was used. The

"funnel" strategy allows the group to begin with a less structured approach that

emphasises free discussion and moves toward a more structured discussion of specific

questions. Specific questions were used in focus group discussions in Study 1 to ensure

that all the groups discussed the issues in a relatively comparable way and to aid analysis

by ensuring consistent comparisons across all the groups (Appendix C). The goal of

focus group discussions in Study 1 was to identify information which would guide the

development of Study 2.

Analysis of Focus Groups. The process of analysing the focus groups used in both

Study 1 and 2 in this project followed Krueger’s (1998) method of focus group analysis.

The principal means of capturing observations in focus groups is through audio taping

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then transcribing while extracting descriptions. Most commonly, numerical coding is used

to identify type of description, the number of times a particular description was

mentioned, and whether the description was provided by an individual or was a group

effort. However, Krueger presented a phenomenological methodology to identify and

organise themes without numerical coding. Krueger's (1998) ‘content analysis continuum

model’ suggests that verbatim transcripts from audiotapes can be examined to extract

words, concepts, and descriptions and combined so that those that are conceptually

similar are grouped together. Interpreting which topics should receive the most emphasis

from the focus group transcripts is usually decided by how many groups mentioned the

topic, how many people within each of the groups mentioned the topic and how much

energy and enthusiasm the topic generated among the participants. These three factors

are known as "group-to-group validation". For any specific topic, group-to-group

validation means that whenever a topic comes up, it generates a consistent level of energy

among participants across all the groups. Themes resulting from descriptions reflecting

the range and diversity of comments in the group can also be identified. Categories can

then be created that are conceptually obvious with regard to the research interest.

In the current project verbatim transcripts from the focus group discussions

conducted in Studies 1 and 2 were analysed using Krueger's (1998) content analysis

methodology. The researcher, school counsellor and research assistant systematically

examined each transcript for the presence, meanings and relationships of words and

concepts that were descriptive or interpretive of helping experiences or training.

Additionally, inferences were made about the messages within the texts with regard to the

phenomena of helping and being helped. The number of times each helping experience

description or issue with regard to training was mentioned by an individual in each group

was recorded and recordings included supporting statements made by other participants in

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the group that referred to the same description or were considered an elaboration of the

original statement. Selecting which descriptions should receive consideration from the

focus group transcripts was decided by group-to-group validation (Krueger, 1998).

In Study 1, responses from focus group discussions describing the way young

people help each other were analysed using Krueger’s (1998) content analysis

methodology. Categories resulting from descriptions reflecting the phenomenon of

helping and being helped were identified. In Study 2, responses from focus group

discussions describing the peer counsellors’ experience of training and helping

experiences were combined with data collected from open-ended surveys and was

organised into categories. Data was further reduced and organised into themes then

recorded under headings to answer the research question.

Researcher Reflections. There is a valid place in a qualitative study for openly

recognising the subjectivity of the researcher in the collection, interpretation and analysis

of the data and for the more intimate interaction that may occur between the researcher

and the participants in the study (Lippi, 2001; Schutz, 1994; Webb, 1989). In this project,

it was assumed that the researcher could contribute data as well as analysis and that this

would make the work richer. Because the researcher’s interest in the current project

emerged as a result of experience and practice as a counsellor, it was strongly believed

that the researcher could draw on a wealth of relevant data from that personal experience.

To exclude the researcher’s contribution from the research would have ignored the

researcher’s role in data gathering, selection, analysis and theory generation as a

practitioner. It was decided that this data should be considered a part of the research.

Cunningham’s (1988) contextual locating approach, in which the researcher is at the

centre of the research, lends support for this decision.

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Cunningham’s (1988) contextual locating method describes a process by which

one "feeds into and off the context within which one operates" (p. 166). Contextual

locating facilitates the linking and weaving together of insight developed in a number of

different ways. Contextual locating enables the researcher to explore the experience of

others and to directly relate it to their own experience in a systematic way. It can be

argued that contextual locating is about discerning themes in the data (Tesch, 1995) and

can, therefore, be situated quite comfortably next to phenomenology.

The utilisation of an ethnographic framework gives the researcher access to the

context in which the phenomena is occurring, open dialogue with those actively engaged

in the phenomena, and use of the researcher’s understanding of the study topic.

Uncovering meaning in data requires consideration of the context in which the

phenomena is occurring. The ethnographic framework supporting this project

acknowledges the use of the researcher as a data-gathering tool (Glaser & Strauss, 1966;

Wilde, 1992). The researcher has an opportunity to view the research findings through a

personal and professional theoretical lens rather than being "severed" from the

participants’ original intentions. To achieve these functions in this project the researcher

assumed the role as moderator of focus group discussions, supervisor and program

trainer. These roles allowed the researcher to be an interactive part of the intervention

research process, both reflexive and reflective in nature, offering exciting possibilities for

the researcher as part of the study.

Analysis of researcher reflections. The researcher’s reflections and field notes

were recorded in a journal and were used to reflect upon data gathered from training

sessions, focus group discussions, and open-ended surveys. In this project, it was assumed

that the researcher could contribute data as well as analysis by viewing the research

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findings through a personal and professional theoretical lens and then linking and

weaving together insights developed in a number of different ways.

Open-ended surveys. Open-ended surveys can be used to summarise participants’

views at the end of an exercise or session or, following a period of time where specific

activity has taken place (Morgan, 1997). Questions are open and can specifically target

the respondents’ experience of the recent events or exercise. In Study 2 of the current

project, peer counsellors were given the opportunity both during and after the training

program to use open-ended surveys to allow them to identify and then explain in their

own words their experiences. Open-ended surveys can also be used as a stimulus for

discussion (Morgan, 1997). The questions used are open, and act as prompts to invite

respondents to share their perceptions, thoughts, values and beliefs with others.

The questions included in open-ended surveys are generally worded so that

responses that describe emotional experiences as well as reflective thoughts about the

experience can be generated. Open-ended surveys enable the respondent to describe their

emotional responses and what they liked and disliked about their experience in their own

words. Often the questions are worded so that the respondent’s awareness is raised with

regard to interactions which made the experience comfortable or uncomfortable and to

enable the respondent to compare particular experiences with others. Open-ended surveys

can be used to provide some consistency with regard to the discussions in focus groups

and individual interviews without limiting responses to closed or specific information. An

example of an open-ended survey used in Study 2 can be found in Appendix J.

Analysis of Open-ended surveys. In Study 2 data from open-ended surveys was

examined using emergent theme analysis (Thomson & Gurney, 2003). Thomson and

Gurney used emergent theme analysis of qualitative interview data in combination with

quantitative survey data when investigating the role of religion in the lives of immigrant

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youth. The young people’s responses were reflected in themes. In the current project,

categories resulting from descriptions reflecting the phenomenon of helping and being

helped were identified. Both the researcher, school counsellor and research assistant

placed helping descriptions into categories before meeting to make comparisons. There

was strong agreement between them, after discussion, that determined the final categories

by combining categories that were conceptually similar. Data was further reduced and

organised into themes then recorded under the headings of skill implementation, role

attribution and status in order to answer the research question.

Quantitative measures

Questionnaires. Questionnaires provide an additional method for capturing

feedback from participants. They can be used in conjunction with each other and with

other techniques such as focus groups and open-ended surveys (Morgan, 1997). Different

types of questions can be used in questionnaires. For example, questions may be open or

closed or be worded to elicit responses which can be ranked or rated. Because the

questions are predetermined, results can be more easily analysed than the output of a

discussion.

Questionnaires were used in Study 1 and asked questions that invited participants

to identify and rate on a five point Likert scale the ease and usefulness of the specific

counselling microskills they had learned in subgroup training. (See Appendix E)

Analysis of Questionnaires. Answers to questionnaires in Study 1 were rated on a

five point Likert scale measuring the ease and usefulness of each specific counselling

microskill. Ease of use was rated as very difficult, difficult, OK, easy, or very easy. The

subject’s perception of how useful each skill was in helping the other person to talk and

feel comfortable was rated very unhelpful, unhelpful, OK, useful, or very useful. Results

from the questionnaires were analysed using SPSS 11.0 to describe the data descriptively

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as frequency distributions and to report the ease of use and usefulness for each of the

counselling microskills within each subgroup.

The Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire. Emotional competence has

generally been defined as the ability to identify and describe emotions, the ability to

understand emotions, and the ability to manage emotions in an effective and non

defensive manner (Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi & Roberts, 2001; Ciarrochi, Forgas & Mayer,

2001). Bergin, et al (2003), in their study of prosocial behaviours of young adolescents,

discovered from adolescent focus groups several prosocial behaviours that fit well with

the general description of emotional competence. Several of the categories they identified

were conceptually related in that they involve emotional regulation. That is, prosocial

young adolescents are perceived by their peers as being exemplary emotional regulators

both for themselves and for their peers. These young people are described as being able

to contain their own negative emotions and display positive emotions. They also helped

to regulate the emotional state of others and they actively helped peers contain their

negative emotional states. As young people leave middle childhood they increasingly

look toward peers for emotional regulation (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). Other studies

in prosocial research focus on the importance of the development of empathy in child and

adolescent relationships (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Fabes, Eisenberg, & Miller, 1990;

Fabes, Eisenberg, Karbon, Bernzweig, Speer, & Carlo, 1994). Additionally, Eisenberg

and his colleagues’ work indicates that low levels of emotional negativity and the ability

to regulate the self are associated with prosocial behaviour. In their study examining the

link between emotional competence and interpersonal relations in adults, Schutte et al.

(2001) discovered that participants with high scores for emotional competence had higher

scores for empathic perspective taking and self-monitoring in social situations.

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Additionally, participants with higher scores for emotional competence displayed more

co-operative responses toward partners and close and affectionate relationships.

Both theory and the previous research suggest a link between emotional

competence and high self esteem (Schutte, et al., 2002). Emotional competence has also

been found to be predictive of leadership in children and moderate adverse effects of life

events in a study exploring the relationship between life events and leadership in children

(Bertges, 2002).

Emotional competence can be reliably and validly measured in adolescents using

the Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire (Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty,

Cooper, Golden, & Dornheim, 1998). In their study Ciarrochi, Chan, and Bajgar (2000)

discovered that emotional competence was higher for females than males, and was

positively associated with skill at identifying emotional expressions, amounts of social

support, extent of satisfaction with social support, and mood management behaviour.

These relationships remained even after controlling for two constructs that potentially

overlap with emotional competence, namely self-esteem and trait anxiety.

In this project the Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire (Schutte, et

al., 1998) was used in Study 2 to measure changes in the way peer counsellors report their

emotional intelligence as a result of the peer counsellor training. Emotional intelligence

is best viewed as an information processing set of skills involving perception,

understanding, and management of emotional behaviour (Berkeley, Storino & Saarni,

2003). Saarni (1990) describes emotional competence as the demonstration of self-

efficacy in social transactions. The Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire is

considered to be a useful measure in the current project because when counselling

microskills are used the skills of emotional intelligence are operationalised and reflect the

individual’s emotional competence or self-efficacy in social transactions. Results from

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The Self Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire reveal how peer counsellors judge

themselves with regard to using their emotional intelligence to create and maintain

helping relationships, which will enhance their peers’ well being and also enable the peer

counsellors themselves to cope with their own well-being at the same time.

The Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire comprises 33 self-

referencing statements and requires subjects to rate the extent to which they agree or

disagree with each statement on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly

agree). Items 5, 28 and 33 are negatively worded and therefore reverse scored before

analysis. Consequently a high score indicates a positive perception of emotional

intelligence. Participants are encouraged to give their honest responses by ticking the box

that best describes their attitude.

The measure has been shown to have adequate test-retest (r = 0.78) reliability

(Schutte et al., 1998). Additionally the measure has been shown to relate to observed

ratings of emotional competence (Schutte & Malouff, 2001). Initial factor analytic studies

established that all the items of the Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire load

significantly on a single factor (Schutte et al., 1998). Internal consistency of 0.84 for the

Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire was determined in a study by Ciarrochi,

Chan and Bajgar (2000) after measuring emotional intelligence in 135 male and female

adolescents aged 13 to 15 years. More recent research has established that the Self-report

Emotional Competence Questionnaire can be further broken down into two or more

factors (Ciarrochi, Chan & Bajgar, 2001; Ciarrochi, Deane & Anderson, 2002; Petrides &

Furnham, 2000). However, these studies caution the stability of these factors and

recommend confirmatory factor analysis to establish internal consistency of the subscales.

A confirmatory factor analysis was not conducted in the current project, as it was thought

that the sample size (n = 75) was not sufficiently large to produce reliable results. As a

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consequence, the total Emotional Competence mean scores were used to measure changes

in subjects’ emotional competence over time.

Analysis of the Self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire. A repeated

measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the data from the Self-report

Emotional Competence Questionnaire to determine whether there were significant

differences in the total scores for peer counsellors over time.

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (Piers, Harris, & Herzberg 1984).

The term self-concept refers to a person's self-perceptions in relation to important aspects

of life. According to Piers (1984), although shaped by biological and cultural factors,

these perceptions are formed primarily through the interaction of the individual with the

environment and by the attitudes and behaviours of others. The author notes that these

perceptions give rise to self-evaluative attitudes and feelings which have important

organising functions and which also help to motivate behaviour. Over time, an

individual’s self-concept may change in response to environmental or developmental

changes, or as a result of changes in priorities or values. Because a peer counsellor

program in a high school changes the environment in which the young person is

interacting with others, a self-concept measure is viewed as an appropriate measure in this

project. Additionally, the training of peer counsellors and the role of peer counselling is

known to influence self-concept of peer helpers positively (Abu-Rasain & Williams,

1999; Price & Jones, 2001; Varenhorst, 1992). In this project, which uses an alternative

training model from traditional peer counsellor training models, the impact on self-

concept of both peer counsellors and students in the wider student community will

provide useful data with regard to the efficacy of the training model.

The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (Piers et al., 1984) was used in

Study 2 pre- and post-training to measure changes in self-concept of peer counsellors and

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in Study 3 to measure changes in self-concept of students in the wider student

community. The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale was developed as a research

instrument to provide a quantitative, self-report measure of a young person’s self-concept.

Self-concept as measured by this instrument appears to be relatively stable (Piers, 1984)

however, Piers (1984) acknowledges that the young person’s reference group also affects

self-concept.

This 80 item self-report questionnaire is designed to assess how children and

adolescents feel about themselves. Subjects complete the scale by responding ‘yes’ or

‘no’ to the test statements. It has six subscales:

1. Behaviour (16 items); responses in this subscale indicate admission or denial of

problematic behaviour and indicate the degree to which the respondent assumes

responsibility for these problems (e.g., "I am well behaved in school," "I am

obedient at home");

2. Intellectual and school status (17 items); responses in this subscale indicate the

respondent’s assessment of abilities with respect to intellectual and academic

tasks, and general satisfaction with expectations (e.g., "I am smart," "I am an

important member of my class");

3. Physical appearance and attributes (13 items); responses in this subscale indicate

the respondent’s attitudes regarding their own physical characteristics (e.g., "my

looks bother me," "I have pleasant face");

4. Anxiety (14 items); high scores in this subscale indicate the respondent’s freedom

from anxiety (e.g., "I feel left out of things," and "I am often afraid", are both

reverse scored);

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5. Popularity (12 items); responses in this subscale indicate the respondent’s self-

report of their popularity with classmates (e.g., "I have many friends," "my

classmates in school think I have good ideas "); and

6. Happiness and satisfaction (10 items); responses in this subscale indicate the

respondent’s self-report of their happiness and the ease with which they get along

and are satisfied with life (e.g., "I am cheerful," "I am a good person").

The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale assesses self-concept in

individuals seven to 18 years of age and has been used in several studies investigating

coping and self-concept (Burroughs, Wagner, & Johnson 1997; Cohen, Kershner, &

Wehrspann, 1985; Huss, 1997; Stevens & Pihl, 1982; Tatum, 2001; Thompson, 1997),

changes in adolescents’ self-concept as it relates to relationships (Hopkins, 1999), and

social support, resilience and self-concept in adolescents (Carbonell, Reinherz, &

Giaconia, 1998).

The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale appears to be a highly reliable

instrument and the reliability figures compare favourably with other measures used to

assess personality traits in children and adolescents (Marsh, Smith, Barnes, & Butler,

1983). For example Yonker, Blixt and Dinero’s (1974) correlations of .42 and .40 equal

or exceed many of the correlations reported by Wiley (1974) between the Bills Index of

Adjustment and Values, and other self-concept scores. Studies of normal students in the

general population have reported stability and test-retest reliabilities. Platten and Williams

(1979, 1981) conducted two studies of the scales’ factorial stability, and reported test-

retest reliabilities. The scale was administered to white, black, and Mexican-American

students in grades 4, 5, and 6. The investigators reported reliability coefficients of .65

and .75. In a subsequent study by Shavelson and Bolus (1982), involving a test-retest

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interval of five months, the researchers obtained a reliability coefficient of .81 for a group

of white, seventh and eighth grade students.

Analysis of Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale. In the current project,

mean scores for each of the subscales were used to measure changes in subjects’ self-

concept. In Study 2 a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed

on the data from the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale to determine whether

there were significant differences in subscale scores for peer counsellors over time.

Similarly, in Study 3 a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed

on the data from the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale to determine whether

there were significant differences in subscale scores for non-peer counsellor students from

grade’s 9, 10, and 11 over time.

Adolescent Coping Scale. Adolescent coping strategies have been used to study and

identify the behaviours adolescents find useful in managing problem or difficult

situations. It has been found that adolescents who do not cope effectively are at risk of

developing mental and physical health problems (Dixon, Heppner, & Anderson, 1991;

Waters, 1992). Adolescent social support systems are a positive influence on their health

and adolescents lacking a good social support system tend to be less healthy than

adolescents with social support (Mahon, Yarcheski, & Yarcheski, 1993). It has also been

suggested that social support and self-concept are closely connected (Cohen, 1988;

Dielman, Shope, & Butchart, 1990). Specific strategies for coping with day-to-day

stresses have been found to be significantly related to psychological adjustments. In a

study by Steward (1997) examining the influence of academic performance and

adolescents use of different coping strategies, it was found that students who had higher

GPAs tended to use social support as a means of solving problems, minimise problems by

the use of humour and used relaxation activities. Assessment of coping strategies, self-

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esteem and the school environment have been used together in studies to examine the

contribution to and function of general risk factors and protective factors for mental

health disorders with adolescents (Steinhausen & Metzke, 2001), the individuation

process in adolescents (Lohman, 2000), and school persistence (May & Copeland, 1998).

Frydenberg (1997) suggests that there are no inherently right or wrong coping

strategies but that it is important that adolescents learn to judge circumstances as being

within their control and that they expand their repertoire to use more of the available

strategies in the appropriate context.

The Adolescent Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993) can be used as a

research instrument to establish the ways in which a population of students cope in

different contexts. The Adolescent Coping Scale is an 80-item checklist that identifies 18

coping strategies commonly used by adolescents. The scale consists of 79 questions

which elicit ratings of an individual's use of the 18 coping strategies, plus a final open-

ended question. The 79 structured items are rated by the respondent using a five-point

Likert scale. The instrument has been developed for use with young people in the age

group 12 to 18 years and comprises both a Specific Form and General Form. The

Specific Form enables measurement of responses to a particular self-nominated concern.

Frydenberg and Lewis (1993) point out that it is clear that an individual's choice of

coping strategies is, to a large extent, consistent regardless of the nature of the concern.

They therefore also include a General Form which addresses how an individual copes

with concerns in general. In this project the General Form was used. The General Form

contains the same items as in the Specific Form the only difference between the forms is

in the wording of the instructions.

The items on the Adolescent Coping Scale comprise 18 different scales, each

containing between three and five items, and each reflecting a different coping response.

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The 18 scales of the Adolescent Coping Scale have labels which reflect the construct

inherent in the items. They are recorded in Figure 4.1 along with an exemplar which

represents the most generic of the items on each respective scale.

1 SEEK SOCIAL SUPPORT is represented by items that indicate an inclination to share

the problem with others and enlist support in its management, e.g., talk to other

people to help me sort it out

2 FOCUS ON SOLVING THE PROBLEM is a problem-focused strategy that tackles the

problem systematically by learning about it and takes into account different points of

view or options, e.g., work at solving the problem to the best of my ability

3 WORK HARD AND ACHIEVE is a strategy describing commitment, ambition (achieve

well) and industry, e.g., work hard

4 WORRY is characterised by items that indicate a concern about the future in general

terms or more specifically concerned with happiness in the future, e.g., worry about

what is happening

5 INVEST IN CLOSE FRIENDS is about engaging in a particular intimate relationship,

e.g., spend more time with boy/girl friend

6 SEEK TO BELONG indicates a caring and concern for one's relationship with others

in general and more specifically concern with what others think, e.g., improve my

relationship with others

7 WISHFUL THINKING is characterised by items based on hope and anticipation of a

positive outcome, e.g., hope for the best

8 SOCIAL ACTION is about letting others know what is of concern and enlisting support

by writing petitions or organising an activity such as a rally or a meeting, e.g., join with

people who have the same concern

9 TENSION REDUCTION is characterised by items that reflect an attempt to make

oneself feel better by releasing tension, e.g., make myself feel better by taking

alcohol, cigarettes or other drugs

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10 NOT COPE consists of items that reflect the individual's inability to deal with the

problem and the development of psychosomatic symptoms, e.g., I have no way of

dealing with the situation

11 IGNORE THE PROBLEM is characterised by items that reflect a conscious blocking

out of the problem and resignation coupled with an acceptance that there is no way of

dealing with it, e.g., ignore the problem

12 SELF-BLAME indicates that an individual sues themselves as responsible for the

concern or worry, e.g., accept that I am responsible for the problem

13 KEEP TO SELF is characterised by items that reflect the individuals withdrawal from

others and wish to keep others from knowing about concerns, e.g., keep my feelings

to myself

14 SEEK SPIRITUAL SUPPORT is characterised by items that reflect prayer and belief

in the assistance of a spiritual leader or Lord, e.g., pray for help and guidance so that

everything will be all right

15 FOCUS ON THE POSITIVE is represented by items that indicate a positive and

cheerful outlook on the current situation. This includes seeing the "bright side" of

circumstances and seeing oneself is fortunate, e.g., look on the bright side of things

and think of all that is good

16 SEEK PROFESSIONAL HELP denotes the use of a professional adviser, such as a

teacher or counsellor, e.g., discuss the problem with qualified people

17 SEEK RELAXING DIVERSIONS is about relaxation in general rather than about

sport. It is characterised by items that describe leisure activities such as reading and

painting, e.g., find a way to relax, for example, listen to music, read a book, play a

musical instrument, watch TV

18 PHYSICAL RECREATION is characterised by items that relate to playing sport and

keeping fit, e.g., keep fit and healthy

Figure 4.1. The conceptual areas of coping

To record their responses, subjects indicate if the coping behaviour described was

used "a great deal", "often", "sometimes", "very little" or "doesn't apply or don't use it"

(no usage), by circling the numbers 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 respectively. All subscales are reliable

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with alphas ranging from .64 to .87 (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993). Item reliability was

determined by administering the questionnaire twice over a 14 day interval. Test, re-test

correlations (Pearson's product-moment) were computed. The criteria for response

stability were satisfied. For item validity it was shown that the 18 scales have construct

validity by examining factor analyses which supported the existence of targeted

dimensions. All scales having normal distributions covering the range of raw scores

showed scale reliability. Responses to items within scales have sufficient internal

consistency in all scales to justify the use of the separate scales (Frydenberg & Lewis,

1993).

The Adolescent Coping Scale can be scored on three factors by grouping the 18

subscales into three coping styles (Smith, Frydenberg, & Poole, 2003) which have been

called Solving the Problem, Reference to Others and Non-Productive Coping. Scoring on

these factors is adjusted so that the three factors can be directly compared with each other

in relation to the frequency of use of the styles. Higher scores indicate that the style of

coping is used a great deal whereas low scores indicate that the style of coping is not used

at all. In the current project, to interpret the degree of usage of different coping styles,

scale scores were grouped then adjusted according to the three coping styles namely;

Solving the Problem, Reference to Others and Non-Productive Coping.

1. Solving the Problem (35 items); Solving the Problem represents a style of coping

characterised by working at a problem while remaining optimistic, fit, relaxed and

socially connected. The subscales include solving problems, seek relaxing diversions,

physical recreation, seek to belong, work hard and achieve, focus on the positive,

invest in close friends and seek social support.

2. Reference to others (12 items); The Reference to Others coping style is

characterised by attending to others for support whether they are peers, professional or

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deities. The subscales include seek spiritual support, seek professional help and social

action.

3. Non-Productive Coping (32 items); Non-productive Coping represents a

combination of non-productive avoidance strategies that have been empirically

associated with an inability to cope. The subscales include worry, wishful thinking,

not cope, ignore the problem, tension reduction, keep to self and self-blame.

In this project the Adolescent Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993) was used

in Study 2 to examine the way the coping strategies used by peer counsellors change as a

result of peer counsellor training and in Study 3 to examine the way the coping strategies

used by non peer counsellor students in the wider student community change as a result of

a peer counsellor training intervention.

Analysis of Adolescent Coping Scale. For the current project, the 18 coping

strategies were grouped according to the three coping styles, with the mean scores for

each of the coping styles used to measure changes. In Study 2 a repeated measures

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to discover whether the coping styles used

by peer counsellors significantly changed over time. Similarly in Study 3 a repeated

measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to discover whether the coping

styles used by non peer counsellor students from grades 9, 10, and 11 changed over time.

School Climate Survey .The literature strongly suggests that there is a relationship

between students’ interpersonal development, well being, academic achievement, school

completion, stress and school climate (Buddeberg-Fischer, Klaghofer, & Leuthold, 2000;

Gottfredson & Hollifield, 1988; Howe, 1995; Manning & Saddlemire, 1996; Persaud &

Madak, 1992; Rojewski & Wendel, 1990; Rumburger, 1987; Whelage, 1989a, 1989b;

Whelage & Rutter, 1986). It is also agreed that interventions targeting the mental health

of high school students are likely to influence school climate (Buddeberg-Fischer, et al,

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2000; Gottfredson & Hollifield, 1988; Howe, 1995; Manning & Saddlemire, 1996;

Persaud & Madak, 1992; Rojewski & Wendel, 1990; Rumburger, 1987; Whelage, 1989a,

1989b; Whelage & Rutter, 1986). Gottfredson and Gottfredson (2001) suggest that the

skills used in training programs come from well-known therapeutic approaches to

counselling, that the programs should rely strictly on youth roles in responding to peer

behaviour, and that the programs create a distinctive climate for interpersonal exchange if

they are to impact positively on the school climate. In the current project, the peer

counselling intervention fits comfortably with the strategies suggested by Gottfredson and

Gottfredson (2001).

Assessment of school climate can be useful as it can shed light on the impact of

particular programs or interventions. Where programs or interventions have been

implemented to influence the well being of students, pre- and post-assessment of school

climate can measure the impact of those programs or interventions on school climate.

Abu-Rasain and Williams (1999) used an individualised school climate survey pre-and

post-intervention to discover whether a peer-counselling program influenced student

perceptions of school climate. In the present project, a school climate survey was used in

Study 2 to assess the changes in the perceptions of school climate in peer helpers and in

Study 3 to assess the changes in perceptions of school climate in the wider student

community as a result of the peer counselling intervention.

Some school climate studies are based on information from a variety of sources

such as teachers, students, administration staff, principals, parents and the wider

community (Hoy, Smith, & Sweetland, 1999). However, most commonly teachers are

sought to provide perceptions of school climate (Burton & Fraser, 1994; Fisher & Grady,

1998; Gust, 1999; Johnson, 1999; Johnson & Stevens, 2001). In this project, a school

climate survey was developed and then used to evaluate the intervention. The survey

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relied on data from students only, to assess their perceptions of their relationships with

teachers and other students, and the association of those relationships on their perceptions

of school climate will be used.

Standardised school environment instruments possess a significant degree of

validity and consistency. For example, Fisher and Fraser (1991) describe the validity and

use of the School Level Environment Questionnaire as possessing features including

consistency with the literature, salience to practising teachers, specific relevance to

schools, minimal overlap with classroom environment scales, and internal consistency.

Although there are clearly some advantages in using standardised surveys, Rojewski and

Wendel (1990) believe that standardised surveys may not be suitable for addressing the

concerns of a particular school. For example, some school climate surveys may target

specific types and severity of current climate problems, whereas others may focus on

detailed descriptions of goals, which can be formalised to improve school climate.

Additionally, many standardised school climate surveys may be inappropriate when

factors such as gender, grade level or minority population issues are targeted as they will

not give specific information about programs that need to be developed or programs that

have been used to influence school climate for a particular student group.

Rojewski and Wendel (1990) make it clear that individualised surveys offer a

flexible method of addressing specific school needs and concerns. In particular, they

argue that where the impact of a specific program, such as the peer counsellor training

program, on school climate is being assessed a standardised survey will not identify

changes in precise issues and themes which are likely to have influence on the total

school climate. As it was decided that an individualised school climate survey would be

more appropriate in the current study, it was developed by the researcher and used in

Study 2 and in Study 3. The description of the development and psychometric analysis of

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the School Climate Survey is discussed in the following chapter (chapter 5). Following

chapter 5, reports on the three studies are provided.

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CHAPTER 5

Development and Psychometric Analysis of the School Climate Survey

The School Climate Survey developed by the researcher will be discussed in this

chapter with regard to the survey’s development and psychometric analysis. This survey

will be used to provided perceptions of the current school climate from trained peer

counsellors in Study 2, and from non peer counsellor students in Study 3.

School Climate

School climate refers to the general atmosphere of the school site (Krug, 1989)

and schools can be perceived as caring and supportive of students or hostile and non-

supportive. Positive school climates include factors such as trust, respect, mutual

obligation and concern for others' welfare and can have powerful effects on teacher-

student interpersonal relationships, student academic achievement and overall school

progress (Manning & Saddlemire, 1996).

Standardised School Climate Surveys

One of the most common ways of gathering information about large numbers of

people is through the use of surveys (Giacobbi, 2002a, 2002b). With regard to school

climate, standardised surveys measure elements common to institutions and often

maintain a high degree of validity and reliability (Cresswell & Fisher, 1999; Fisher &

Fraser, 1991). There are several standardised school climate surveys available: School

Climate Index (Hoy et al., 1999), Comprehensive Assessment of School Environments

(CASE) School Climate Survey (Kelley, Glover, Keefe, & Halderson, 1986), School

Climate Survey (Smith et al., 2002) School Level Environment Questionnaire (Fisher,

Fraser, & Wubbels, 1993), School Functioning Index for Middle Schools (Birnbaum,

Lytle, Perry, Murray & Story, 2003) and the Tennessee School Climate Inventory (Butler

& Alberg, 1994) to name a few.

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Most standardised surveys rely on information from a variety of sources and adopt

a similar procedure for recording responses. For example, Hoy et al. (1999) developed

and tested a measure of high school climate from existing frameworks using the

Organisational Climate Index for high schools. The resulting measure called the School

Climate Index (SCI) captures important shared perceptions of group functioning. The

SCI consists of four subscales including collegial leadership, teacher professionalism,

academic press and community pressure. The scale consists of 42 items with responses

on a six-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Using the School

Climate Index, Tschannen-Moran (2001) found the impact of conflict management

programs in a high school was felt school wide. Conflict management programs

significantly correlated positively to teacher perceptions of a number of important

variables including school climate.

Standardised school environment instruments possess a significant degree of

validity and consistency. For example, when describing the validity and use of the

School Level Environment Questionnaire, Fisher and Fraser (1991) indicate that it

possesses features which include consistency with the literature, salience to practising

teachers, specific relevance to schools, minimal overlap with classroom environment

scales, and internal consistency.

Individualised School Climate Surveys

The previous chapter discussed the advantages of using standardised surveys to

measure school climate. However the discussion highlighted how standardised surveys

may be inappropriate for measuring changes on specific parameters of school climate

following an intervention aimed at improving school climate. In the current project,

where the impact of a peer counsellor training program on school climate is being

evaluated, it is clear that a standardised survey would not identify changes in specific

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factors in the school climate which were likely to change as a result of a peer counsellor

program. In the current study it was decided that an individualised school climate survey

would be more appropriate for measuring these factors.

Most commonly, teachers are sought to provide perceptions of school climate

(Burton & Fraser, 1994; Fisher & Grady, 1998; Gust, 1999; Johnson, 1999; Johnson &

Stevens, 2001). For example Smith, Daunic, Miller, and Robinson (2002) developed a

School Climate Survey that was administered to all teachers in participating schools to

evaluate conflict resolution and peer mediation in schools. Another school climate survey,

the School Climate Index (Hoy, Hannum, & Tschannen-Moran, 1999) used by

Tschannen-Moran (2001) found that conflict management programs significantly

correlated positively to teacher perceptions of a number of variables including school

climate. However, it is difficult to find school climate surveys which rely on student

perceptions only. One is more likely to find studies where school climate surveys draw

on teacher perceptions of school climate in conjunction with student perceptions of

classroom environment (Fisher & Fraser, 1991; Fisher, Fraser & Wubbles, 1993; Fraser,

Williamson & Tobin, 1987).

Fisher and Fraser (1991) make an important distinction between school and class

environment and their research indicates a need to separate student perceptions from

teacher perceptions of environments. This separation of perceptions is essential when

investigating the impact of intervention programs on students where students use

strategies that directly target the emotional and psychological health of their peers.

Sava (2001) explored the causes and effects of teacher conflict-inducing attitudes

towards pupils and found research to support the view that pupils can be used as the final

judges of good teaching. This suggests that it might be relevant to include examination of

the relationship between student well being and student teacher interactions in an

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assessment of school climate, in particular those interactions that involve providing

emotional or psychological support from the student’s perspective. Perkins, Guerin and

Schlech (1990) provide further support for using student perceptions of school climate as

they found that pupils’ ratings were valid enough to be considered reliable ways of

measuring interactions between two parties.

Constructing a school climate survey to identify change

Rojewski and Wendel (1990) not only support the decision to individualise a

school climate survey but also outline a process for constructing an individualised school

climate survey. Other authors (Birnbaum et al., 2003; Fisher & Fraser, 1990, 1991; Fisher

& Grady, 1998; Giacobbi, 2002; Rentoul & Fraser, 1983) advocate or have followed

similar processes. The process outlined below incorporates the recommendations of these

authors and was followed in the development of the School Climate Survey used in the

current project:

1. Consult the literature about the topic and use as a guide to understanding and

developing theories about the topic. Develop an operational definition of the

topic.

2. Identify themes or dimensions so that they can be used to form categories or

scales for the survey items. Consult relevant literature to develop and organise

themes or dimensions. Decisions to include or exclude themes will depend on

the degree of importance and applicability a theme holds for the school

environment. The decision to include or exclude a theme from a survey

instrument must be based on a school or researcher’s need. Once categories or

scales have been identified, develop survey items.

3. Items from similar surveys can be modified to suit the needs of the survey

being developed. New statements may also be written. Several questions can

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guide the process of developing items. Does this item address a selected

theme? Is the item appropriate for the group you are targeting e.g., all groups,

teachers, students? Will the response give information concerning climate? A

full list of possible items must be narrowed. Rojewski and Wendel (1990)

suggest a jury method where three to six individuals reach consensus to

include or exclude items from the survey instrument. This method is effective

however time-consuming and intense. An alternative might be to select items

and have the list reviewed. Assistance from technical experts should be

sought on item-construction issues such as preference for positively worded

items, the process of scoring, and methods of administration. Item consistency

across teachers, parents, and student groups must be examined and consistency

must be maintained so that comparisons between and among groups can occur.

However, items directed exclusively at one group may be included if reasons

exist.

4. Administer to a large sample and check psychometric properties.

Operational definition of the topic

Chapter three of this thesis provides a guide to understanding the topic of

adolescent peer counselling and its relevance to school climate. The operational

definition of school climate adopted in the current project focuses on the psychosocial

dimensions of school climate. Support for these dimensions can be found in the work of

Karatzias, Power, and Swanson (2001). These authors suggest that perceptions of school

climate result from students’ reflections of their sense of well being determined by

school-related factors and experiences resulting from pupils’ involvement in school life

and their engagement in school climate. The psychosocial dimensions of relationships

and systems resonate with Karatzias et al.’s suggestions.

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Survey themes and categories

In the current project, the researcher aimed to develop a climate assessment

instrument that focused on the psychosocial dimensions of school climate. Moos (1973)

concluded that the same three general domains of relationship, personal development and

systems used to evaluate learning environments, could be used in conceptualising the

individual dimensions characterising diverse psychosocial environments. The three

individual dimensions are referred to as the Relationship Dimensions, Personal

Development Dimensions and System Maintenance and System Change Dimensions. The

Personal Development domain with its various dimensions was not considered relevant

for this project and therefore not included in the survey. The survey developed in the

current project focuses on two of the three domains identified by Moos (1973) when

characterising psychosocial environments: the Relationship domain with its dimensions

which identify the nature and intensity of personal relationships within the environment,

and which assess the extent to which people are involved in the environment and the

extent to which they support and help each other; and the System Maintenance and

System Change domain including dimensions which involve the extent to which the

environment is orderly, clear in expectations, maintains control and is responsive to

change.

A school climate survey was developed after consulting the literature (Freidlin &

Salvucci, 1995; Johnson, Johnson, Kranch, & Zimmerman, 1999; Moos & Trickett,

1995). Five categories were chosen from those discussed in the literature, Respect, Trust,

Cohesiveness, Caring, and Morale and Expectations, to operationalise the psychosocial

dimensions of school climate, namely the Relationship Dimensions and the System

Maintenance and System Change Dimensions. It was believed that these dimensions

could be satisfactorily measured by the five categories used in the survey. Four of the

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categories were selected to measure the Relationship Dimensions and the fifth category

was selected to measure the System Maintenance and System Change Dimensions. The

four categories measuring the Relationship Dimensions include respect, trust,

cohesiveness, and caring. The fifth category combines morale and expectations to

measure the System Maintenance and System Change Dimensions.

In their development of the Quality of School Life scale (QSL), Karatzias, Power,

and Swanson (2001) refer to a general sense of student well being as being determined

strictly by school-related factors and experiences resulting from pupils’ involvement in

school life and their engagement in school climate. Quality of school life can be thought

to have both affective and cognitive components and school satisfaction is assumed to be

a subjective construct able to account for each pupil’s individual perceptual differences in

relation to school climate (Baker, 1998). The categories selected for the School Climate

Survey used in the current project are a composite mainly of affective-experiential items

as well as a mixture of cognitive-managerial items in an attempt to capture student

perceptions of the affective-experiential and cognitive managerial status of the school.

Developing survey items

Survey items were collected from various school climate instruments such as the

university version of the Charles F. Kettering Climate Scale (Johnson, Johnson, Kranch,

& Zimmerman, 1999), Classroom Environment Scale (Moos & Trickett, 1995), School as

Caring Community Profile (Partnerships in Character Education Pilot Projects Program,

2000) and National Centre for Education Statistics Surveys (Freidlin & Salvucci, 1995).

Some survey items were then reworded and new statements were also written. Initially, a

total of 68 items were considered for the school climate survey. Three independent

reviewers reviewed the survey in order to control for any linguistic or item-meaning

problems (face validity). This resulted in some language changes and some items being

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removed. Two open questions were also added at this time at the end of the scale: "What

suggestions do you have for addressing the behaviour and discipline issues that you see as

the greatest problems?" and, "How would you increase school spirit, teacher and staff

morale, and student morale?"

The final school climate survey consisted of 58 items with each of the five

categories being assessed by between 12 and 29 items. Some items are included in more

than one category. Table 5.1 clarifies the nature of the School Climate Survey by

providing a category description and sample items for each category and shows each

category classification according to Moos’ (1973) dimensions.

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Table 5.1.

Description of categories in the school climate survey and their classification according

to Moos’ dimensions

Category Description of category Sample items Moos’ Dimension Respect

There is respectful rapport between students and between students, teachers and other adults

Students behave respectfully towards their teachers (+) Students in my class treat each other with respect (+) Disrespectful behaviours are of the greatest concern to me (-)

Relationship

Trust Confidence in the way problems will be solved among students and between staff and students

Staff, students and principal are aware of the procedures to resolve problems or conflicts (+) Students solve conflicts without fighting, insults, or threats (+)

Relationship

Cohesiveness Behaviours, or actions characterised by or resulting in unity

Students in my class help each other learn (+) People in this school are willing to go out of their way to help each other (+) Students are always fighting with each other (-)

Relationship

Caring Displays of kindness/concern for others

When students do something hurtful, they apologise and try to make up for it (+) Students try to console or comfort a peer who has experienced a sadness (+) Students are always fighting with each other (-)

Relationship

Morale and expectations

Confidence, enthusiasm, discipline and expectations of the students/staff

I wish I could go to another school (-) Students in this school accept and follow the rules (+) Professional school staff in their interactions with students, display the qualities the school is trying to teach (+)

System Maintenance and System Change

Note. Items designated (+) are scored by allocating 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively, for the responses disagree strongly, disagree a little, agree a little agree strongly. Items designated (-) are scored in the reverse manner. Omitted or invalid responses are given a score of 0.

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Each item was developed such that it expressed a clearly negative or positive

opinion and neutral items were avoided. Therefore all subjects responded to a four-point,

Likert-type scale. A four-point Likert scale was adopted as the general finding has been

that Likert attitude scores exhibit higher test-retest reliability as compared to other

attitude measurement scales (Seiler & Hough, 1970). Moreover traditional instructions for

developing Likert scale items explicitly suggest that neutral items be avoided (Mueller,

1986). Consideration for these scale construction techniques was thought to be essential

for retrieving information from individuals when intentionally seeking positive or

negative attitudes. Using a cumulative model of response processes (Likert scale) rather

than responses from an ‘ideal point’ is desired in this survey to more accurately discover

current perceptions in school climate rather than perceptions of preferred school climate.

Participants were asked to indicate how much they disagreed or agreed with each item

ranging from disagree strongly = 1, disagree a little = 2, agree a little = 3 to agree strongly

= 4. Twenty-two percent of items were negatively worded and therefore reverse scored

before analysis. Consequently a high score indicates a positive perception of school

climate.

Statistical analysis of the survey’s psychometric properties.

Participants

In order to explore the statistical properties of the School Climate Survey it was

completed by 232 male and female students from middle high school with a mean age of

13.45 years and 275 male and female students from senior high school with a mean age of

16.75 years.

Procedure

Participants were informed that the survey contained statements about things that

may take place in their school and that the purpose of the survey was to find out what

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their classroom and school were like. Participants were encouraged to give their honest

responses by ticking the box that best described their attitude.

During allocated class time the school counsellor distributed the survey to

students. It was explained that participation in the study was entirely voluntary and

anonymous. The survey was described as a survey that would invite them to express their

views about their school, that there were no right or wrong answers and that the data from

the survey would be used to help design and develop programs which would improve

school life for students. Students were reassured that their individual responses were not

important, as total responses would be considered.

Analysis

A factor analysis of the 58-item School Climate Survey was conducted using

principal axis factoring. The factors were rotated to a simple structure by employing both

orthogonal (varimax) and oblique (oblimin) rotations. A scree test was used to initially

determine the number of factors that could usefully be considered. A Cronbach’s alpha

coefficient of internal consistency for each factor was determined to ensure that reliable

scales for all factors were obtained. Pearson's product-moment correlations for the factors

of the School Climate Survey were also conducted.

Results

The most useful explanation of the data could be explained by extracting three

factors using orthogonal rotation. A scree test and examination of the factor matrix

suggested that the use of three factors would maximise the ratio of the amount of

information extracted to the number of factors. Examination of factor matrices showed

that while orthogonal and oblique solutions were very similar, the orthogonal solution

was judged to be most appropriate. This was because the loadings in the orthogonal

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solution showed a clearer pattern than the oblique solution, which showed more cross

loadings.

Table 5.2 delineates the three factor structure of the School Climate Survey, which

was obtained using principal axis factor analysis with orthogonal rotation.

Table 5.2

Pattern matrix for orthogonal factors of the School Climate Survey

Factors and items Factors I II III I. Students’ perceptions of student relationships 2. Students in this school accept and follow the rules .50 3. Students behave respectfully towards their teachers .49 6. Students in my class help each other learn .41 7. Older students are kind to younger students .37 8. Students refrain from put-downs .55 10. When students do something hurtful, they apologise and try to make up for it

.55

11. Students treat schoolmates with respect .61 12. Students in my class are mean to each other .46 14. Students don't pick on others or exclude them just because they are different

.47

15. Students in my class treat each other with respect .57 17. Students respect others personal property .49 20. Students treat the school building and other school property with respect

.45

22. Most students in this school know each other very well .33 23. Students are always fighting with each other .35 24. Students show good sportsmanship .44 27. Students care about and help each other, even if they are not friends

.51

28. Students solve conflicts without fighting, insults, or threats .46 32. Students listen to each other in class discussions .35 33. Students behaved respectfully towards all other school staff .52 34. Students help new students make friends and feel accepted .44 35. Students work well together .49 38. The students here treat others as they would like to be treated .61 42. Students behave respectfully towards their parents .37 44. When students see another student being mean they try to stop it .45 45. People in the school are willing to go out of their way to help each other

.57

46. I perceive the school spirit to be very positive in all areas .43 .33 49. Students are patient and forgiving with each other .51 53. I perceive the overall student morale to be very positive .43 55. Students try to console or comfort a peer who has experienced a sadness

.32 .35

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Factors and items Factors I II III II Students’ perceptions of teachers’ relationships with students and other staff

4. My classroom is fun place to be .43 9. Staff, students and principal are aware of the procedures to resolve problems or conflicts

.40

16. I wish I could go to another school .54 .33 18. Students feel they can talk to teachers about things that are bothering them

.37

21. The teachers always try to be fair .62 25. I feel safe and comfortable with the staff and students in this school

.53

29. The teacher/principal is willing to listen if a student has a serious problem

.60

30. I like my school .65 31. Teachers respect, care about, and help each other .61 32. Students listen to each other in class discussions .35 .39 37. Professional school staff (principal, counsellors) in their interactions with students, display the qualities the school is trying to teach

.56

40. Staff, in their interactions with each other, display the qualities the school is trying to teach

.60

43. Teachers treat all students fairly and don't play favourites .50 46. I perceive the school spirit to be very positive in all areas .43 .33 48. Teachers go out of their way to help students who need extra help

.51

52. The school treats parents in a way that makes them feel respected welcomed and cared about

.52

53. I perceive the overall student morale to be very positive .44 .42 54. Other school staff in their interactions with students display the qualities the school is trying to teach

.42

55. Students try to console or comfort a peer who has experienced a sadness

.32 .35

56. Parents support and work with the school .43 58. Teachers in their interactions with students display the qualities the school is trying to teach

.63

III Students’ perceptions of unacceptable behaviour 1. Physical and aggressive behaviours are of greatest concern to me -.30 5. The worst behaviour problems occur in the hallway between classes

.36

16. I wish I could go to another school .54 .33 26. Disrespectful behaviours are of greatest concern to me -.39 36. The worst behaviour problems occur before school .40 57. The worst behaviour problems occur after school .37

Note. Item numbers are from the survey used. Factor 1 and Factor 2 shared items 16, 32, 46, 53 and 55. Item numbers 13, 19, 39, 41, 50, and 51 did not load on to any factor and were excluded from the table. Loadings are only reported for those greater than .3. Student perceptions of student relationships: eigenvalue = 10.8, variance explained = 18.64%. Student perceptions of teachers relationships with students and other staff: eigenvalue = 4.47, variance explained = 7.71%. Students perceptions of unacceptable behaviour: eigenvalue = 2.29, variance explained = 3.94%.

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In the present study, the three-factor solution explained only 30% of the total

variance. The large amount of scree suggests that several items in the survey were

inappropriate and have been responsible for adding in unwanted variance. Hair,

Andersen, Tathum, and Black (1998) suggest that loadings less than 0.3 are insignificant

and that values higher than 0.3 reflect items that are pure, and conceptually more

representational of the factor being measured. In the current analysis, loadings are only

reported for those items greater than 0.3.

Items loading on Factor 1 accounted for 18.64% of the total variability. These

items pertain to the way in which students relate with each other, their expectations

regarding peer relationships, the way in which students relate with adults and prosocial

behaviour among students. It was therefore labelled Students’ Perceptions of Student

Relationships. Items loading onto Factor 2, accounting for 7.71% of the total variability,

primarily relate to students’ perceptions of their experiences with teachers and other staff,

teacher/staff behaviours with students, and the interactions between teachers, staff and

parents. This factor has been labelled Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ relationships

with students and other staff. Some items in this factor cross loaded with Factor 1

however their conceptual relationship belonged with Factor 1 and were chosen for that

factor. Items loading onto Factor 3, accounted for only 3.94% of the total variability.

These items relate to negative acting out behaviours by students and the factor was

labelled Students’ Perceptions of Unacceptable Behaviour. One item in this factor cross

loaded with Factor 2.

A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of internal consistency for each subscale of the

School Climate Survey was determined. Cronbach’s alpha was .89 for Factor 1, and .88

for Factor 2, indicating reliability for both Factor 1 and Factor 2 as subscales of the

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School Climate Survey. Factor 3 demonstrated low internal consistency with Cronbach’s

alpha = .09.

Pearson's product-moment correlations for the three factors of the School Climate

Survey were conducted. The items which did not load onto either Factor 1 or Factor 2

were removed and the school climate total was recalculated. The correlations between

Factor 1, Factor 2 were significant at the .01 level. However Factor 3 was found not to

correlate with Factor 1 or Factor 2. Table 5.3 reports the correlations between the School

Climate Survey factors.

Table 5.3.

Correlations between the school climate factors.

Student Perceptions of Student relationships

Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ relationships with students and other staff.

Students’ Perceptions of Unacceptable Behaviour

Student perceptions of student relationships

Persons correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

1 507

.498**

.000 506

.037

.409 507

Student perceptions of teachers relationships with students and other staff


.498**

.000 506

1 -.045 .314 506

Students perceptions of unacceptable behaviour


.037

.409 507

-.045 .314 506

1

Note: ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Because Factor 3 demonstrated low internal consistency and was considered not to

be stable, and did not correlate with Factors 1 and 2, it was decided that only Factors 1

and 2 would be used in subsequent analysis. Additionally, items in Factor 3 did not

accurately reflect student perceptions of school climate; rather, the items identified the

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students’ appraisal of unacceptable behaviours and where they are likely to occur. The

final School Climate Survey is presented in Appendix K.

Conclusion

The importance of creating a positive climate for prosocial behaviour cannot be

overstated. The significance of the School Climate Survey developed in this project lies

in its focus on the psychosocial dimensions of school climate and its relationship with

perceived support for peer counsellors from both peers and teachers and other staff. As a

result of the present research project, an intervention in the form of a peer counselling

program was introduced into the school community and the School Climate Survey was

used to evaluate the impact of the peer counselling program on the student/student and

student/teacher relationships.

Evidence of psychometric integrity for item and factor scores was observed in the

development of the survey. Therefore the School Climate Survey developed for this

project can be seen to help generate data that describes the present cognitive-managerial

and affective experiential status of the school. Additionally the impact of the peer

counsellor program introduced into the school community as a result of this project is

evaluated using a test-retest design administering the instrument on two occasions at least

six months apart with both peer counsellors and students in the wider school community

from grades 9, 10, 11 and 12.

The following chapters report and discuss the results of the research questions

addressed in the current project. The three studies which make up the current project are

presented sequentially beginning with Study 1, in chapter 6 followed by a report and

discussion of the results of qualitative data from Study 2 in chapter 7, and a report and

discussion of the results of the quantitative data from Study 2 in chapter 8. Chapter 9

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reports and discusses the results of Study 3. Finally Chapter 10 provides a discussion of

the contributions of the current study to the literature.

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CHAPTER 6

Study 1

Research Questions

Study 1 aimed to answer the first two research questions:

1. Which conversational skills and relational behaviours used by

adolescents in peer relationships are useful in a helping conversation?

2. Which counselling microskills are easy for adolescents to use, and

which counselling skills and/or approaches are useful for young

people?

Participants

Participants volunteered after receiving details of the research program.

Interested students were then sorted into groups varied but matched for age and

gender to collect data to respond to research question one. As discussed in chapter

four, it was believed that the topic of discussion which focused specifically on the

functional relationships of adolescents’ helping behaviours with their peers was likely

to mitigate the influence of the age and gender variables.

Participants were given a copy of the discussion questions (see Appendix C)

before the focus groups were conducted so that they could become familiar with the

topics that would be discussed concerning peer helping behaviour. The subjects

included in the focus groups were male and female students from grades 8, 9, 10, and

11 relating in a peer environment and attending a denominational high school. A total

of 64 students responded to the initial invitation to participate and 52 students

attended the focus group discussions, 41 female and 11 male.

To respond to the second research question, a total of 36 students, (10 male

and 26 female) self-selected from the original focus groups, and were divided equally

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into four subgroups (nine subjects in each subgroup). These subgroups were used to

train participants in specific counselling microskills and to identify those counselling

skills that were easy for adolescents to use and those counselling skills which

appealed to young people. Each subgroup contained two males and seven females and

was matched as closely as possible for grade. Each subgroup contained at least one

student from each grade level. All subgroups contained two grade eight students,

either two or three grade nine students, either one or two grade 10 students and three

grade 11 students. It is believed that the topic of discussion which focused specifically

on the functional relationships of adolescents’ helping behaviours with their peers was

a topic that could comfortably be discussed by a group of young people with mixed

age and gender.

Procedure and Materials

In response to the first research question the conversational skills and

relational behaviours used by adolescents in a helping conversation were identified

using focus group discussions. Eight focus group discussion sessions were conducted

with either six or seven participants in each group. Initially each group was matched

as closely as possible to contain equal numbers of students from each of grades 8, 9,

10 and 11. However, demands on student time from competing programs and

prioritised commitments meant that some interested students did not attend their

allocated groups. Consequently, three female only groups and five mixed gender

groups were conducted, with each group containing at least one student from each

grade. Each group session lasted approximately 40 minutes. Students were arranged

in a circle with either the researcher or school counsellor as part of the group. Data

were collected from the focus groups using in-depth semi-structured group

discussions, which focused on the conversational and relational experiences of peer

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helping behaviour where the students believed that they had helped another peer or

had been helped themselves. Specific questions were used in the focus group

discussions to ensure that all the groups discussed the issues in a relatively

comparable way and to aid analysis by ensuring consistent comparisons across all the

groups. The following are examples of questions used: “Can anyone tell me about the

way young people help each other when they are experiencing problems?” and “Think

of a situation related to a helping experience of yours where you really felt that

someone had helped you. What happened? Where were you? Was anyone else

involved? The researcher and school counsellor moderated four groups each. They

introduced the first question to be discussed and added prompts where necessary. The

prompts used focussed on descriptions rather than ‘why’ questions and related to

concrete helping situations where the participants believed helping had taken place.

The group discussions were audio taped. Although eight focus groups were conducted

to collect data to respond to research question one, only seven audiotapes could be

transcribed due to technical failure of the audio taping equipment.

As mentioned earlier, the second research question aimed to discover which

counselling microskills young people could use easily and would find useful when

helping their peers. In response to this question, students who self-selected from the

focus groups to train as peer counsellors were first trained as a whole group over

three, one hour sessions, to recognise factors related to understanding and respecting

difference, issues and policies with regard to confidentiality and referral, and

establishing a code of ethics. They were then divided into four subgroups.

Each subgroup was trained in a set of specific counselling microskills from

recognised and established counselling approaches and practices. The counselling

microskills selected were chosen because they either matched with the conversational

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helping skills and behaviours identified in research question one or because they have

been used most commonly in professional counselling practice and have been used to

date in other peer counsellor training programs. Training in subgroups was conducted

over three one hour sessions and training details for all subgroups is outlined in

Appendix D. Training in subgroups consisted of:

Group A - Client Centred Counselling where the training focused on reflective

listening skills, the use of minimal responses, reflection of feeling and content and

summarising responses;

Group B - Reality Therapy counselling skills where the training focused on training

students in a five-step process of identifying options and choices, considering

consequences and selecting and trying out new behaviours;

Group C - Solution Focused counselling skills, which focused on the use of questions

in a step-by-step process to discover a solution to a problem. In particular the training

focussed on open and closed questions, exception oriented questions, externalising

questions and questions to address future options; and

Group D - Recognition, validation and enhancement of typical adolescent helping

skills and behaviours.

A feedback questionnaire was used following subgroup training to collect data

from participants from each helping conversation (for an example see Appendix E).

The feedback questionnaire was a five point Likert scale measuring the ease and

usefulness of the specific micro-counselling skills. Ease of use was rated as Very

difficult, slightly difficult, OK, Easy, or Very easy. The participants’ perception of

how useful each skill was in helping the other person to talk and feel comfortable was

rated Very unhelpful, Slightly unhelpful, OK, Useful, Very useful. Results with

regard to which skills were easy to use and how useful each skill was in helping the

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other person to talk and feel comfortable were determined from the participants’

perspective.

Six focus groups with participant numbers ranging from three to seven were

conducted to collect data from the subgroups. Timetabling constraints made it

difficult to evenly distribute participants according to the numbers, gender, and grade

level of each focus group. Focus groups were semi-structured and included open-

ended questions allowing participants to respond in their own words. Specific

questions were used in the groups (Appendix F) to ensure that all participants

discussed the issues in a relatively comparable way and to aid analysis by ensuring

consistent comparisons across all the groups. Typical questions included “In what

ways were the skills you used useful when helping your conversational partner?” “ In

what ways were the skills you used unhelpful when helping your conversational

partner?” and “If you felt like you didn't help the person you were talking with what

gave you that impression?” Group sessions were audio taped, and transcribed

verbatim. Transcripts from the audiotapes were examined.

The researcher’s reflections and field notes were also recorded in a journal and

were used to reflect upon data gathered in focus group discussions and questionnaires.

Analysis

Analysis of Focus Groups

Verbatim transcripts from the focus group discussion audiotapes were

examined using Krueger's (1998) methodology. The researcher, school counsellor and

an associate researcher systematically examined each transcript for the presence,

meanings and relationships of words and concepts that were descriptive or

interpretive of helping experiences. Additionally, each examiner made inferences

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about the messages within the texts with regard to the phenomena of helping and

being helped.

All examiners reviewed the seven transcripts from focus groups conducted in

response to research question one. Each examiner extracted each helping experience

description independently. The number of times each helping experience description

was mentioned by an individual in each group was recorded as well as recording

supporting statements made by other participants in the group that referred to the

same description or were considered an elaboration of the original statement.

Selecting which descriptions should receive consideration from the focus group

transcripts was decided by group-to-group validation (Krueger, 1998), that is, how

many groups mentioned the topic, how many people within each of the groups

mentioned the topic, and how much energy and enthusiasm the topic generated among

the participants.

Categories resulting from descriptions reflecting the phenomenon of helping

and being helped were identified to answer research question one. All examiners

placed helping descriptions into categories before meeting to make comparisons.

Initially, the examiners identified a total of 39 categories. There was strong agreement

between all of the parties after discussion that determined the final number of 20

categories of conversational helping skills and behaviours by combining initial

categories that were conceptually similar. The categories identified are described in

the results. With regard to research question one there was strong agreement between

all of the parties examining the transcripts regarding the relevance and meaning of the

data, which contributed to the identified categories.

Data from focus group discussions collected to answer research question two

was recorded and transcribed and was used to support the data from questionnaires.

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The researcher, school counsellor and an associate researcher systematically

examined each transcript for the presence, meanings and relationships of words and

concepts that indicated or described the participants’ perceptions of the helping

experiences with regard to ease of use and usefulness of the skills. Additionally, each

examiner made inferences about the messages within the texts with regard to the

helping experience. A record of transcribed descriptions for each subgroup is

provided in Appendix G.

Analysis of Questionnaires

The feedback questionnaire was used to collect data to respond to research

question two. The feedback questionnaire was a five point Likert scale measuring the

ease and usefulness of each specific counselling microskill. Ease of use was rated as

Very Difficult, Difficult, OK, Easy, or Very Easy. The subject’s perception of how

useful each skill was in helping the other person to talk and feel comfortable was

rated very unhelpful, unhelpful, OK, useful, or very useful.

Results from the questionnaires were analysed using SPSS 11.0 to describe the

data descriptively as frequency distributions and to report the ease of use and

usefulness for each of the counselling microskills within each subgroup.

Analysis of Researcher’s Field Notes

Analysis of the researcher’s field notes mirrored the processes used in

grounded theory qualitative research methodology as it was felt that the basic tenets

of grounded theory methodology fit with the contextual locating approach devised by

Cunningham (1988). The contextual locating approach is used in the current project,

and is described in chapter 4. Cunningham’s contextual locating approach openly

recognises the subjectivity of the researcher in the collection, analysis and

interpretation of the data, and recognises the more intimate interaction that may occur

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between the researcher and the participants in the study (Lippi, 2001; Schutz 1994;

Webb, 1989). Contextual locating facilitates the linking and weaving together of

insight developed in a number of different ways and enables the researcher to explore

the experience of others and to directly relate it to their own experience in a

systematic way. It can be argued that contextual locating is about discerning themes

in the data (Tesch, 1995) and can therefore be situated quite comfortably next to

grounded theory methodology.

While the intent of grounded theory methodology is the generation of theory

relating to a particular situation (Strauss & Corbin, 1994), the primary aim of

including researcher field notes in the current study was to provide an alternative

platform from which to view the phenomena of adolescent peer counselling.

Grounded theory identifies the major constructs, or categories of a

phenomenon, their relationships, and the context and process (Becker, 1993). Glaser

and Strauss (1967) believed that theories should be grounded in data from the field

not based on an a priori theoretical orientation.

Analyses of researcher field notes in the current study, comply generally with

features of grounded theory data analysis. Field notes were recorded and then

concepts were identified that were interesting to the phenomena of adolescent peer

counselling. Concepts represented actions, interactions, and events that were

significant in the data. Concepts and their causal, intervening and contextual

relationships were then described from the researcher’s clinical and professional

theoretical framework. Comparing the researcher’s theories with the data collected

using other qualitative methods, quantitative results and the developmental and

counselling literature provided validation.

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Results

Research Question 1

The categories identified by young people as being important conversational

characteristics and helping behaviours used in helping conversations with their peers

are listed in Table 6.1 and are arranged in descending order of frequency of mention.

A full record of transcribed descriptions relevant for each final category listed in the

table is included in Appendix H.

Table 6.1.

Categories of conversational helping skills and behaviours and the number

and frequency of times mentioned Categories

Number of Groups where mentioned

Number of times mentioned

Frequency of mention

1. Conversational responses

7

40

2. Listening 7 35 Repeatedly 3. Reassurance 7 35 4. Emotional regulation. 7 30 5. Involvement 7 28

6. Understanding 6 23 7. Giving advice 6 21 8. Confidentiality 7 19 Frequently 9. Trust 6 19 10. Helping others to talk 4 19 11. Personal disclosure 6 18 12. Respect 4 16 13. Another point of view 6 15

14. Mediation 4 13 Several Times 15. Making contact 5 12 16. Collaborative problem solving 5 12 17. Endorsement

5

11

18. Safe relationship 4 9 19. Distracting 4 7 A few times 20. Evaluative responses 4 7

The categories identified will be described separately in descending order of

frequency of mention.

Conversational responses: Transcribed words such as ‘talk’, ‘tell’, ‘express’,

‘spoke’, ‘talking’, and ‘conversation’, indicated that verbal communication was

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considered an appropriate helping behaviour. As a consequence the category of

conversational responses, emerged. Segments of transcripts implying that a

conversational interaction had or was occurring, were also indicators of

conversational responses and were included in this category. For example, ‘I just like

to help them out and just talk to them’ and “ It’s just like making conversation with

them ……”. Conversational helping behaviours were identified by all focus groups

and identified repeatedly by different individuals within the focus groups as providing

an opportunity for the helper and the person being helped to satisfy their needs in a

helping relationship. Initial category descriptions were similar and included

‘conversation’ as the descriptor.

Listening: Transcribed words such as ‘listen’,’ listening’, and ‘pay attention,’

contributed to the category of ‘listening’. Listening was a category mentioned in all

focus groups and was identified repeatedly as a behaviour which provided an

opportunity for personal self-disclosure to occur during a conversation. The value of

listening from the helper's point of view is reflected in the following sample, “You

have to listen, like sometimes people let people talk but don't really take in what the

people are saying, you have to actually listen”. Listening was seen to be valuable

from the point of view of the helper’s role in the conversation eg., “Mainly about

listening most people don't want advice they just want to be listened to so they can

work out the problems themselves”, and for the person being helped eg., “When I got

depressed I had a lot (friends) I could count on that would listen to me”

Reassurance: The category of reassurance emerged as a result of combining

initial categories of ‘support’ and ‘reassurance’. The category of reassurance included

comments from transcripts which communicated supportive responses, aimed at

removing doubts or fears and comments which made reference to giving comfort,

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approval, and encouragement. For example, “Reassured him it was okay and that it is

not the end of the world” and “Support them try and make them feel better than what

they did”. Reassurance was mentioned in all focus groups and referred to repeatedly

by young people as ways of helping the other person to feel better. Reassurance was

also seen as useful by the person being helped, for example, “Just by listening and

telling me it’s going to be all right”.

Emotional regulation: Emotional regulation can be defined as behaviour

where negative emotions are contained and positive emotions displayed. Young

people are perceived by their peers as being exemplary emotional regulators when

they regulate the emotional state of others by putting effort into helping others

achieve a more positive emotional state, and actively help peers contain their negative

emotional states (Bergin, et al, 2003).

Emotional regulation was mentioned in all focus groups and mentioned

repeatedly by individuals in groups. Transcript statements were attributed to the

category of emotional regulation when the helper’s awareness of directly contributing

to a change in the other person’s mood through conversational strategies was

mentioned. For example, "It feels good to see the smile on their face and know you

actually help them. When people come to you at first and they are really shy but you

tell them it's okay to talk… (and they change)”. Additionally, transcript statements

were attributed to the category of emotional regulation where they specifically

indicated that the other person was or might feel better as a result of the helpers’

behaviour during the conversation. For example, “I can make people feel good about

themselves and make them happy and I also can figure out problems really well and

help them with that”. The use of ‘humour’ was initially a separate category but

combined into the final category of emotional regulation as it was specifically referred

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to in the transcripts as a strategy for influencing another person’s mood. For example,

“I made a bit of a joke and she started laughing”.

Transcript descriptions from two of the final categories, reassurance, and

endorsements were not included in the category of emotional regulation even though

they are clearly conversational skills, which can regulate the mood of others. The

researcher’s reflections of transcript descriptions concluded that the conversational

behaviours of reassurance, and endorsements appeared to serve a different purpose to

that of emotional regulation during a helping conversation.

Involvement: The category of involvement was mentioned in all focus groups

and mentioned repeatedly by individuals within groups. The category of involvement

included transcribed words and segments of transcripts that implied a sense of caring,

a commitment to the other person and the relationship as well as concern about the

message being discussed and a desire to make the relationship useful. Initial

categories contributing to this category included ‘being available’, reflected in the

following comment, “… and just tell them if they're ready to talk you're there”;

‘commitment to the helping process’, for example, “I don't just say I'm too busy like

even if I am doing something I try and listen to them for a little while” and

‘friendliness’, for example, “Sometimes I think they need a friend”.

Understanding: Understanding emerged as a category from transcript

descriptions that indicated that the helper understood the other person’s point of view.

Understanding was mentioned in all but one focus group and mentioned frequently by

individuals in groups. Understanding emerged as a final category from initial

categories of ‘empathy’, ‘being non-judgemental’ and ‘sharing similar experiences’.

Researcher reflections of transcripts concluded that the sharing of personal

experiences similar to those being discussed by the person being helped was used to

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indicate that the helper was clearly able to understand their peer’s problem through a

process of identification. The following example illustrates understanding through

being empathic, " Seeing what they see ", being non-judgemental, "I don't say they're

wrong or whatever…(I) don't judge", and understanding through sharing similar

experiences "You can understand how they are feeling… and if they have had the

same problem you could relate to them”.

Giving advice: Giving advice was mentioned in all but one focus group and

was mentioned frequently by individuals within groups. Transcript statements that

mentioned the word ‘advice’ were included in this category. For example,

“Sometimes (I) try to offer advice, who to see or something like that”. However,

inclusion in the category did not necessarily suggest that young people considered

giving advice as always contributing to positive outcomes in the helping conversation.

For example, “I don't give advice, (every time) I don't see the point cause sometimes

it could be the wrong advice for them it depends on who it is”. Giving advice

incorporated the initial category of ‘providing alternative opinions and suggestions’

For example, “… tell them how you solved that problem you might have had, and if

it's worked for you, you can suggest that solution to them”.

Confidentiality: Confidentiality was mentioned in all focus groups and

mentioned frequently by individuals in groups. Transcript descriptions were included

in this category where they indicated that information would not be shared, for

example, “… She won't tell anyone and she knows what to say” or that information

would be kept private and not disclosed to others, for example, “You tell them it's

okay to talk and that you are not going to tell anyone and their secrets are safe with

you”.

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Trust: Trust was mentioned in all but one focus group and mentioned

frequently by individuals in groups. Transcript descriptions were included in this

category where they indicated a belief that the other person was someone responsible

reliable and ethical For example, ‘You would have to feel confident telling them’.

Transcribed words such as ‘trust’ ‘trusted’ and ‘trustworthy’ also contributed to

statements included in the category of trust, for example, “If someone doesn't want

you to tell anyone what's wrong they have to be able to trust you”.

Helping others to talk: Helping others to talk was mentioned in four out of the

seven focus group discussions. Individuals within those groups mentioned ‘helping

others to talk’ frequently. Transcript statements that indicated recognition that in the

position of helper sometimes it might be useful to offer the conversational partner

some assistance with regard to personal self-disclosure through the use of

conversational skills were included in the category of helping others to talk. For

example, “Making its comfortable for them so they know they can talk about it”, and

“Try and get them to talk”. Investigation of the transcripts identified four initial

categories that described specific communication skills to facilitate helping others to

talk such as, ‘direct invitations to talk’, for example, “ … and just tell them if they're

ready to talk you're there”, the use of ‘questions’, for example, "Are they feeling

okay?" ‘Clarifying’, for example, “…ask how you feel about it then they would

clarify and talk about it with you” and ‘Summarising’, "Summarise for them, makes it

easy to understand".

Personal disclosure: Personal disclosure was a category mentioned in all but

one focus group and was mentioned frequently by individuals in groups. Initial

categories of ‘disclosing emotion’, and ‘disclosing personal information’ were

incorporated into the category of personal disclosure. Transcript statements indicating

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sharing and not withholding emotion or information, for example, "Talking openly

and not like holding things back” or expressing emotion or information, for example,

“I got everything out that was important…all bottled up inside… Just to tell

someone” contributed to the category of personal disclosure.

Respect: Respect was mentioned in only half of the focus groups but

mentioned frequently. Transcript statements that illustrated the helper’s concern with

regard to being either intrusive or pressuring were included in this category, for

example, "Yeah giving them space". Initial categories contributing to ‘respect’

included ‘backing off’ and ‘silence’. Transcript statements that indicated rejection of

the helpers offers to help and the helpers sense of being unable to help were also

included as they implied a belief that the person’s rights to accept help or not should

be respected, for example, ‘It makes me feel like, well you are trying to help them and

then they sort of push you away, it makes you feel a bit, well not needed, but you have

to deal with that cause if it's best for them then…’

Another point of view: Offering another point of view, emerged as a category

where transcript statements indicated an attempt by the helper to provide

consideration of an alternative meaning with regard to the way the problem or

dilemma was being viewed, for example, ‘I've said not all people can get al.ong

cause different personalities don't really mesh’. Transcript statements that reflected

recognition of the value of the helper’s point of view were also included, for example,

"… just having them listen and give me their point of view to help me is something

that I really value”. Initial categories contributing to ‘another point of view’ included

‘reframing’. The category of ‘another point of view’ was considered distinctly

different from the category of ‘giving advice’ in terms of the intention behind the

behaviour. Whereas ‘giving advice’ focussed on solving problems and finding

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solutions ‘another point of view’ emphasised a sharing of information. Offering

another point of view was mentioned in all but one focus group and mentioned

frequently by individuals in groups.

Mediation: Mediation was mentioned in four of the focus groups and

mentioned several times. Mediation, was included as a category where transcript

statements indicated active intervention and arbitration between two parties, for

example, "… I try to get them to talk to the person so that it doesn't make things

worse. Like talk to both sides and try and help them keep the relationship”.

Making contact: Making contact was mentioned in five of the focus groups

and mentioned several times. Initial categories contributing to the category of making

contact included ‘observing’ and ‘initiating’. Transcript statements indicating

observation of mood, and behaviour were included in this category For example,

‘They just act different around you; the feeling you get from them has changed’ as

well as statements which indicated an attempt to make contact following an

observation, for example, ‘I always saw her walking around the streets when my mum

would drive me somewhere and she like never. …. I asked her one day why she was

like that and she told me’.

Endorsements: Offering endorsements was mentioned in five of the focus

groups and mentioned several times. Initial categories contributing to the category of

endorsements included ‘affirmation’, ‘loyalty’ and ‘agreeing’. Strongly evaluative

statements that declared support for the other person or upheld and defended the other

person to indicate the helper’s solidarity with the situation being discussed were

included, for example, “I am the sort of person who will back people up. Like you

don't just keep going, Oh you suck, or you stink and everything”. Additionally,

statements that indicated loyalty, for example, “(If you wanted to help them)... take

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sides” and agreement, and affirmation, for example, “Generally agree and then (say)

you’re probably right about what you're saying”, were included in this category.

Researcher reflections of the transcripts concluded that offering endorsements

occurred when the helper wanted to show that they identified with the person being

helped rather than as an attempt to make the person to feel better.

Collaborative problem solving: Collaborative problem solving was mentioned

in five of the focus groups and mentioned several times. Transcript statements

indicating that both the helper and the person being helped acknowledged the

simultaneous role of the helper in facilitating the problem solving process were

included in this category. For example, “Helping you work it out to be with you every

step” and “Mainly about listening most people don't want advice they just want to be

listened to so they can work out the problems themselves”. The initial categories of

‘problem solving together’, ‘control over the process’, and ‘facilitative problem

solving’ contributed to the category of collaborative problem solving. The following

transcript statement is an example indicating control over the process “If you let them

do it their way they feel like they've fixed it. They are not being ordered what to do.

So that way they are in control of their life, not being a puppet”, problem solving

together “They don't want you to tell them what to do they want to find the answers

themselves while they're telling you what's wrong” and facilitative problem solving

“Sometimes I listen carefully and then run it back in like point form and like

beginning middle and end and try to find a resolution for it together”.

Safe relationship; A safe relationship was mentioned in four of the focus

groups and mentioned by individuals only a few times. The initial categories of

‘exclusive relationships’, ‘feeling safe’, and ‘privacy’ contributed to the final category

of safe relationship. Transcript statements were included in this category where

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exclusivity in the relationship, for example, “Safer in a one-to-one” and privacy,

“Usually like if you have a problem and wanted to tell someone you’d wait until you

were one-on-one like you'd wait till no one else was around” were inferred or

mentioned.

Distracting: Distracting was mentioned in four out of the seven groups and

only a few times. Transcript statements were included in the category distracting,

where there was indication that it was advantageous for the problem topic to be

avoided by introducing an alternative conversational topic, for example, "I just like

making (different) conversation with them getting their mind of the bad things that

they are thinking about usually” or when distracting as a strategy to replace

conversational helping behaviour might be considered, for example, “… Took me out

to the movies just to relieve some stress and stuff”.

Evaluative responses: Evaluative responses were mentioned in four out of the

seven groups and only a few times. The initial category of ‘constructive criticism’

contributed to the final category of evaluative responses as it was agreed that

evaluative responses in transcript statements reflected appraisal of both thoughts and

behaviours in a way that was constructive and intended to help a person improve in

the future For example, “Once I got a bit of a bad mark and I was angry cause I

didn't think I deserved that mark really and one of my friends said that I was angry

and told me that it was not up to me. That it's probably a hard marker and told me I

could raise my grades with other assessments and other subjects as well. I didn't

blame the teacher after that….”. Transcript statements were included in this category

where the statements appraised the thoughts and/or the behaviour of the person being

helped in a non-reflective way, for example, " I tell her it goes both ways to my friend

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when she complains of her friends turning against her. I suggest how her behaviour

might affect her relationships with others…”.

Favourable evaluative responses such as "that's a good idea" were not

included in this category as they were considered to fit more comfortably under the

category of endorsements.

Research Question 2

To answer research question two results from questionnaires measuring the

ease of use and usefulness of each specific counselling microskill were analysed using

SPSS to determine frequency distributions and are reported descriptively as

percentages in Table 6.2 and Table 6.3. Table 6.2 summarises results from feedback

questionnaires measuring the ease of use for each of the counselling microskills

within each subgroup. Table 6.3 summarises results from feedback questionnaires

measuring the usefulness of the counselling microskills within each subgroup.

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Table 6.2

Percentages of responses summarising the ease of use for each of the counselling

microskills within each subgroup Subgroup Very

Difficult %

Difficult

%

OK

%

Easy

%

Very easy %

A - Client Centred Counselling.

Minimal responses 33.3 16.7 33.3 16.7 Reflection of content 33.3 33.3 33.3 Reflection of feeling 16.7 66.7 16.7 Non-verbal responses 33.3 66.7 Summarising responses. 16.7 33.3 50

B - Reality Therapy

Identifying the current problem and coping

11.1 44.4 44.4

Explore alternatives 11.1 11.1 33.3 44.4 Exploring the consequences for each alternative

11.1 66.7 22.2

Choosing an option. 22.2 33.3 44.4 Devising an action plan and follow up. 11.1 44.4 33.3 11.1

C - Solution Focused counselling

Closed questions 66.7 33.3 Open questions 11.1 77.8 11.1 Identifying the problem 22.2 44.4 33.3 Scaling the problem 11.1 11.1 55.6 22.2 Determining a preferred position on the scale.

22.2 22.2 33.3 22.2

Discovering exceptions to the problem 33.3 33.3 22.2 11.1 Discovering behaviours at exception times

11.1 55.6 33.3

Discovering actions to enable movement up the scale

33.3 33.3 33.3

Visualising a goal for a positive outcome

11.1 55.6 33.3

D - Validation and enhancement of typical adolescent helping behaviours

Joining skills, by self-disclosure/questions/agreement

16.7 16.7 16.7 50

Closed Questions (information gathering)

8.3 16.7 41.7 33.3

Open Questions (curiosity and interest)

25 33.3 8.3 33.3

Reassurance with suggestions 8.3 50 41.7 Humour and distracting 33.3 33.3 33.3 Expressions (short responses of surprise/interest)

25 50 25

Support with regard to emotions 8.3 33.3 33.3 25

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Table 6.3

Percentages of responses summarising the usefulness of each of the counselling

microskills within each subgroup

Subgroup Very Unhelpful

%

Unhelpful

%

OK

%

Useful

%

Very Useful

%

A - Client Centred Counselling.

Minimal responses 16.7 66.7 16.7 Reflection of content 66.7 33.3 Reflection of feeling 66.7 33.3 Non-verbal responses 16.7 50 33.3 Summarising responses. 16.7 33.3 50

B - Reality Therapy

Identifying the current problem and coping

22.2 55.6 22.2

Explore alternatives 22.2 55.6 22.2 Exploring the consequences for each alternative

22.2 22.2 55.6

Choosing an option. 11.1 55.6 33.3 Devising an action plan and follow up. 22.2 44.4 22.2 11.1

C - Solution Focused counselling

Closed questions 22.2 55.6 22.2 Open questions 22.2 77.8 Identifying the problem 11.1 11.1 22.2 55.6 Scaling the problem 44.4 11.1 33.3 11.1 Determining a preferred position on the scale.

11.1 55.6 22.2 11.1

Discovering exceptions to the problem 22.2 11.1 55.6 11.1 Discovering behaviours at exception times

11.1 22.2 44.4 22.2

Discovering actions to enable movement up the scale

11.1 22.2 44.4 22.2

Visualising a goal for a positive outcome

11.1 44.4 22.2 22.2

D - Validation and enhancement of typical adolescent helping behaviours

Joining skills, by self-disclosure/questions/agreement

16.7 50 33.3

Closed Questions (information gathering)

33.3 41.7 25

Open Questions (curiosity and interest)

8.3 41.7 50

Reassurance with suggestions 8.3 8.3 25 58.3 Humour and distracting 25 8.3 50 16.7 Expressions (short responses of surprise/interest)

8.3 25 41.7 25

Support with regard to emotions 8.3 16.7 25 50

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Data from focus group discussions describing the subject’s experience of

using the skills was transcribed and recorded and is used to support the data from

questionnaires.

Results from Subgroup A (Client Centred Counselling). The findings clearly

show that the microskills of reflection of content and reflection of feeling used in

subgroup A (Client Centred Counselling) were both difficult to use and not useful.

Table 6.2 indicates that 66.6% of respondents found reflecting content either

very difficult or difficult to use during a helping conversation and this was supported

in focus group sessions from data collected with regard to peer counsellors' personal

experience of using and practising the skills learnt in subgroups. For example, "(You)

don't have a sense of helping other than just listening", and, "(Using reflection)

make(s) you sound like a counsellor rather than a helper". Similarly, 66.7% of the

respondents in subgroup A found using reflection of content unhelpful "She didn't like

me repeating her".

Additionally, 83.4% of the respondents in subgroup A found using reflection

of feeling either very difficult or difficult to use. The difficulty is reflected in

statements from focus group discussions For example, “Didn’t feel like things we

normally do". Similarly, 66.7% of respondents found reflection of feeling unhelpful in

the conversation. The following statements support these statistics. “If you reflect

back obvious feeling it makes the other person angry (and they would say something

like) "that’s obvious isn't it?" and " (You go) around in circles in the conversation".

Most respondents found the use of non-verbal responses either okay or easy to

use (66.7%). However, the researcher’s reflections noted that respondents reported

experiencing periods of silence during the conversation and most respondents agreed

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that they used questions to fill in the gaps, illustrated by the following statement,

"When the conversation went quiet I used questions". Similarly, 83.3% of respondents

found the use of non-verbal responses very useful or useful.

Results from subgroup B (Reality Therapy). Results from subgroup B indicate

that 88.8% of respondents found it either easy or very easy to find out about the

current problem. The researcher’s reflections noted that respondents used questions

to obtain information about the problem with little emphasis on finding out about

current coping strategies as can be seen by the following statement from the focus

group discussions, "I wouldn't talk about feeling stuff at the beginning".

Results indicate that 55.5% of respondents found it either very difficult or

difficult to devise an action plan and follow up. In particular the follow up was

suggested as being a difficult aspect of this skill as can be seen by the following

statements from focus group discussions, "(I) didn't want to bring it up again" and

"When it's a big problem you can be seen as being nosey". In particular it seems that

devising an action plan and following up was found by 66.7% of respondents to be

either very unhelpful or unhelpful, supported by comments such as, "Approaching

them specially might make them worry" and "It made her more uncomfortable-like

forcing her".

With regard to exploring the consequences for each alternative from subgroup

B (Reality Therapy), 44.4% of respondents found the skill either very unhelpful or

unhelpful reflected in the following statement, “(Exploring consequences was) an

overkill".

Results from subgroup C (Solution Focused Counselling). Results from

subgroup C (Solution Focused Counselling) found that 100% of respondents found

using closed questions either easy or very easy to use, and 77.8% of respondents

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found using closed questions either useful or very useful. Similarly, 88.9% of

respondents found using open questions easy or very easy to use and 77.8% of

respondents found using open questions useful. The ease of use and usefulness of

open and closed questions were reflected in the following comments, "It helped me

focus on what the other person was saying” and "Skills were useful”.

Results indicate that 77.7% found identifying the problem using open and

closed questions easy or very easy to do and 77.7% found identifying the problem

using open and closed questions, useful or very useful. The following statements

support these results; “It felt like the other person knew I was listening to them”, “ It

was easy to talk” and “It helped the person open up”.

Scaling the problem was found to be either easy or very easy to use by 77.8%

of respondents. However, respondents were divided with regard to its usefulness with

44.4 % finding scaling the problem either useful or very useful and 44.4% finding the

skill to be unhelpful. The following comments from focus group discussions suggest

that using a scaling question was an unfamiliar and somewhat unusual type of

questions. For example," The first time I said ‘ scale’ she thought I meant climb up

over the problem", and "The person recognised I was doing something different ".

The skill of determining a preferred position on the scale was found by 55.5%

of respondents to be, easy or very easy in helping their partner determine a preferred

position on the scale. However, 66.7% found the skill unhelpful or very unhelpful,

supported by the following comments, "The scale thing is weird" and “(It’s)

unfamiliar".

Visualising a goal for a positive outcome was a skill that 55.5% found either

very unhelpful or unhelpful. Comments reflected a feeling that helpers were left with

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a sense of incompletion at the end of the conversation. "I didn't know how to finish

the conversation" and "I didn't really have a conversation".

In subgroup C (solution focussed counselling), respondents were divided with

regard to how difficult or how easy it was using the skill of discovering exceptions to

the problem; 33.3% found it either easy or very easy to use and 33.3% found it

difficult to use. Similarly, with regard to using the skill of discovering actions to

enable movement up the scale, respondents were divided about how difficult or how

easy it was to use; 33.3% found it easy to use and 33.3% found it difficult to use. The

following comments reflect respondent’s ambivalence “seems like you're telling them

what to do. They know what they have got to do and then you tell them what to do but

they know already and so it's okay”, and "It doesn't feel natural".

Results from subgroup D (Validation and enhancement of typical adolescent

helping behaviours). Results clearly indicate that skills used in subgroup D were both

easy to use and useful except for using open questions emphasising curiosity and

interest. Fifty-eight point three percent of respondents found using open questions

very difficult or difficult. Statements from focus group discussions suggested that

open questions are more suited to using later in the conversation, for example, "It was

hard to know what to ask because I hadn't gained much knowledge yet".

Discussion

The present study obtained information about what young people say and do

in conversation to help each other to feel better and deal with problems. It also

identified those counselling skills which were easy for young people to use in helping

conversations and which were useful because they were compatible with adolescent

helping skills and behaviours and compatible with the way young people typically

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communicate with each other. In the following discussion the findings will be

discussed under headings pertaining to each of the research questions.

Research Question 1

Goals of counselling. In focus groups, the subjects were asked questions about

how they help each other. The results show that the goals young people have in

helping conversations are all consistent with the aims and goals of counselling and

counselling conversations as described in the counselling literature. For example,

Geldard and Geldard (2001) describe the goals of counselling as helping others to feel

better and to change; Wolfe and Dryden (1996) as enhancing the effectiveness and

well-being of individuals; Egan (1994), as helping others to manage debilitating

emotions and problem solving; Nelson-Jones (1997), as emotional healing and

developing personal growth skills and Sanders (1996), as improving well-being, a

greater sense of personal autonomy and resourcefulness and self understanding. It is

clear from the findings in the present study that the goals of a helping conversation for

young people include helping the person being helped to feel better, helping them to

solve problems and make decisions, and instilling hope and optimism.

The helping relationship. The findings show that young people share

comparable beliefs about the helping relationship to those described by Rogers (1965)

and Egan (1994). For example, Egan and Rogers describe helping as including

making and maintaining contact, listening and communicating, communicating

empathy, respect, trust, and confidentiality, being non-judgemental, understanding the

meaning of what the person is saying and deliberately communicating care and

attention to the person. Similarly, young people identified the categories of respect,

confidentiality, understanding, involvement, trust, personal disclosure, listening,

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creating a safe relationship, making contact and reassurance as being important in the

helping relationship.

The study identified that young people show respect for others in a helping

relationship by being able to respect and cope with silence in the conversation and

allowing the person being helped space and time during the process of helping. They

also show respect by being non-judgemental. Adolescents in the study found it

difficult to cope with silence in the conversation. However, they managed to cope

with this difficulty by believing that by showing commitment to the helping process

the troubled person would eventually respond to their presence.

The present study identifies that adolescents believe that a safe relationship is

necessary through the exclusivity of a one-on-one relationship, with confidentiality

and privacy, for self-disclosure to occur. Otherwise the risks of disclosure in terms of

stigmatisation and exposure would become evident and constrain the disclosure

process. This is consistent with the communication literature where self-disclosure

was found to occur depending on the setting, and the target of the self-disclosure

(Rosenfeld & Kendrick, 1984).

Personal disclosure. Geldard and Geldard (2001) claim that personal

disclosure by the person being helped is central to the counselling conversation if the

person is to feel better and find solutions to problems. Beaumont (1996), Chan (2001),

Henry, Reed, and McAllister (1995), Rotenberg (1995), Sullivan (1953), and Worcel

et al. (1999) believe that reciprocity in peer relationships is central to self-disclosure.

Buhrmester (1990) notes that adolescent peer friendships create an environment

where personal disclosure leads to social validation, social control, self-clarification,

and self-expression. The present study provided confirmation of this literature.

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Personal self-disclosure as viewed by young people in the present study

included both breadth and depth of information shared. Personal disclosure was seen

to be cathartic as well as an antecedent to problem solving and decision-making. The

subjects believed that self-disclosure helped both the helper and the person being

helped to clarify beliefs, opinions, thoughts, attitudes and feelings by talking about

them, and self-disclosure served the purpose of self-validation, that is, disclosing

information with the hope of seeking agreement and confirmation of their belief. Self-

disclosure also served the purpose of increasing reciprocity in the helping

relationship, for example, personal information revealed by either the helper or the

person being helped triggered self-disclosure by the other person and guaranteed

equality in the helping relationship. In all instances it appeared that self-disclosure

could only occur in an atmosphere where confidentiality and trust could be preserved.

Consistent with previous research (Wilson & Deanne, 2001) the subjects repeatedly

suggested that other aspects central to the helping relationship such as respect, safety

and confidentiality were essential components of the helping relationship for young

people.

Adolescent conversational characteristics and behaviours. The present study

provides confirmation of a number of findings that other studies have identified

regarding the conversational and relational behaviours of young people. It extends

these findings to identify the conversational and relational behaviours of young

people in the specific situation where they are engaged in helping conversations with

peers.

As anticipated, the joint actions that adolescent peers undertake in their career-

related conversations described by Young et al. (1999) have also been identified in the

present study as occurring in adolescent helping conversations. Young et al. identified

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that through the act of conversation, adolescents define their individual position and

express their beliefs and values. They also proposed that the nature of adolescent

peer-peer relationships provides a non-threatening atmosphere in which adolescents

experience the freedom to explore ideas and options. They further suggest that in the

adolescent peer conversation goals are realised through equitable exchanges. The

interactive nature of their conversation also allows them to re-examine and adjust

their respective positions. After examining the results, and on reflection, the

researcher concluded that the present study confirms the Young et al. findings. In the

current study, the repeated mention of conversational responses indicated that young

people regard conversation as meaningful helping behaviour among peers from the

point of view of both the helper and the person being helped. Transcript samples

suggest that the helping conversation described by young people represents a joint

action communication model that emphasises the degree of mutual influence that

occurs during the helping conversation. Put simply, the conversation isn't something

the helper does to the other; rather it is an activity they do together. The transactional

nature of communication during a helping conversation appears to arise from a

mutually reinforcing cycle. The quality of the relationship and the peer’s common

circumstances allow them to be mutually empathic and supportive.

It was expected that while some of the skills and behaviours used and

considered useful in a typical adolescent helping process would be the same as

described in the counselling literature, some would be different. The present study

confirms this expectation. The results from the present study support the literature

identifying the idiosyncratic nature of adolescent communication as described by

many authors (Chan, 2001; Noller, Feeney, & Peterson, 2001; Papini & Farmer, 1990;

Rafaelli & Duckett, 1989; Readdick & Mullis, 1997; Rotenberg, 1995; Turkstra,

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2001; Worcel et al., 1999; Young et al., 1999) and validates the researcher’s

expectation that adolescents have distinct ways in which they use conversational

characteristics to achieve the goals of a helping conversation and an appropriate

helping relationship.

Some of the categories of helping behaviour identified in the present study are

incompatible with those suggested in the counselling literature. The counselling

literature generally, and authors of peer counsellor training programs, caution trainees

against using particular language and phrases that may communicate judgemental

thoughts. However, the current study shows that young people express empathy by

being strongly evaluative and persuasive. They do this by offering endorsements to

indicate the helper’s solidarity with the situation being discussed, by sharing their

personal point of view, by giving advice and reassurance, and by making evaluative

responses. The study showed that statements that indicate agreement, loyalty,

affirmation, and declaring support for the other person are all ways in which young

people empathise with their peers. Additionally, strongly evaluative statements that

declared support for the other person or upheld and defended the other person to

indicate the helper’s solidarity with the situation being discussed contributed to the

helper consolidating a close relationship with the other person.

These findings directly contrast with Egan’s (1994) helping approach which

strongly suggests that non-evaluative skills such as reflecting thoughts, behaviours

and feelings are preferable in a helping relationship. Additionally, these findings

conflict with ideas about empathy described in the communication literature. For

example, Adler et al. (2001) contend that empathising is evident when non-evaluative

responses are made which are somewhat reflective in nature such as "I know how

important that was to you", "I can see that really worries you". It is clear from the

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study that adolescents do not use non-evaluative responses to communicate empathy

and understanding. They use categories of helping behaviour identified in the present

study but discouraged in the helping literature (Carr & Saunders, 1980; de Rosenroll,

1988; Morey & Miller, 1993; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter, 1989; Tindall, 1989;

Turner, 1999) such as offering endorsements, praising, recommending, sympathising,

advice giving, reassurance, emotional regulation, and involvement. These are used to

indicate that the helper is clearly able to understand their peer’s problem and to

establish a climate which is supportive, empathic and non-judgemental. In particular,

sharing of personal experiences indicated that the helper understood their peer’s

problem. Offering endorsements was used as a way of being empathic or taking the

other person’s perspective and occurred when the helper wanted to show that they

identified with the person being helped. Expressing empathy this way appeared to

contribute to and strengthen the transactional nature of the communication. It is clear

that the categories of offering endorsements and reassurance identified by subjects in

focus groups contrast with the literature’s definition of empathising as the transcript

statements in these categories often reflect strongly evaluative responses.

Peer counsellor training. The findings of the present study conflict with much

of the literature on adolescent peer helper training. In this literature, some

communication processes are described as “communication stoppers” or “roadblocks”

to communicating. Carr and Saunders (1980), Painter (1989), Sanders (1999) and

Tindall (1989) believe that these communication stoppers or roadblocks are

behaviours, which, although they appear to be helpful, are actually responses that are

negative in effect and retard helpful interpersonal relationships. Consequently,

adolescent peer helpers have been actively encouraged to recognise roadblocks and

communication stoppers and to learn new behaviours to use in their place. Responses

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such as persuading, advising, recommending, praising, supporting, sympathising,

diverting, and kidding, are all described as roadblocks and communication stoppers

and have been actively discouraged.

Research question 2

The present study identified those counselling microskills that young people

found easy to use and helpful with regard to establishing and maintaining a helping

relationship and those skills that maximised opportunities for self-disclosure.

Important discoveries with regard to the participants’ use of the counselling

microskills of active listening, instilling hope and optimism and problem solving will

be discussed under the respective headings.

Active listening skills. Most peer helper training programs include the

acquisition of the basic counselling skills of “active listening” (Carr & Saunders,

1980; de Rosenroll, 1988; Morey & Miller, 1993; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter,

1989; Tindall, 1989; Turner, 1999). As described in the literature, major components

of “active listening” are listening, use of non-verbal behaviour, minimal responses,

reflection of content, reflection of feeling, and summarising. These skills were used to

train subjects in subgroup A.

In the present study some components of "active listening" were found to be

helpful whereas others were not. Listening was found to be an essential part of the

conversational nature of helping from the point of view of both the helper and the

person being helped supporting the peer counsellor training focus. Listening was a

behaviour which the subjects believed provided an opportunity for personal self-

disclosure to occur during a conversation. The way the helper listened enabled them

to get desired results from others in a manner that maintained the relationship and on

terms that were acceptable to both parties.

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As anticipated, the results indicate that young people found using the skills of

reflection of content, reflection of feeling, and to some extent summarising, difficult

and unhelpful in helping conversations with their peers. The findings of the present

study support the difficulties identified in peer counsellor training programs for young

people (de Rosenroll, 1988). The reported difficulties have been identified as

including problems with reciprocity, among adolescent peer helpers. Adolescent peer

helpers also have reported experiencing problems when initially trying to use the

facilitative counselling skills of reflection in a helping conversation (Carr & Saunders,

1980). The current study confirms these difficulties when using these skills and

strongly suggests that the teaching of reflective listening skills in adolescent peer

counsellor training programs is inappropriate and unhelpful.

No respondents found the use of summarising useful and, on reflection, the

researcher concluded that respondents found it difficult to contain their summaries

without extending them to include the giving of advice. Generally, the skills taught in

subgroup A were distracting for helpers because they are so different from typical

adolescent responses and because they interfere with the flow of the helping

conversation. Additionally, transcribed comments suggest that the peer helpers felt

de-skilled in their natural helping behaviours when using these skills.

Consistent with the counselling and peer counsellor training literature (Egan,

1982; Geldard & Geldard, 2001; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Nelson-Jones, 1997;

Painter, 1989; Rogers, 1965; Sanders, 1996; Tindall, 1989; Wolfe & Dryden, 1996)

listening to others was considered to be a factor contributing to the emotional well

being of others in the helping conversation. Subjects in the present study indicated

agreement with the literature that listening generally needed to be accompanied by

responses that indicated that the helper has heard and understood the problem.

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Subjects confirmed that the use of minimal responses and non-verbal communication

skills as used in the "active listening" process were useful in helping conversations.

However, although minimal responses and non-verbal communication skills were

considered to be useful, the findings suggest that young people prefer to use direct

strategies to help their peers to feel better. This became clear following subgroup D

training which involved validation and enhancement of typical adolescent helping

behaviours.

Rather than using the skills of reflecting and summarising, the subjects in the

present study preferred to help their peers to feel better by providing emotional

regulation using distinct skills or strategies such as reassurance, understanding

through sharing similar personal experiences, communicating endorsements and by

digressing or distracting. Responses from subjects in the present study indicated that

helpers are aware of using these direct approaches. When using these approaches

what they do in helping conversations is to self-monitor. Self-monitoring is a process

of paying close attention to one's behaviour and using self-observations to shape the

way one communicates. This self-monitoring process increases one's effectiveness as

a communicator (Kolb, 1988; Sypher & Sypher, 1983).

Instilling hope and optimism. An unexpected finding in the present study was

the emphasis young people placed on instilling hope and optimism in the helping

conversation. Hope and optimism are processes used in varying degrees by most

people to cope with daily life. Counselling has been found to enhance the

contribution of the hope factor in helping the client to feel better and to change

(Snyder et al., 1999). However, very little is known about how to instil hope and

optimism in the person being helped, particularly in differing populations (Herth &

Cutcliffe, 2002). Some authors suggest that hope is interwoven with caring and the

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helping relationship (Cutcliffe, 1997). Frank and Frank (1991) suggest two additional

processes that instil hope and optimism in the client during the counselling process.

Firstly, they identify a counsellor who is hopeful as a factor contributing to a client's

sense of hope and optimism. Secondly, the explanation that the counsellor gives about

why the client is experiencing the presenting symptoms and the plausibility of this

rationale to the client also leads to the client's sense of hope in the future. The

specific strategies for conveying this hope are not fully understood but are seen to be

the result of a covert process occurring perhaps through the process of emotional

transference. The phenomena of emotional transference is well established within

counselling literature, usually in terms of the feeling the counsellor picks up from the

client and there is some suggestion that clients are able to "pick up " and "take on

board" the emotions projected into the counselling atmosphere by the counsellor

(Cutcliffe, 2004).

Consistent with the literature, the young people in the present study were

found to instil hope and optimism in their peers during a helping conversation using

all three processes suggested in the literature. These processes involve using the

helping relationship, being hopeful and giving explanations about why the other

person is experiencing the current problem. Additionally, the findings from subgroup

D (validation and enhancement of typical adolescent helping behaviours) show that

young people are openly direct and intentionally project their optimism and hope into

the helping conversation by disclosing their own sense of optimism and hope. Young

people project their optimism through reassurance and support by giving messages to

remove doubts or fears, give comfort, approve, and encourage.

Results from subgroup D (validation and enhancement of typical adolescent

helping behaviours) confirm that the responses such as persuading, advising,

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recommending, praising, supporting, sympathising, diverting and kidding are all

communication processes which are an expected part of adolescent helping

conversations and are perceived by adolescents to be helpful. This is not only with

regard to the helping relationship but also with regard to the goals of helping the other

person to feel better, solve problems and make decisions, and to instil hope and

optimism.

With regard to the strategy which involves providing an explanation of why

the person may be feeling the way they are, findings in the present study show that

adolescent peer helpers do this by sharing ideas from their own personal experiences.

They talk about their known experience of success in overcoming a similar problem.

Their intention being to impart a sense of hope for the future. Additionally, the

findings show that sometimes the adolescent helper will give their opinion about why

they think the person being helped feels the way they do, by providing another point

of view. The plausibility of their logic then leads to a sense of hope in the future.

Instilling hope often means finding out and affirming what it is that the person

really wants or desires and facilitating personal agency (Snyder et al., 1999). The

findings in the present study support the importance of personal agency in the helping

conversations. The subjects in the present study demonstrated their awareness of how

important it is to be in charge of their own lives through identifying the need for

collaboration between themselves and the young person being helped. Collaboration

contributes to the personal agency of the young person being helped thereby instilling

hope in future outcomes.

Problem solving. When approached with another’s problem the most common

reaction is advising (Notarius & Herrick,1998). The present study confirms that this

reaction also applies to adolescents as findings show that giving advice is expected as

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something likely to occur in a helping conversation when young people help each

other. Advice is most welcome under two conditions: when it has been requested, and

when the adviser respects the readiness of the recipient to receive advice (Goldsmith

& Fitch, 1997; Goldsmith & MacGeorge, 2000). Additionally, it has been found that

while advice may be a potentially problematic way to respond to someone who is

distressed, Goldsmith and McGeorge (2000) suggest that the use of politeness

strategies can mitigate threat and enhance the effectiveness of advice messages. The

authors identify that giving advice depends on the power of the speaker over the

listener, and the social distance between speaker and listener. They identify that

adding material that acknowledges that the information being offered is personal

advice mitigates issues with regard to power and social distance. For example, the use

of in-group language, informal address terms, giving reasons for, or positive

consequences of an action, presupposing knowledge or common ground and

expressing understanding or sympathy with the listener are responses which the

listener accepts when receiving advice about a problem. Findings from the present

study confirm that young people recognise the importance of these conditions.

Researcher reflections of the data detect that for young people ambiguous statements

and the announcement of a problem are signals that advice is being sought. While

these signals are indirect, they are recognised as requests for advice or input from the

helper by both the helper and person being helped. Findings confirm that young

people proceed confidently in the conversation by offering advice or opinions because

they believe that the person being helped will not take the advice unless it fits for

them. This belief is confirmed in the present study. Young people respect the

readiness of the person being helped by recognising that while a particular course of

action worked for them it may not be right for someone else. Additionally, young

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people recognise that the choice and responsibility for accepting suggestions and

advice is up to the person requesting help. Findings in the present study show that

rather than being ambivalent about giving advice as a way of helping others to solve

their problems, young people are very clear about the circumstances under which

advice should be given. They are very conscious of the perils of giving advice and

their rules about when, and when not, to give advice fit well within the conditions that

support the usefulness of advice giving as described by Goldsmith (2000), Goldsmith

and Fitch (1997) and Goldsmith and MacGeorge (2000).

In her research in peer collaboration and discourse patterns in learning

situations, Chan (2001) indicated the importance of collaborative explanation in

adolescent conversation. She extended existing research in characterising differing

conversational patterns that deepen or suppress student’s communication and found

that the use of the components of problem recognition, question formulation and

explanation promoted peer collaboration in conversation. This process seemed

particularly important in collaborative conceptual change as peers scaffolded each

other to construct explanations and generate alternative hypotheses. In the present

study young people recognised that advice giving occurred within a process of

collaborative problem solving confirming Chan’s findings. Transcript comments

from focus groups indicated that young people believe that working together to find

solutions and make decisions allowed the person being helped to stay in control of

solving the problem or making a decision. Both the helper and the person being

helped acknowledged the simultaneous role of the helper in facilitating the problem

solving process. In the present study following training in subgroup B (Reality

Therapy) and subgroup C (Solution focussed counselling) findings show that young

people find a step-by-step process of problem solving easy to use. However, it was

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found that a step-by-step process that does not incorporate opportunities for giving

advice, sharing another point of view, and personal sharing of similar experiences was

confusing and unsatisfying for the helper and did not contribute to a collaborative

conceptual exchange.

The researcher’s recorded observations during focus group discussions post

subgroup training suggested that uncertainty about using the complete step-by-step

process of problem solving from either subgroup B or subgroup C appeared to relate

to a lack of opportunity to use typical adolescent helping skills to ‘deepen the

conversational partners communication’ in the way described by Chan (2001). The

step by step process used to train subjects in subgroups B and C focused on teaching

students either a five or seven-step process of problem solving which included the use

of open and closed questions but did not encourage participants to give advice, or

describe their own past experiences which could be taken as suggestions on how to

solve the problem. Additionally, subgroup B training emphasised a facilitative

problem solving process where the helper guides the person through a sequence of

steps aimed at facilitating personal agency in resolving the problem. On reflection the

researcher concluded that subjects found that this process emphasised the helper’s

role as someone with a set agenda rather than as a reciprocal partner in the problem

solving process. Interestingly, this problem solving process is used in the peer

counsellor training programs described in the literature. Findings from the present

study indicate that this problem solving process contributes to difficulties identified

by de Rosenroll (1988) with regard to status differences among adolescent peer

helpers (see chapter two). It is clear that using this specific problem solving process is

unsuitable for inclusion in adolescent peer counsellor training programs.

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Training in subgroup C focussed exclusively on using questions to enhance

personal agency through connecting with the person's resources and strengths which

ultimately lead to discovering a solution to the problem. Researcher reflections noted

that because of the strong use of questions, in subgroup C training and, because of the

indirect process of solution finding, helpers were left with a sense of incompletion at

the end of a conversation and a sense of lack of involvement in the conversation. The

reliance on questions only during the solution focussed process, and the indirect

approach to solving a problem both appear to limit and weaken the transactional

nature of the helping conversation from the helper’s point of view.

Although both of the step-by-step problem solving processes used in

subgroups B and C enable the conversational partners to focus on problem

recognition, question formulation and explanation suggested by Chan (2001), the

step-by-step process did not provide an opportunity to promote collaborative

conceptual change or opportunity to scaffold each other so that explanations could be

constructed and alternative hypotheses generated.

Conclusion

The present study confirms findings from previous studies that identify that

young people demonstrate idiosyncratic conversational skills and behaviours when

communicating with their peers. It confirms that young people have the same goals

and concept of the helping relationship as described in counselling literature. It

extends prior research by detailing the specific conversational skills and relational

behaviours valued and used by adolescents in helping conversations with their peers,

in particular those skills which facilitate self-disclosure and reciprocity in the helping

relationship. The findings of the present study indicate that adolescents prefer to

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create empathy through the use of strongly evaluative and persuasive responses rather

than using non-evaluative responses.

The present study confirms the ease of use and usefulness of some counselling

microskills included in current peer counsellor training programs with adolescents. It

also identifies those counselling microskills used in current adolescent peer counsellor

training programs which young people find difficult to use or unhelpful in helping

conversations with their peers. Of particular importance is the finding that reflective

listening skills were perceived by young people as being difficult to use and

unhelpful.

Current programs suggest that some typical adolescent conversational skills

used by young people should be actively discouraged when helping their peers and

that new skills should be learnt and used in their place. The present study provides

strong support for the suggestion that rather than being unhelpful, the typical

conversational skills used by young people in helping conversations are in fact useful

responses that are not negative in effect and do not retard helpful interpersonal

relationships among their peers in helping conversations.

It is clear from the findings of the study that, for young people, the

transactional nature of a helping conversation, which includes self-disclosure, is

important and that some counselling microskills contribute more to this than others.

Similarly, the findings reflect the importance of the timing and sequence of using the

skills during the conversation so that the transactional nature of the conversation and

reciprocity in the relationship is preserved.

An unexpected finding was that adolescents place a strong emphasis on

instilling hope and optimism. Additionally, young people find that advice giving is

useful subject to conditions, which they understand.

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Step-by-step problem solving processes interfere with the transactional nature

of adolescent conversational processes. Additionally, they create problems with

regard to status difference as a result of skill acquisition. The findings support the

development of a problem solving process that does not compromise the

conversational nature of helping or interfere with the reciprocity of the relationship.

Respondents reflected a sense of being de-skilled in the use of natural helping

behaviours while learning new counselling microskills. This has implications with

regard to designing effective programs to train young people as peer counsellors.

Because of these findings it was decided that the training program in Study 2 would

not focus on training peer counsellors in specific counselling microskills. Instead the

training program would focus on the "process" of a helping conversation and how to

incorporate those counselling microskills that young people find easy to use and

useful into typical adolescent helping behaviour. In Study 2, peer counsellors were

trained using a model where the emphasis was on enhancing the process of a typical

adolescent helping conversation rather than incorporating typical adolescent

behaviours into a skill based training program. The extent to which the

implementation of the findings from the present study address the issues of skill

implementation, role attribution and status differences were evaluated in Study 2.

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CHAPTER 7

Study 2 Qualitative Data Results and Discussion

Study 2 continues to address the topic of adolescent peer counselling by addressing

the following research questions (question three to five of the project):

Research Questions

3. How does a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program affect the

participants’ experiences as peer counsellors with regard to skill implementation, role

attribution and status?

4. How does a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program, influence peer

counsellors’ emotional competence, self-concept, and the coping strategies used?



An adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program was developed and used as

the intervention in this study to address the research questions. The program is considered to

be an alternative to current adolescent peer counsellor training programs because it combines

the use of typical adolescent helping behaviours and communication processes with specific

counselling skills from adult counselling models and approaches identified by young people

as valuable, helpful and easy to use. This training model contrasts with current training

programs which are based on the assumption that teaching effective helping skills from adult

counselling models is best done in discrete and finite blocks, each with a beginning and an

end, and then integrating all that has been learned (Carr & Saunders, 1980; de Rosenroll,

1988; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter, 1989; Tindall, 1989). The adolescent helping

behaviours and communication processes and the specific counselling skills from adult

counselling models and approaches incorporated into the program were identified by the

participants in Study 1 as being valuable, helpful and easy to use. The peer counsellor

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training program developed was designed in collaboration with the subjects of the study

using an intervention research process.

Research Question 3

In this chapter, the results of data collected using qualitative measures to address

research question three will be reported and discussed. In the following chapter (chapter

eight) the results of data collected using quantitative measures to addresses research

questions four and five will be reported and discussed.

Participants

Study 2 initially comprised 27 subjects (20 females and seven males) who had

completed training in Study 1 in specific counselling microskills in any one of the subgroups

A, B, C or D. During Study 2, seven subjects dropped out of the program leaving 20 (15

females and five males) to complete the study. The final group comprised six females from

grade eight with a mean age of 12.6 years, three females and three males from grade nine

with a mean age of 13 years, two females from grade 10 with a mean age of 14.6 years, and

four females and two males from grade 11 with a mean age of 15.5 years.

Description of the Intervention

The findings from Study 1 influenced the design of the training model used as the

intervention in Study 2. In Study 1, it was found that subjects believed that they were de-

skilled in the use of their natural helping behaviours when learning new and different

counselling microskills and that the majority of skills, which subjects found both easy to use

and useful, were those used in subgroup D (subgroup D focused on the validation and

enhancement of typical adolescent helping skills). It was also found that the subjects

believed that the transactional model of communicating during the helping conversation was

important and that the timing when using skills and sequence of the conversation contributed

to reciprocity in the conversation. Study 1 discovered that the themes of understanding,

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confidentiality, trust, and a safe relationship were seen to be essential tenets of the helping

relationship.

To overcome the difficulty experienced by subjects with regard to feeling deskilled

in their natural helping behaviours, it was decided that the training model in this study

should not follow typical peer helper training program models. Most peer helper training

programs focus on training peer counsellors in each specific facilitative counselling

microskill following a problem solving model and then integrating all that has been learned

(Carr & Saunders, 1980; de Rosenroll, 1988; Egan, 1994; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter,

1989; Tindall, 1989). Instead, a training process was adopted that matched current trends in

the psychology of educating adolescents, (Boekaerts, 2002) as discussed in chapter 2. The

training model developed aimed to encourage subjects to become aware of their goals as

helpers, to generate thoughts, feelings, and actions in order to obtain their goals, and to work

systematically toward the attainment of their goals using their typical conversational skills

and processes with useful counselling microskills. It was decided to retain the personal

growth aspects of typical adolescent peer counsellor training models in the training process.

Study 1 found that the conversational nature of a helping conversation was essential,

and that using new and unfamiliar counselling skills was deskilling in that it led to

participants focusing on unfamiliar language and processes of communication. Additionally,

training programs which rely on a model where specific counselling microskills are taught in

discrete and finite blocks and then integrated, have not successfully eliminated the

difficulties of skill implementation, status difference and role attribution (Carr, 1984; de

Rosenroll, 1988). Because of these findings, the researcher decided to use the process of a

helping conversation as the underlying context for the training program rather than teaching

specific skills in an attempt to eliminate these difficulties. Within this context, counselling

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microskills that young people find easy to use and useful were introduced in a way that

enabled them to be included within a typical adolescent helping conversation.

The training model was developed using an intervention research framework. The

subjects were trained as peer counsellors while implementing the findings identified in Study

1 and while monitoring the training with regard to the ongoing learning needs of the subjects

in the training group. During weekly training sessions, the trainers modelled the process of

an adolescent helping conversation, using helpful and useful adolescent helping skills. As

well, the experience of counselling and being helped was simulated by subjects in helping

conversations using role-plays. The role-play topics were selected by the subjects and agreed

upon by the whole group as being issues relevant to young people. Role-plays made it

possible for the researcher and participants to reflect and to seek specific feedback regarding

the developmental stages of a helping conversation, to identify which typical adolescent

counselling microskills could be used and to take into account the ease with which the

subjects could incorporate specific helpful counselling microskills into the helping

conversation. Additionally, the feedback regarding the interaction between the helper and the

person being helped during the conversation was obtained.

Feedback focused on whether the helping conversation was helpful or unhelpful with

regard to whether the person being helped could self-disclose and feel comfortable and the

peer counsellors’ perceptions of whether they achieved positive outcomes as a result of the

conversation. Findings contributed to the ongoing development of the training program. The

training program involved 12 weeks of training. The researcher and a research assistant, a

psychologist with experience in facilitating groups with young people, provided 13.5 hours

of peer counsellor training with six training sessions of 35 minutes duration alternating with

six training sessions of one hour and 40 minutes duration. An additional 2 hours was

required for each subject to participate in four helping conversations. Two conversations

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were used to assess each participant with regard to their counselling skills. Participants were

also required to fulfil the role of a person needing help using a personal problem of their own

in two conversations. The researcher provided feedback to the peer counsellor on completion

of each assessment conversation to ensure ethical accountability, and to award each subject

accreditation as a peer counsellor in the school community. A full outline of the adolescent

peer counsellor training program finally developed is presented in Appendix I.

On completion of training, participants engaged in the process of counselling their

peers. Fortnightly meetings were held with the researcher and the school counsellor. Group

meetings were constructed so that the whole group would meet together and then be divided

into two groups according to their developmental stage (either early or late adolescence), that

is grades eight and nine and grades 10 and 11. Group meetings ensured that participants did

not attempt to handle problems that were beyond their capabilities. Group meetings were

unstructured and provided opportunities for participants to meet together and to share their

experiences of peer counselling.

Procedure and measures

Focus groups and open-ended survey items were used to address research question

three. Data from focus groups and open-ended surveys provided information related to the

peer counsellors’ experience of becoming a peer counsellor and in particular about each

participants’ experience as a peer counsellor with regard to skill implementation, role

attribution and status. In Study 2 focus group discussions were conducted immediately post-

intervention (T2), at three months post-intervention (T3) and again at six months (T4). Focus

group discussions were audio taped and were transcribed verbatim. As in Study 1, Morgan

and Krueger's (1998) phenomenological methodology was used to identify and organise

themes from the data gathered. Commonalities that reflected and lay beneath the essential

meaning of the phenomenon of helping and being helped were used to describe the helping

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experience. Open-ended surveys were conducted at the same times, transcribed, and data

was examined using emergent theme analysis from survey responses.

To discover whether the peer counsellor training program influenced participants’

emotional competence, The Self Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire (Schutte, et

al, 1998) was completed. To assess the self-concept of participants, each student completed

the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale (Piers, Harris, & Herzberg, 1984). The

Adolescent Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993) was used to identify the coping

strategies used by participants and a School Climate Survey developed by the researcher was

used to identify participants’ perceptions of the current school climate.

Time 1


emotional competence, their self-concept, their choice of coping strategies, and their

perceptions of school climate the four measures outlined above were first administered prior

to training in Study 1 (T1).

Time 2

To discover the way participants experienced themselves as peer counsellors, focus

group discussions and open-ended surveys were used to collect data immediately following

the 12 week training intervention (T2). Three mixed gender focus group discussions were

conducted with six participants in one group and seven in the other two groups. Each group

was matched as closely as possible to contain equal numbers of students from each grade.

Two of the focus group discussions were moderated by the researcher and one by the

research assistant and were unstructured allowing subjects to respond in their own words.


emotional competence, their self-concept, their choice of coping strategies, and their

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perceptions of school climate immediately following training, the four measures outlined

above were administered at T2.

Time 3

To discover the way participants experience themselves as peer counsellors at three

months post-intervention (T3), focus group discussions and open-ended surveys were again

used. As a result of feedback from focus group discussions at T2, subjects were divided into

two groups according to their developmental stage (either early or late adolescence). At T3

one mixed gender focus group was moderated by the researcher and conducted with 10

subjects from grades eight and nine (early adolescents). The other mixed gender focus group

was moderated by the research assistant and conducted with seven subjects from grades 10

and 11 (late adolescents).

To discover whether the peer counsellor training program and acting in the role of

peer counsellor influenced participants’ emotional competence, their self-concept, their

choice of coping strategies, and their perceptions of school climate at three months following

training, the four measures outlined above were administered at T3.

Time 4

To discover the way participants experienced themselves as peer counsellors at six

months post-intervention (T4), focus group discussions, and open-ended surveys were used.

At T4 two mixed gender focus group discussions were conducted. One focus group was

moderated by the researcher and conducted with eight early adolescent subjects and the

research assistant moderated the other focus group with six late adolescents subjects.

The four measures outlined above were administered at T4 to assess changes in the

peer counsellors’ perceptions of emotional competence, self-concept, choice of coping

strategies, and school climate.

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The researcher’s reflections and field notes were recorded in a journal and were used

to reflect upon data gathered from training sessions, focus group discussions, and open-

ended surveys. In this project it was assumed that the researcher could contribute data as

well as analysis by viewing the research findings through a personal and professional

theoretical lens and then linking and weaving together insights developed in a number of

different ways.

Table 7.1 summarises the data gathering procedures used in this study, at what times

they were used and with which subjects.

Table 7.1

Data gathering procedures, times used and subjects included.

Data gathering process

Pre-intervention prior to Study 1 T1

Immediately post-intervention T2

Three months post-intervention T3

Six months post-intervention T4

Focus groups Group 1 mixed gender, n = 6 Group 2 mixed gender, n = 6 Group 3 mixed gender, n = 7

Group 1 early adolescents, mixed gender, n = 10 Group 2 late adolescents, mixed gender, n = 7

Group 1 early adolescents, mixed gender, n = 8 Group 2 late adolescents, mixed gender, n = 6

Open-ended surveys

N=17 N=14 N=17

The Self Report Emotional Competence Survey

N=17

N=17 N=17 N=17

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

N=17

N=17 N=17

N=17

Adolescent Coping Scale

N=17

N=17 N=17

N=17

School Climate Survey

N=17

N=17 N=17

N=17

Researcher reflections

N=20 N=20 N=20 N=20

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Results of Qualitative Data

Results of qualitative data are now reported and discussed, with quantitative data

results reported and discussed in chapter 8. Research question three was concerned with how

the adolescent peer counsellor training program which was developed in this study affected

the subjects’ experience of themselves as a peer counsellor. In particular, it sought to

discover how the training program affected their perception of themselves as peer

counsellors with regard to skill implementation, role attribution and status. To discover the

way participants experienced themselves as peer counsellors, focus group discussions and

open-ended surveys were used to collect data immediately following the 12 weeks training

intervention (T2), three months post-intervention (T3) and six months post-intervention

(T4). Open-ended surveys and verbatim transcripts from focus group discussion audiotapes

were examined to extract words, concepts, and descriptions that were conceptually similar

and these responses were then combined to form categories. Interpreting which responses

should receive the most emphasis was decided by how many groups or open-ended surveys

mentioned the topic, how many people within each of the groups mentioned the topic and

how much energy and enthusiasm the topic generated among the participants. Categories

with responses mentioned less than three times were omitted as it was felt that those

category responses did not generate high levels of energy or enthusiasm among the

participants or reflect accurately the issues relating to skill implementation, role attribution

or status. Grouping together the categories to form more precise and complete explanations

about the phenomena of skill implementation, role attribution and status contributed to the

formation of themes. Themes and categories were recorded under the headings of skill

implementation, role attribution and status.

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Skill implementation

Themes and categories under this heading include the responses from open-ended

surveys and focus group discussions which described the participants’ experience as a peer

counsellor when using counselling skills in a helping conversation, from their experience of

receiving help during training and assessment conversations, and their predictions about how

their peers might respond when receiving help from peer counsellors. Themes and categories

reflecting the participants’ experiences of skill implementation at T2, T3 and T4 are

summarised in Tables 7.2 to 7.4.

Time 2 –Immediately post-intervention

While peer counsellors had experimented with using skills in a helping conversation

during training they had not been formally introduced as peer helpers into the wider school

community at T2. The themes are arranged in descending order of frequency of mention and

both themes and categories are reported as percentages of the responses collected. The

themes and categories identified under the heading of Skill implementation at T2 are

summarised in Table 7.2. Results are reported under theme headings.

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Table 7.2

Skill implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2

Themes

Responses for the theme

%

Categories

Peer Counsellor Responses (% Within

each theme)

Predicted responses from peers (% Within

each theme)

59 Open questions to explore current situation

32 34

Offering suggestions 20 21 Exploring options and choices 16 8 Self-disclosure 16 4 Giving advice based on similar

experiences 12 17

1. Most useful skills

Reassuring/affirming

4 13

2. Using the counselling skills and process

26

Conversational and transactional communication

100 100

15 Attainment 62 3. The training experience

Limitations 38

Note. Total number of responses = 83. 59% of responses focused on comments regarding the usefulness of individual skills, 26% of responses focused on using the skills, and 15% of responses focused on the training experience.

Most useful skills. This theme included categories referring to the skills and processes

found to be the most important and useful in the conversation. Responses referring to ‘open

questions to explore the current situation’ and ‘offering suggestions’ were more frequently

mentioned as the skills that were particularly valuable for the peer counsellor and perceived

as being valuable for their peers.

Responses indicating input from the peer counsellor in the form of ‘self-disclosure’

(16%) and ‘exploring options and choices’ (16%) were more frequently mentioned by peer

counsellors as valuable for them, but not predicted by peer counsellors as being valuable for

their peers (‘self-disclosure’, 4%) and (‘exploring options and choices’, 8%).

In contrast ‘giving advice’ (17% of responses) and ‘reassuring/affirming’ (13% of

responses) were predicted by peer counsellors as more valuable for their peers than for the

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peer counsellor. Four of the six items most frequently mentioned are typical adolescent

helping skills enhanced during the training program.

The two microcounseling skills most valued by peer counsellors and seen as helpful

for recipients from the peer counsellors’ perspective were identified as ‘open questions to

explore the current situation’ and ‘exploring options and choices’. Both the skills were

identified in Study 1 as being helpful, useful and easy to use and were introduced into the

training program

Using the counselling skills and processes. The category of ‘conversational and

transactional communication’ accounted for all of the responses recorded from participants

in this theme. Transcribed words such as “relaxed”, “casual” and statements such as

“...going with the flow” described peer counsellors’ perceptions of the value of this process

when using the counselling skills and processes, and “...it felt like I was trying to solve my

own problems” was a typical responses from their peers’ perspective.

The training experience. The categories included in this theme consisted of responses

reflecting the peer counsellors’ satisfaction with the skills available to them as well as their

awareness of and confidence in using either the skills or process of helping conversation.

The responses suggest that the majority of peer counsellors indicated satisfaction

with the basic counselling skills and processes available to them following the training.

These responses are reflected in the category of ‘attainments’ (62%) and are illustrated by

the following examples; “I’m more confident in helping people and know what I'm doing

now instead of just saying words”, "(I am) more confident now knowing I've got more skills

to rely on" and "the things I actually say to help my friends actually mean something now,

like I'm actually doing something more than just... it works".

However, some responses (38%) from peer counsellors indicated dissatisfaction with

the basic counselling skills and processes available to them as reflected in the category of

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‘limitations’ and illustrated in the following examples; “...basically a lot of skills we learned

were natural skills like what you already know", and "I would like to learn some things that

aren't just commonsense things and not just the ways that we already help people".

Researcher reflections of transcripts concluded that these responses indicate individual

differences in competence with regard to prosocial behaviour as well as an expectation for

some peer counsellors that peer counselling is a complex process. There was no evidence of

participants feeling de-skilled in their helping skills, although the results indicated a slight

difference between the levels of satisfaction experienced by peer counsellors with regard to

counselling conversations.

Time 3 - three months post-intervention

Peer counsellors had used conversational helping skills in helping conversations and

had been formally introduced as peer counsellors into the wider school community for three

months at T3. The responses from open-ended surveys and focus group discussions were

recorded separately for early adolescent peer counsellors (grades eight and nine) and for late

adolescent peer counsellors (grades 10 and 11).

Themes and categories under this heading include references to the skills processes

and the training experience and the participants’ experience of executing those skills and

processes in the helping conversation. The themes are arranged in descending order of

frequency of mention, and both themes and categories are reported as percentages of the

responses collected.

The themes identified under the heading of Skill implementation at T3 are

summarised in Table 7.3. Results are reported under theme headings.

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Table 7.3


Themes


%

Categories

Early adolescent responses (% Within

each theme)

Late adolescent responses (% Within

each theme)

51 Skills 54 46 1. Training components most valued and preferred

Process of a conversation

46 54

2. Skill use 46 Combining skills with process 73 100 Complexity of issues

27

Note. Total number of response = 93. 51% of responses focused on the training components most valued and preferred, 46% of responses focused on skill use.

Training components most valued and preferred. The categories in this theme

include responses that reflect the participants’ emphasis or focus during a helping

conversation with regard to using counselling skills. There were an overall high percentage

of responses from both groups contributing to the categories of ‘skills’ and ‘process of a

conversation’.

Participants within each group were divided with regard to which components they

found the most valuable, for example, “I think the skills helped most cause I already knew

how to have a conversation”, “having a helping conversation is easier now cause we have

skills to stop awkward silences and stuff that make the conversation harder” as opposed to

“I think the way the conversation goes (is most valuable) cause the skills you can put in

anywhere, but like, you have to put them in a certain way to make it actually feel

comfortable to talk” and “it’s a lot easier to handle conversations cause you know where

you are going or you can feel it”,

Skill use. The high percentage of responses from late adolescent peer counsellors

which focussed on the topic of ‘combining skills with process’ (100%) indicated a

preference for combining both skills and process during the conversation compared with

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early adolescent peer counsellors which made up 73% of the responses. Researcher

reflections on the data concluded that the relatively even distribution of responses between

skills, the process of a conversation, and combining skills with process indicated the

participants’ awareness of the difference between skills and process and individual

differences with regard to the flexibility and freedom when using any of the components.

Time 4 -six months post-intervention

Peer counsellors had used conversational helping skills in helping conversations for

six months following training and had been acting as peer counsellors into the wider school

community for six months at T4. The responses from open-ended surveys and focus group

discussions were recorded separately for early adolescent peer counsellors (grades eight and

nine) and for late adolescent peer counsellors (grades 10 and 11).

Themes and categories under this heading include references to the skills processes

and the training experience and the participants’ experience of executing those skills and

processes in the helping conversation. The themes are arranged in descending order of

frequency of mention and both themes and categories are reported as percentages of the


The themes identified under the heading of Skill implementation at T4 are

summarised in Table 7.4 Results are reported under theme headings.

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Table 7.4


Themes


%

Categories


each theme)

Late adolescent responses

(% Within each theme)

53.5 Raised awareness of skill use 67 40 1. Skill awareness Raised awareness of helping opportunities

33 60

2. Skill use

46.5

Integrating skills into typical adolescent conversation

100 100

Note. Total number of responses = 56. 53.5% of responses focused on discussion regarding skill awareness, 46.5% of responses focused on using the skills.

Skill awareness. The categories included in this theme consisted of responses

reflecting the participants’ awareness of helping opportunities and awareness of using the

skills, in a helping conversation. Results indicate that early adolescent peer counsellors (67%

of responses) were more aware of using the skills during a helping conversation compared

to late adolescent peer counsellors (40% of responses). Typical responses from early

adolescent peer counsellors include “I have been in situations where I have helped people

and used the skills I learned and been conscious of (using the skills)”.

Late adolescent peer counsellors’ responses (60%) focused more on their awareness

of opportunities when helping could occur, compared to early adolescent peer counsellors’

responses (33%) as can be seen by the following examples, “I always recognise when I am

in a helping conversation”, “being a peer counsellor enables me to recognise more quickly

when I’m in a conversation where I can help someone”.

Skill use. The only category discussed in this theme included responses reflecting the

participants’ perception of their ability to incorporate the learned skills and processes into

typical adolescent conversation when helping others. Typical responses included “it is easy

to make it sound natural during a helping conversation”, and “it is easy to actually apply

the skills into a conversation”.

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Role attribution

Role attribution was defined as a function assumed by peer counsellors in a particular

situation and as a feature expected of someone in a particular situation. Themes included

under this heading reflect the peer counsellors experience of their role with regard to their

relationship with others and execution of their role as peer counsellor.

Themes and categories reflecting the participants’ experiences of role attribution at

T2, T3 and T4 are summarised in Tables 7.5. to 7.7. The themes are arranged in descending

order of frequency of mention and both themes and categories are reported as percentages of

the responses collected.

Time 2 –Immediately post-intervention


surveys and focus group discussions which described the participants’ experiences as a peer

counsellor in helping conversations, from their experience of receiving help during training

and assessment conversations and their predictions about how their peers might respond

when receiving help from peer counsellors. The themes and categories identified under the

heading of role attribution at T2 are summarised in Table 7.5. Results are reported under

theme headings.

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Table 7.5

Role attribution themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2

Themes


%

Categories

Responses from the

Peer Counsellor Perspective (% Within

each theme)


each theme)

40 Openness to personal disclosure 31 6 Natural, free-flowing and non pressuring conversation 14 32 Being non-judgemental/not acting superior 14 15 Following the process and using skills 11 12 Having similar experience 11 9 Supportive/reassuring/friendly 9 17

1. Enhancers of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor

Peer counsellor self-disclosure

9 9

23 Feeling Okay 29 20 Concern 21 6 Confident/confidence in the process 21 27 Raised self-awareness 16

2. Emotional experience of the conversation

Anxiety/Relief

13 47

23 Recipient less confused 35 21 Positive change in recipient’s emotions 30 10 Collaborative problem solving 20 16 Unloading the problem/validation 10 37

3. Perception of success

Normalising

5 16

14 Unfamiliarity with the conversational partner 33 40 Severity/simplicity of the problem 26 20 Following the process and using skills 20 10

4. Constraints of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor

Pauses/silence

20 30

Note. Total number of responses = 172. 40% of responses focused on enhancers in the conversation, 23% of responses focused on emotional experience of peer counsellors in the role, 23% of responses focused on perceptions of success, 14% of responses focused on constraints in the conversation.

Enhancers of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor. Categories listed

in this theme included responses describing those factors that enhanced or supported the peer

counsellor or their peers during the helping conversation. Frequent mention by peer

counsellors (31% of responses) regarding their peers’ ‘openness to personal disclosure’

contributed to their positive experience during the helping conversation but were predicted

as being less important for their peers (6% of responses), examples include “my partner was

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friendly and open”, “ ...she was open and talkative” and “(my partner was) open and

honest”. Researcher reflections of the data concluded that, at this stage, peer counsellors

relied on a cooperative partner to assist them with focusing on skill implementation and to

ensure positive outcomes of the conversation.

The categories of ‘natural and free-flowing /non pressuring conversation’ as well as

being ‘supportive/reassuring and friendly’ were frequently mentioned by peer counsellors

(32% and 17% of responses respectively) when expressing their predictions about important

features that might enhance the conversation for their peers, for example “letting me

decide”, “supportive” and “not pressuring me to do something”. Responses in all other

categories were mentioned as being equally important for peer counsellors and also

important for their peers with regard to factors enhancing the conversation.

Emotional experience of the conversation. Transcribed statements and responses that

reflected the emotional experience of the peer counsellor and their predictions of how their

peers might respond emotionally were included in the categories of this theme. The

categories of ‘okay’ and ‘confident/confidence in the process’ included positive descriptions

by peer counsellors (29% and 21% of responses respectively) when describing their

emotional experiences of helping conversations. ‘Confident/confidence in the process’ was

predicted by peer counsellors (27% of responses) to be a reaction that was particularly

important for their peers to experience during the conversation. Researcher reflections of the

transcribed data concluded that the categories of ‘raised self-awareness’, ‘feeling okay’ and

‘confident/confidence in the process’ indicated a high level of self-assuredness with regard

to conducting a helping conversation.

Peer helpers frequently mentioned ‘concern’ for their conversational partner as a

prominent emotion during the helping conversation with regard to the problem being

discussed (21% of responses) examples include “...(I was) worried about her situation and

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how it was affecting her emotionally”, and “I felt sorry for her”. Additionally, participants

frequently mentioned (16% of responses) a ‘raised awareness’ of others’ feelings and

concerns during the conversation. Examples include “I could tell by the look on her face”

and “I used to just let out what came into my head and then I may have hurt them...now I am

more aware of their feelings”.

Responses in the category of ‘anxiety/relief’ were more frequently predicted by peer

counsellors (47% of responses) as reactions likely to be experienced by their peers, for

example “...relief that I was telling someone” and “...nervous and worried”.

Perception of success. Categories included in this theme reflect either the peer

counsellors’ emotion, or their prediction of how peers might respond, with regard to positive

outcomes of the helping conversation. Peers appearing ‘less confused’ (35% of responses),

was considered to be an indicator of success by peer counsellors and predicted as a being

somewhat of an indicator of successes, for their peers (21% of responses), examples include,

“(she was) less confused”, “(she) made good suggestions based on her experience”, and “(I

felt) no confusion at the end”. Experiencing a ‘positive change in emotions’ was considered

to be an indicator of success by peer counsellors (30% of responses), for example “her

spirits brightened” but predicted not to be the case for their peers (10% of responses).

The categories of ‘unloading the problem/validation’ (37% of responses), and

‘normalising’ (16% of responses) were predicted by peer counsellors to be indicators of a

successful helping conversation for their peers, examples include “checking that she

understood”, and “...(I) got things off my chest”. ‘Collaborative problem solving’ was also

seen by peer counsellors as a process which seemed to contribute to the success of the

conversation for both the peer counsellor and the recipient, for example“(we) came up with a

solution together”.

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Constraints of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor. Transcript

statements indicating negative experiences which occurred during the peer counsellors

helping conversations and statements which implied that those experiences constrained or

restricted the conversation were included in this theme.

Responses regarding ‘Unfamiliarity with the conversational partner’ were frequently

mentioned as a constraint for both the peer counsellor (33%) and in particular predicted as a

constraint for their peers (40%) during the helping conversation. Responses from peer

counsellors such as “this person is not my friend”, “...chatting with someone I don’t know”

and “not knowing her and feeling responsible”, along with responses from peer counsellors

in the position of being helped such as “I didn’t know them”, “not knowing the person (was

challenging)” and “(trust was difficult) not knowing her” indicated that familiarity in the

relationship is desirable for a positive experience for both the peer counsellor and their peers.

The ‘severity/simplicity of the problem’ was a category with frequently mentioned

responses indicating constraints, more for peer counsellors (26%) than for their peers (20%)

as can be seen in the example “it was a difficult problem”, “Depends on whether it is a

serious problem” and “...easy if it’s an everyday problem”. Researcher reflections of

transcripts indicate that more serious problems were overwhelming for peer counsellors.

‘Pauses/silence’ were predicted to be constraints for peers (30% of responses).

Examples of responses include “pauses with nothing to say” and “pauses in the

conversation”. Both ‘pauses/silence’ and ‘following the process and using skills’ (20% and

20% of responses, respectively) were considered to be difficulties experienced by the peer

counsellor, for example “thinking of things to help”, “trying to remember the sequence....

the process” and “I couldn’t share from my own experience”. Researcher reflections of the

data concluded that focusing on skill implementation issues by peer counsellors rather than

attending to the helping conversation were responsible for these results.

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Time 3 - three months post-intervention.

Participants had been formally introduced as peer counsellors into the wider school

community at three months post-intervention and had used conversational helping skills in

helping conversations for three months at T3. Researcher reflections of focus group

discussions at T2 noted differences between how early and late adolescent peer counsellors

reported their experiences. As a consequence, the responses from open-ended surveys and

focus group discussions were recorded separately for early adolescent peer counsellors

(grades eight and nine) and for late adolescent peer counsellors (grades 10 and 11) at T3.

Themes included under this heading reflect the peer counsellors’ experience of their

role with regard to their relationship with others and execution of their role as peer

counsellor. The themes identified under the heading of Role attribution at T3 are summarised

in Table 7.6. Results are reported under theme headings.

Table 7.6


Themes

Percentage of responses

for the theme

Categories


each theme)


each theme)

65 Confidence/competence 29

Goal oriented conversation 41 Witnessing positive change in others 32 4 Respect from others 32 Helping people 23 13

1. Rewarding aspects of helping

Increased awareness of others emotions

13 13

35 Lack of respect from others 52 68 Not being approached for help by others 29 32

2. Unrewarding aspects of helping

No opportunities to help others 19

Note. Total number of responses =84. 65% of responses focused on Rewarding aspects of helping, 35% of responses focused on Unrewarding aspects of helping.

Rewarding aspects of helping. Transcribed statements reflecting the participants’

positive emotional experiences of the peer counsellors’ role are included in the categories of

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this theme. Responses from early adolescent peer counsellors (32% for the category of

‘witnessing positive change in others’ and 32% for the category of ‘respect from others’)

indicate that these categories contributed equally to participants’ positive experiences of the

helping conversation. Response samples include “helping people and satisfaction”,

“making them feel better” and “being appreciated” and “my friends and peers have

responded well to me as a peer counsellor”.

Responses contributing to discussions with regards to confidence/competence’ (29%)

and ‘goal oriented conversation’ (41%) were found to be the most rewarding aspects for late

adolescent peer counsellors. Their own sense of confidence, competence and goal

accomplishment is reflected in the following responses, “More aware of what I’m doing

now”, “Get them to a mindset so they can change” and “...more able to change things, get

them to a certain point”. Both early and late adolescent peer counsellors discussed their

‘increased awareness of others’ emotions with equal interest (13% of responses for early

adolescents and 13% of responses for late adolescents).

Unrewarding aspects of helping. Transcribed statements reflecting the participants’

negative emotional experiences of being in the peer counsellor role are included in the

categories of this theme. The results indicate that 52% of responses made up the category of

‘lack of respect from others’ and was the main contributor to early adolescent peer

counsellors’ overall negative experiences of satisfaction when helping others. In comparison

68% of responses from late adolescent participants contributed to this category. Responses

such as “not being accepted has been my worst experience as a peer counsellor”, “people

approach me sarcastically” and, from a male peer counsellor, “the guys think we’re gay”

were mentioned frequently. Additionally, responses in the category of ‘no opportunities to

help others’ (19%) contributed negatively to early adolescent peer counsellors’ experience of

the helping conversation, examples include “I need to have people”.

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In contrast, 32% of responses from late adolescent participants were included in the

category of ‘not being approached for help by others’ and contributed to their negative

experience of helping compared to 29% of responses from early adolescent peer counsellors.

For example, “...(I am) willing to help but no one has approached me”.

Researcher reflections concluded that these responses indicated an expectation held

by peer counsellors that, because they were peer counsellors, others would approach them

for help. It appeared that peer counsellors did not regard initiating contact with others with

the intention of helping as part of their role. Additionally, under the heading, Role

attribution, the categories of rewarding and unrewarding aspects of helping at T3 reflect peer

counsellors’ focus on evaluation of their inter-personal experiences rather than on the intra-

personal experiences (constraints of the conversation, enhancers of the conversation,

emotional experience, and perception of success) evident at T2.

Time 4 - six months post-intervention

Peer counsellors had been formally operating in their role as peer counsellors in the

wider school community for six months at T4 and had used conversational helping skills in

helping conversations for six months.

The responses from open-ended surveys and focus group discussions were recorded

separately for early adolescent peer counsellors (participants from grades eight and nine) and

for late adolescent peer counsellors (participants from grades 10 and 11). Themes included

under this heading reflect the peer counsellors’ experience of their role with regard to their

relationship with others and execution of their role as peer counsellor.

The themes identified under the heading of Role attribution at T4 are summarised in

Table 7.7. Results are reported under themes headings.

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Table 7.7


Themes Responses

for the theme

%

Categories

Early adolescent responses


Late adolescent responses


46 Initiating contact/not being

approached 47 63 1. Role

Limitations Lack of respect from peers

53 37

29 Support from others 67 58 2. Role involvement Active involvement

33 52

25 Optimistic adjustment 100 70 3. Adjustment to role Pessimistic adjustment

30

Note. Total number of responses =190. 46% of responses focused on discussion regarding Role Limitations, 29% of responses focused on Role involvement, 25% of responses focused on Adjustment to role.

Role limitations. Transcript statements indicating negative occurrences during the

peer counsellors’ helping experiences and statements, which implied that those occurrences

constrained or restricted the participants from assuming their role, were included in this

theme.

Results indicate from responses that early adolescent peer counsellors (47%) and late

adolescent peer counsellors (63%) experienced ‘initiating contact /not being approached by

others’ as limiting the opportunity for them to carry out their role as peer counsellors. This

was particularly true for late adolescent peer counsellors. Examples include “people aren’t

talking to us” and “they won’t come up with problems or they won’t say can I come to talk

to you”.

‘Lack of respect from peers’ was also identified as restricting early adolescent peer

counsellors (53% of responses) from assuming their role as peer counsellors and from late

adolescent participants but with fewer responses (37%). For example, “people have been

like sarcastic”, “...always pays me out cause I have done this peer counselling course” and

“no one takes us seriously”.

188

Role involvement. The categories in this theme include responses that reflect the

participants’ beliefs about how they proactively execute their role and their perceptions with

regard to endorsement of their role by others.

Early adolescent peer counsellors frequently reported the importance of ‘support

from peers and staff’ when performing their role (67%) compared with late adolescent

participants’ reports (58%), reflected in responses such as “the school and staff support the

idea of having peer counsellors in the school” and “because of my peer counsellor training

my peers believe I have a particular role in the school community”.

Late adolescent peer counsellors made more frequent responses with regards to

‘active involvement’ in their role (42%)for example “being a peer helper has provided more

opportunities for me to help others”, compared with early adolescent participants (33%).

Adjustment to role. Responses indicating either ways to improve the situation to

enhance their role as peer counsellors or disillusionment about their role as peer counsellors

were included in the categories in this theme.

Twenty- five percent of responses contributed to the theme of adjustment to role.

Responses from early adolescent peer counsellors were few but focused exclusively on

positive views about how participants could improve their role as peer counsellors and

contributed to the category of ‘optimistic adjustments’.

Responses from late adolescent peer counsellors were divided and included

statements indicating the importance of overcoming the negative experiences of being a peer

counsellor through ‘optimistic adjustment’ as well as statements reflecting ‘pessimistic

adjustment’. The following statements, illustrate those responses reflecting optimistic

adjustment, “we should have the maturity level just to ignore that and get on with it”, “we

need to advertise a Power Point presentation” and “...promote ourselves, we can make them

see we are not strangers we are here to help we’ve just been through a training course”.

189

The following responses contribute to the category of’ ‘pessimistic adjustment’: “the name

peer counsellor doesn’t really give a positive effect to be honest” and “they wouldn’t turn up

to any activities that we were setting up”.

Status

Status was defined as the relative social, professional or other position or standing of

someone (The New Oxford Dictionary of English, 1998). Themes and categories under this

heading include references to the behaviours, relationships and skills of peer counsellors

which were perceived to contribute to similarities with, or differences from, their peers.

Themes and categories reflecting the participants’ experiences of status at T2, T3 and

T4 are summarised in Tables 8.8. to 8.10. The themes are arranged in descending order of

frequency of mention and both themes and categories are reported as percentages of the


Time 2 – Immediately post-intervention


surveys and focus group discussions which described the participants’ experiences as peer

counsellors in helping conversations, from their experience of receiving help during training

and assessment conversations, and their predictions about how their peers might respond

when receiving help from peer counsellors. The themes and categories identified under the

heading of Status at T2 are summarised in Table 7.8. Results are reported under theme

headings.

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Table 7.8

Status themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2

Themes


%

Categories

Responses from the

Peer Counsellor (% Within

each theme)


each theme)

47 Friendly 23 13 Trustworthy 14 5 Genuinely curious/interested/attentive 14 30 Committed to personal growth 11 Respectful 11 13 Aware of others emotions 9 2 Encouraging and affirming 9 5

1. Personal characteristics contributing to peer counsellor status

Sympathetic/Understanding

9 32

36 Not friends/different from friends 35 48 Reciprocal relationship 20 17

2. Status with regard to relationships with others

Similar to friends

45 35

17 More confident than others when helping 33 100 Training in counselling skills 22 Skill acquisition 16 Accreditation 16

3. Status with regard to training Peer counsellor conversations are more

meaningful

11

Note. Total number of responses =160. 47% of responses focused on the personal characteristics contributing to the Status of peer counsellor, 36% of responses focused on Status with regard to relationships with others, 17% of responses focused on Status with regard to training. Personal Characteristics contributing to peer counsellor status. Transcribed

statements or words describing those behaviours or personal characteristics of peer

counsellors that are valued by participants are included in the categories of this theme.

The frequency of responses included in the categories of

curiosity/interest/attentiveness’ (30%), and ‘sympathy/understanding’ (32%), indicate that

peer counsellors predicted that these personal characteristics of peer counsellors would be

most valued by their peers. However, they described being ‘friendly’ (23%), ‘trustworthy’

(14%), ‘aware of others emotions’ (9%), and ‘encouraging and affirming’ (9%) as being

191

more important personal characteristics for themselves as peer counsellors. Researcher

reflections of transcripts concluded that peer counsellors believed that the characteristics

described by them as valuable in the relationship would emerge in the way described by their

peers during the conversation.

Status with regard to relationships with others. Peer counsellors identified

differences in the social position of themselves relative to their peers as a consequence of

their peer counsellor training. However, results show that the majority of peer counsellor

responses (45%) indicate that they believe that they are the same as their friends and peers

when helping despite their role as peer counsellors, for example “the same but more

structured”. Peer counsellors predicted that the majority of their peers would also believe

that they were the same as them following peer counsellor training (35%) for example “same

and relaxed... she wasn’t acting better than me”.

Status with regard to training. Peer counsellors identified differences between

themselves and their peers as a consequence of their peer counsellor training as can be seen

in responses contributing to the categories of ‘more meaningful conversation’ (11%), ‘skill

acquisition’ (16%) ‘training in counselling skills’ (22%) and ‘accreditation’ (16%) for

example“...they would know that... because we are trained”, and “ I have something to offer

my friends because I feel like the conversations are more meaningful now”.

Peer counsellors predicted that executing their counselling skills with confidence was

important for their peers as indicated by frequent item responses with regard to the category

of ‘more confident than others when helping’ (100%), examples include “they would prefer

to go to a stranger who has the skills to help them”.

Time 3 - three months post-intervention

Participants had been formally introduced as peer counsellors into the wider school

community at three months post-intervention and had used conversational helping skills in

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helping conversations for three months at T3. The responses from open-ended surveys and

focus group discussions were recorded separately for early adolescent peer counsellors

(grades eight and nine) and for late adolescent peer counsellors (grades 10 and 11).

Themes and categories under this heading include references to the behaviours,

relationships and skills of peer counsellors which were perceived to contribute to similarities

with, or differences from, their peers. The themes identified under the heading of, Status at

T3, are summarised in Table 7.9. Results are reported under theme headings.

Table 7.9


Themes


%

Categories


each theme)


each theme)

48 Peer counsellors approach peers directly 13 16 Peer counsellors unconsciously use skills and

process with friends 25 7

Peer counsellors are goal oriented when helping others

17 32

Peer counsellors take their role seriously 21 23 Peer counsellors are genuinely interested in

helping others/caring 14 22

1. Behaviours that indicate Status difference

Peer counsellors are committed

10 -

23 Peer counsellors need to be clearly identified 57 41 Peer counsellors do not need to be identified 13 35

2. Status as perceived by peer counsellors

Non peer counsellors help others differently/use unhelpful skills

30 24

21 Peer counsellors have a positive relationship with their friends

62 50

Peer counsellors are negatively received by their peers

24 44

3. Status perceived by others Peer counsellors are positively received, by their

peers

14 6

8 People/opportunities to help 67 57 4. Status enhancers

Promotion of the peer counsellors’ role

33 43

Note. Total number of responses = 173. 48% of responses focused on Behaviours that indicate Status difference, 23% of responses focused on Status as perceived by peer counsellors, 21% of responses focused on Status perceived by others, 8% of responses focused on Status enhancers.

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Behaviours that indicate status difference. Categories in this theme include

transcribed statements and words that indicate the beliefs that peer counsellors have about

the behaviours and characteristics relevant to their role which are likely to make them

different from their peers. Responses in the category, ‘approaching peers directly’, (13% for

early adolescent peer counsellors and 16% for late adolescent peer counsellors) indicate that

on the whole peer counsellors believed that this behaviour was consistent with their role as

peer counsellors, as can be seen in the following responses, “you have no reason to feel

uncomfortable...just say ‘you can tell me if you want to’. However, responses from early

adolescent peer counsellors indicated more uncertainty about whether peer counsellors

should initiate contact with others, for example “...you don’t know them”, and “it’s not as if

you go up to a stranger and say ‘I’ve noticed you’ve been a bit down lately’.

Researcher reflections of data concluded that some peer counsellors believed that

others might feel pressured or intruded upon if approached by them, while others believed

that as peer counsellors it was part of their role to approach others with the intention of

helping them.

Discussion among early adolescent peer counsellors (25% of responses) indicated

uncertainty about whether they used counselling microskills and processes with friends and

included responses such as “we don’t think about using open questions with a friend” and

“you don’t really notice.... unconsciously maybe”. Results from late adolescent peer

counsellors (7% of responses) indicated that using skills with friends was not as important as

being available as a peer counsellor. “(A) wanted to talk to me cause I was her friend not just

because I was in the program”.

The category of ‘peer counsellors take their role seriously’ generated slightly more

discussion among late adolescent peer counsellors (23% of responses) compared with early

adolescent peer counsellors (21% of responses) perhaps indicating particular interest in

194

presenting themselves differently when engaging in a helping conversation. Results indicate

that peer counsellors from both groups believe that ‘peer counsellors are goal oriented when

helping others’. This was particularly true for late adolescent peer counsellors (32% of

responses) compared with early adolescent peer counsellors (17% of responses). Typical

responses include, “I realised that if I didn’t sign up for this and I tried to help my friends

I’d be just like...mm...Yeah...okay”, and “(peer counsellors) do things in detail the training

goes into more detail than what you’d usually go into”.

Responses indicate that late adolescent participants believe that the category of

‘genuine interest in helping others’ is a valuable characteristics for a trained peer counsellor

(22%) compared to early adolescent peer counsellors (14%). However, for early adolescent

peer counsellors the category of ‘commitment to helping others’ was seen to be a valuable

characteristic for peer counsellors (10%) as can be seen by the responses, such as “you have

to want to help people and pay attention when you’re doing it”, “(other people) have to be

willing to do it and not drop out” and “you have to be committed and give up your time”.

Researcher reflections of data concluded that some peer counsellors believed that using skills

and processes was an indication that they were functioning in the role of a peer counsellor

and that when talking with friends it was inappropriate to function in the role of peer

counsellor. However, it also emerged that some peer counsellors recognised that they may

unconsciously use the skills and processes with friends. They showed more support for using

skills and processes with friends than with others.

Status as perceived by peer counsellors. Transcribed statements or words were

included in the categories of this theme if they indicated the participants’ ideas or thoughts

about how they were different from or similar to others with regard to their skill acquisition

and/or role as peer counsellors. Frequent responses for the category of ‘peer counsellors need

to be clearly identified’ by early adolescent peer counsellors (57%) indicate strong support

195

for clear identification of peer counsellors as being different from their peers with regard to

their position as skilled helpers compared to late adolescent peer counsellors (41%). Typical

examples of responses include “it’s good so people know”, “it is very valuable (for peer

counsellors to be clearly identified)” and “it is extremely valuable (for peer counsellors to

be clearly identified)”.

There was strong support from late adolescent peer counsellors (35% of responses)

indicating their belief that peer counsellors did not need to be identified compared to early

adolescent peer counsellors (13%) as can be seen by the following examples, “No! (Peer

counsellors shouldn’t be identified) because it means people won’t come for help”, and “I

think it could be a problem because they don’t want others to know they have a problem”.

Both groups agreed that their peers would provide help to others differently from

themselves and may also use unhelpful skills and processes (30% of responses from early

adolescent peer counsellors and 23.5% of responses from late adolescent peer counsellors).

Status as perceived by others. Categories in this theme include transcribed statements

and words that indicated the beliefs that peer counsellors had about the way others perceive

their role. Results indicate that on the whole the participants believed that their friends would

perceive their relationships as positive, as illustrated by frequent mention of responses in the

category ‘peer counsellors have a positive relationship with their friends’ (62% for early

adolescent peer counsellors and 50% for late adolescent peer counsellors). This was

particularly true for early adolescent peer counsellors.

The more frequent responses for the category of ‘peer counsellors are negatively

received by their peers’ (24% for early adolescent peer counsellors and 44% for late

adolescent peer counsellors) compared to ‘peer counsellors are positively received by their

peers” (14% for early adolescent peer counsellors and 6% for late adolescent peer

counsellors) indicates that peer counsellors have negative perceptions regarding how they

196

are perceived in their role by others and is illustrated by the following examples “people

need to know we are serious”, “they make up false problems”, “they say they would never

come to a peer counsellor for help” “(I have been) told lies”, “not being accepted” and

“people have been approaching me sarcastically”. This was particularly true for late

adolescent peer counsellors.

Status enhancers. Categories in this theme include those factors that peer counsellors

believe would improve or enable them to fulfil their role emphasising their difference as peer

counsellors. More frequent responses for the category of ‘people/opportunities to help’ (67%

for early adolescent peer counsellors and 57% for late adolescent peer counsellors) indicate

that peer counsellors from both groups believe that opportunities to help their peers more

frequently would enhance their role and at the same time emphasise the difference from their

peers, for example “I need to have people” and “no one approaches me for help”. This was

particularly true for early adolescent peer counsellors.

Responses from late adolescent peer counsellors (43%) indicate that they believe that

promotion of the peer counsellors’ role would enhance their role and at the same time

emphasise their difference from their peers. Examples include “letting people know that peer

counselling isn’t a joke”, “people need to know that we are serious”, and “people need to

know it’s beneficial”. Fewer responses from early adolescent peer counsellors (33%)

indicate less importance is attributed to this belief.

Time 4 - six months post-intervention

Peer counsellors had been formally operating in their role as peer counsellors in the

wider school community at six months post-intervention and had used conversational

helping skills in helping conversations for six months at T4. The responses from open-ended

surveys and focus group discussions were recorded separately for early adolescent peer

counsellors (participants from grades eight and nine) and for late adolescent peer counsellors

197

(participants from grades 10 and 11). Themes and categories under this heading include

references to the behaviours, relationships and skills of peer counsellors which were

perceived to contribute to similarities with, or differences from, their peers. The themes

identified under the heading of, Status at T4, are summarised in Table 7.10. Results are

reported under theme headings.

Table 7.10


Themes


%

Categories

Early adolescent responses (% Within each theme)

Late adolescent responses (% Within each theme)

39 Negative relationship with peers 53 54 1. Overall relationship with others

Positive relationship with friends

47 46

2. Relationships with others with regard to skill acquisition

33

Changed relationships

100 100

28 Identified as a peer counsellor 74 38 3. Status with regard to role Not identified as a peer counsellor

26 62

Note. Total number of responses =197. 39% of responses focused on Overall relationship with others, 33% of responses focused on Relationships with others with regard to skill acquisition, 28% of responses focused on Status with regard to role. Overall relationship with others. Transcribed responses indicated that both groups

(53% for early adolescent peer counsellors and 54% for late adolescent peer counsellors)

experienced ‘negative relationships with peers’, for example “my peers believe that I am

different in a negative way because of my peer counsellor training”. However, both groups

experienced ‘positive relationships with friends’ (47% for early adolescent peer counsellors

and 46% for late adolescent peer counsellors), for example “a positive aspect of being a peer

counsellor is helping my friends now that they know I have additional skills”.

Relationship with others with regards to skill acquisition. The category in this theme

included comments reflecting participants’ perceptions regarding similarities and/or

198

differences with others as a result of their training as a peer counsellor. Thirty three percent

(33%) of responses focused on participants’ beliefs that their relationships had changed as a

result of learning specific counselling skills. Responses from both early and late adolescent

peer counsellors indicated that acquiring counselling skills had contributed most to changes

in their status with others and is reflected in statements such as “when I listen to my friends

helping others I believe that if I was the one helping the conversation would be more

effective because of the skills I have learned” and “if my peers did the peer counsellor

training their helping behaviours would be more effective and useful”. Researcher

reflections of the data noted that these changes were experienced more by early adolescent

peer counsellors than for late adolescent peer counsellors.

Status with regard to role. Early adolescent peer counsellors and late adolescent peer

counsellors were divided with regard to whether they should be clearly identified in their

community as peer counsellors. The majority of responses from early adolescent peer

counsellors (74%) focused on the importance of being identified in the wider school

community, for example, “It is important for trained peer counsellors to be identified in the

school community so that students can seek them out when they need help”. The majority of

responses from late adolescent peer counsellors (62%) indicated that it would be more

helpful not to be clearly identified as peer counsellors in the wider school community. This

view is reflected in responses such as “It is better for trained peer counsellors not to be

identified but for them to simply exist and to help others when the opportunity arises”.

Summary of qualitative results

Overall summary of qualitative results

Percentages of responses from participants were calculated by examining the

transcripts and recording the number of responses under each heading over all times and then

determining the most frequently mentioned issues for peer counsellors. Table 7.11 illustrates

199

the percentage of responses made by peer counsellors with regard to skill implementation,

role attribution and status issues.

Table 7.11

Peer counsellor responses

Total number of responses Peer Counsellor response percentages

Skill implementation issues

232 19

Role attribution issues

446 37

Status issues

530 44

Results indicate that overall, peer counsellors spent the most time discussing and

commenting on issues related to status with regard to the social and skilled position of

themselves relative to peers and friends (44% of all responses) and that issues with regard to

skill implementation were commented on the least (19% of all responses).

Summary of qualitative results over time

Percentages of responses from participants were examined to compare differences

over time for the most frequently mentioned issues for all peer counsellors. Table 7.12

illustrates the percentage of responses made by peer counsellors with regard to skill

implementation, role attribution and status issues over time.

Table 7.12

Peer counsellor responses over time

Peer Counsellor responses

Number of responses

T2 Peer Counsellor response Percentages

Number of responses


Number of responses



83 20 93 27 56 13

Role attribution

172 41 84 24 190 43

Status difference

160 39 173 49 197 44

200

The findings show that issues with regard to skill implementation, role attribution

and status influenced peer counsellors’ responses at different times. The findings show that

skill implementation issues did not influence peer counsellors’ comments as much as role

attribution or status issues over time, However, skill implementation issues were more

influential at T3 (27% three months after the intervention) compared to T2 (20%

immediately following the intervention) and T4 (13% six months after the intervention). At

T2 and T4, peer counsellors spent the most time commenting on issues related to role

attribution and status, with role attribution issues dominating responses at T2 (41%) and

status issues dominating responses at T4 (44%). At T4, role attribution issues were

commented on more than at T2 and T3. At T3, status issues were commented on more than

at T2 and T4.

Summary of qualitative results for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

Percentages of responses were examined to compare differences between early

adolescent peer counsellors and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to the most

frequently mentioned issues. Table 7.13 illustrates the percentage of responses made by early

adolescent peer counsellors and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to skill

implementation, role attribution and status issues.

Table 7.13

Early and late adolescent peer counsellors’ responses

Total number of responses

Early adolescent peer counsellor response percentages

Total number of responses

Late adolescent peer counsellor response percentages

Skill implementation issues

70 17 79 21

Role attribution issues

148 35 126 34

Status issues

205 48 165 45

201

Results indicate that overall early adolescent peer counsellors’ and late adolescent

peer counsellors’ responses portray a similar pattern to responses reflecting the overall trend.

Issues with regard to skill implementation dominated late adolescent peer counsellors’

discussions more than early adolescent peer counsellors’ discussions. Results indicate that

role attribution issues influenced comments made equally by both early adolescent and late

adolescent peer counsellors. Results indicate that responses with regard to status issues from

early adolescent peer counsellors are slightly more frequent than those for late adolescent

peer counsellors.

Summary for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

Percentages of responses from early adolescent peer counsellors and late adolescent

peer counsellors were examined to compare differences over time with regard to the most

frequently mentioned issues for peer counsellors. Because peer counsellors as a group were

not divided at T2 into their stage related groups, data for T3 and T4 are included only. Table

7.14 illustrates the percentage of responses made by early and late adolescent peer

counsellors over time with regard to skill implementation, role attribution and status issues.

Table 7.14

Early and late adolescent peer counsellor responses over time

T3 T4 Early

adolescent

Late adolescent Early adolescent

Late adolescent


21 33.5 12.7 13

Role attribution

26.6 20.5 42 43.5

Status difference

52.4 46 45.3 43.5

Results indicate differences in the emphasis of comments between early adolescent

peer counsellors and late adolescent peer counsellors at different times.

For both groups issues regarding skill implementation were raised more frequently at

T3 than T4. Late adolescent peer counsellors commented more frequently on skill

202

implementation issues than early adolescent peer counsellors at T3. Early adolescent peer

counsellors’ comments were more strongly influenced by issues regarding role attribution

than late adolescent peer counsellors’ comments at T3. Issues regarding role attribution

increased over time for both groups. At T3 both early and late adolescent peer counsellor

comments were influenced mostly by issues regarding status, with early adolescent peer

counsellors’ comments more strongly influenced than late adolescent peer counsellors. On

the whole at T4 both early and late adolescent peer counsellor comments were spread

equally across all issues, with issues regarding status dominating comments followed by

issues regarding role attribution.

Discussion The findings will be discussed under the research question headings.

Research question three

This question asked how a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program

affects the participants’ experiences as peer counsellors with regard to skill implementation,

role attribution, and status. The participants’ experience will be discussed under the headings

of skill implementation, role attribution and status.

Skill implementation. Examination of qualitative results indicated that skill

implementation issues did not concern adolescent peer counsellors as much as role

attribution or status issues as indicated by the percentage of responses presented in Table

7.11. This is consistent with the suggestion that the model of training enabled participants to

use skills with a reasonable level of comfort. The results lend support to the researcher’s

suggestion that the new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program developed in

this study helped to eliminate the difficulties of skill implementation, identified by de

Rosenroll (1988).

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While the results show that skill implementation issues didn’t take prominence with

regard to their importance for peer counsellors, they revealed important understandings

relating to young people’s experience of acquiring and using counselling skills. At no time

during the data collection process was there mention of feeling deskilled as a result of

focusing on unfamiliar conversational skills and communication processes. On the contrary,

some peer counsellors expressed dissatisfaction with the training with regard to the skills

they learned, as they perceived them to be helping behaviours that they had already acquired

and typically used. These findings indicate that some trainees may be disappointed after

training using the model developed in the current study as they may believe that they were

not taught anything new or different. This finding highlights a limitation of using the

alternative training model developed in the current project. However, the reports of

dissatisfaction can partly be explained by the concept of individual differences with regard to

prosocial behaviour (see chapter 2). Eisenberg et al. (1999) proposed the notion of individual

differences in prosocial dispositions. In their review of the literature they suggest that

prosocial behaviour and empathy-related responding have a genetic basis, and that prosocial

behaviour and empathy are linked to temperamental predispositions. The authors proposed

that these differences are consistent over time and, in adolescence, those young people who

have temperamental dispositions favouring prosocial and empathy-related responses, display

behaviours which reflect an understanding of higher-level moral principles and sophisticated

perspective-taking abilities. Their findings suggest that some young people are potentially

more able to provide social support to their peers than others. It may be, that for those

adolescents with prosocial dispositions, training to use skills which are already part of their

helping repertoire may be viewed as unnecessary. It may also explain why they experienced

more dissatisfaction than others with the training model used in this study compared with

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those who were not initially as competent at providing social support and who believed they

had gained in learning to use their natural conversational skills in helping others.

In the present study, researcher reflections on the data, which focused on

dissatisfaction with regard to skill implementation, concluded that the responses suggesting

dissatisfaction related primarily to descriptions of some peer counsellors’ unsuccessful

experiences. These unsuccessful experiences occurred when the helper was attempting to

integrate typical adolescent conversational skills with the process of a helping conversation

immediately following training. It is believed that unsuccessful experiences led to self-

conscious behaviour which contributed to a sense of dissatisfaction. This is understandable.

In a study by Blum and Rosenberg (1968) investigating the training of counsellors

and the problems they experience in regard to professionalising social interaction, the

authors describe the skills of the counselling relationship and the capacity to elicit, manage,

codify and respond to information from the client in an orderly and systematic fashion as

being difficult to master. The training program developed in this study required participants

to learn how to respond to their peers in an orderly and systematic fashion by following a

particular process. The findings of Blum and Rosenberg (1968) resonate with the results in

the current study with regard to the concept of “professionalising social interaction”, because

in this study participants had to make the shift from the role of friend to the role of peer

counsellor.

Other factors which impact on participants’ experiences of implementing counselling

skills include stage of training, age, self actualisation and cognitive flexibility. Findings of

Abney (2003), Blum and Rosenberg (1968), Larsson et al. (1992), Leach and Stoltenberg

(1997), Sipps, Sugden and Favier (1988), Smith (2003), and Stoltenberg and Delworth

(1987) parallel the findings from the qualitative results in the current study with regard to

these factors when exploring research question three and are discussed below.

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Immediately following training, the majority of comments by participants in the

current study focused on the specific skills and processes learned during training (Table 7.2).

Individual and specific skills were frequently mentioned in terms of their usefulness.

Additionally, comments which focused on using the skills and process of a helping

conversation were frequent. However, in the current study, skill implementation issues were

more influential in discussions at three months post-training than immediately following

training or at six months post-training. Examination of responses at this time showed

individual differences with an emphasis on the skills, process, or combining skills with

process and with regard to the flexibility, freedom and confidence when using any of the

components. Researcher reflections of the data three months following training concluded

that the relatively even distribution of responses attributed to the categories of ‘skills’, ‘the

process of a conversation’, and ‘combining skills with process’ indicated the participants’

awareness of the differences between skills and process. After three months of using

counselling skills and performing in the role of peer counsellor in the wider school

community, the majority of comments with regard to skill implementation shifted from

exploring the merits of using either individual skills or processes to integrating skills and

processes into a helping conversation. The participants’ perceptions of success of the helping

conversation was measured by the ease and value of using their preferred component, either

skills, process or a combination of both. This was particularly relevant for late adolescent

peer counsellors. Early adolescent peer counsellors continued to focus on selecting a

preference for using either the skills or process during a helping conversation whereas late

adolescent peer counsellors focused more on integrating the skills and processes.

One possible reason for this change from Time 2 to Time 3 in the current study is the

relationship between the stage of the peer counsellor training experience and participants’

perceived self-efficacy in using the skills at each stage. As previously mentioned, some

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participants in the current study reported dissatisfaction with the training. Additionally,

researcher reflections noted that participants described unsuccessful experiences which led to

self-conscious behaviour immediately following the training. Sipps, et al. (1988) examined

the relationship between the year of graduate training and the self-efficacy reports of trainee

counsellors in using counselling skills in their study. They found that trainee counsellors

initially self-reported low levels of confidence and competence followed by reports of high

levels of confidence and competence with subsequent reports of even higher levels of

confidence and competence following training and during their experiences as counsellors.

The authors suggest that self-reported low levels of confidence and competence are likely

due to the initial perceived failure of relational methods of a commonsense approach in

students’ early attempts at counselling and their underestimates of the difficulty of

therapeutic interaction. These findings support the conclusions of Blum and Rosenberg

(1968) with regard to their suggestion of counsellor difficulty in initially mastering the

professional socialisation of their role. In view of these findings it can be concluded that

positive self-efficacy reports regarding skill implementation are unlikely immediately

following training. The suggestion fits well with the low percentage of responses with regard

to skill implementation issues identified in the current study at Time 2.

Sipps, et al. (1988) explain reports of increased levels of confidence at later stages as

being due to performance accomplishments provided by more opportunities for experience

followed by further reports of increased levels of confidence because of trainees’ greater

opportunity to gain mastery experiences.

Findings in the current study at three months post-intervention also parallel the

findings of Sipps, et al. (1988) The elevated percentage of skill implementation responses,

particularly from late adolescent peer counsellors at three months post-training, focused on

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the flexibility and freedom that peer counsellors experienced when using skills and processes

in conversational helping.

Blum and Rosenberg (1968) report that skill implementation does not occur evenly

and in one piece. Additionally, Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) and Leach and Stoltenberg

(1997) provide information with regard to explaining differences in performance at different

stages in counsellor development, which have relevance for the current study. The authors

introduce another dimension to that of mastery suggested by Sipps et al. (1988) namely

raised awareness of the helping process. According to Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) and

Leach and Stoltenberg (1997), a developmental process occurs in counsellor development

with regard to skill implementation. These authors discovered that level one trainees focus

primarily on specific microskills in counselling whereas level two trainees begin to consider

the interaction between the client and the counsellor. Their results have relevance for the

current study in that the overall findings in the present study also indicate that skill

implementation followed a developmental process with a progression from focusing on

individual skills and processes immediately following training to integrating skills and

processes into a helping conversation and then to incorporating skills and processes into

helping situations at three and six months after training with late adolescent peer counsellors

(grade 10/11) moving through this process more quickly than early adolescent peer

counsellors (grade 8/9).

The results raise the question as to why older adolescents in the current study

progressed faster along the developmental continuum than their younger cohorts with regard

to skill implementation despite the fact that training of both groups occurred simultaneously.

Cognitive flexibility, age, and self-actualisation may account for these differences (Table

7.14).

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Cognitive flexibility has been shown to be related to counsellor competence and

effectiveness (Smith, 2003). During adolescence, the ability of young people to perceive,

comprehend and retain information seems to improve with age (Knight et al., 1985).

Additionally, they progressively develop the ability to make better use of memory strategies

and are more able to detect contradictions (Kiel, 1984). Thus older adolescents tend to have

a great ability than younger adolescents for dealing with complex social and ethical issues as

they have a more complex level of information processing. This suggests that because of this

advanced cognitive ability, older adolescents are more likely to move quickly along the

developmental continuum than younger adolescents.

Results from a study in trainee counsellor effectiveness by Abney (2003) also parallel

the findings in the present study although in the study by Abney the subjects were adults. In

his study investigating counselling effectiveness among trainee student counsellors, the

relationship between age and counsellor effectiveness was found to be statistically

significant. Abney discovered that there was a statistically significant main effect between

trainee students and their counsellor effectiveness, with older age groups rated as more

effective counsellors than younger age groups. Although the study by Abney does not relate

to adolescents, it is interesting to note data from that the present study also suggests that age

is a related factor with regard to skill implementation.

Self-actualisation has been found to predict effectiveness among counsellor trainees

(Smith, 2003). Perhaps the most important psychological task for the adolescent is that of

self-actualisation. As personal identity develops over time, maturation occurs, moving the

adolescent towards adulthood. Adams and Marshall (1996) believe that the search for

identity and self-actualisation is not just restricted to adolescents, however, observations of

young people indicate that self-actualisation is pronounced in adolescents and is a central

characteristic of adolescence. Longitudinal studies have shown that individuals show

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increased differentiation of self-actualisation throughout adolescence (Elbogen, Carlo, &

Spaulding, 2001; Harter, 1983) with late adolescents achieving more definition with regard

to their identity. It can be concluded that older adolescents are more advanced with regard to

self-actualisation than younger adolescents. The notion of self-actualisation impacting on the

developmental process of skill implementation might explain why older adolescent peer

counsellors in this study progressed more quickly along the continuum of skill acquisition

than younger adolescent peer counsellors.

Role attribution. It is not surprising that the issue of role attribution figures

prominently in participants’ responses in the present study. Adolescence is known to be a

period of exploratory self-analysis and self-evaluation ideally culminating in the

establishment of a cohesive and integrative sense of self or identity (Erickson, 1968).

Personal identity cannot be separated from the individual’s experience of their roles or states

of being (Markus & Nurius, 1986). This connection is illustrated in the present study where

the personal identity of the participant is related to their experience of being an adolescent

peer counsellor.

Markus and Nurius (1986) introduced the concept of ‘possible selves’ to complement

current conceptions of self-identity. They described ‘possible selves’ as representing an

individual’s ideas of what they might become or would like to become. The authors believe

that ‘possible selves’ are important because they function as incentives for future behaviour.

This concept is useful when exploring the issues of role attribution in the present study as the

participants in the project were adolescents who self-selected for the peer counsellor

training. Because of this self selection process, it can be assumed that participants had

chosen to commit themselves to the training because the role of peer counsellor was in

accord with their own self-identity, social role-perception and their views about who they

would like to become in the future.

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Studies examining role transitions (Kelly & Matthews, 2001), role change (Kehas &

Morse, 1971; Van Maanen & Schein, 1979), and how people adapt to new roles (Ibarra,

1999) suggest that, when assuming new roles, people must not only acquire new skills but

also adopt the social norms and rules that govern how they should conduct themselves.

Understanding the social and psychological processes by which adolescent peer counsellors

construct and modify their image and identity as peer counsellors is important when

discussing issues of role attribution. Markus and Nurius (1986) suggest that the creation of a

possible self involves a cognitive self-construction process which eventually matches with a

pre-determined view of the role that will be enacted.

The high percentage of responses recorded in the qualitative data pertaining to role

attribution (Table 7.11) include many responses that reflect participants’ exploration of the

relationship between a peer counsellor role and their developing sense of self or identity,

some examples include, ‘I’m more confident now’, ‘I know what I’m doing now instead of

just saying words’ and ‘you have to want to help people (to be a peer counsellor)’. Initially

after training, results from qualitative data (Table 7.5) suggested that responses regarding

participants’ experiences were positive with regard to their role as a peer counsellor. The

high percentage of responses contributing to the themes and categories focus predominantly

on factors that enhanced the conversation, the participants’ positive emotional experience of

the conversation, and their perception of success in the conversation. Researcher reflections

of the data concluded that role attribution issues reflected a focus on the peer counsellors’

intrapersonal experiences and a stable sense of self in the role of peer counsellor as defined

by the participants. That is, participants’ goals, aspirations and behaviours matched with

their beliefs about how a peer counsellor should appear.

Further examination of results identified that participants’ responses with regard to

their role as a peer counsellor changed at different times following the intervention (Table

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7.12). Data indicate that issues pertaining to role were considered to be less important at

three months following the training than immediately following the training whereas, as

discussed earlier, issues with regard to skill implementation were more central to peer

counsellors responses at Time 3 than at Time 2. Results from qualitative data (Table 7.12) in

the current study indicate that participants were fully occupied with acquiring and

implementing skills in their role as peer counsellors at three months after the training and

that issues with regard to role were less prominent. Participants’ responses with regard to

role attribution specifically focus on the theme of rewarding aspects of being a peer

counsellor at this time (Table 7.6) with 65% of response categories describing the peer

counsellors’ experience of goal achievements and confidence/competence in the helping

conversation. The categories of ‘witnessing positive change in others’, ‘respect from others’

and ‘helping people’ indicate a strong sense of fulfilment as a result of using their skills.

As previously mentioned, earlier studies examining role transitions (Kelly &

Matthews, 2001), role change (Kehas & Morse, 1971; Van Maanen & Schein, 1979), and

how people adapt to new roles (Ibarra, 1999) suggest that when assuming new roles, people

must not only acquire new skills but also adopt the social norms and rules that govern how

they should conduct themselves. Other authors (Becker & Carper, 1956; Hall, 1976; Schein,

1978; Hill, 1992) suggest that new roles require new behaviours, attitudes and actions of

interaction as well as new skills. However, in the current study it appears that the

participants’ focus on acquiring and implementing skills, immediately following training and

three months following training, may have occurred at the expense of the need to assume

different behaviours, attitudes and actions of interaction. The categories of ‘not being

approached for help by others’, ‘no opportunities to help others’ and ‘lack of respect from

others’ at Time 3 indicated emerging issues with regard to ‘behaviours, attitudes and actions

of interaction’ that had been overlooked by the participants when in their role as peer

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counsellors. Participants clearly held the expectation that because of their training in

counselling skills, that others would respect their counselling abilities and approach them for

help. They did not have the expectation that they would need to be proactive with regard to

helping others, rather waited for others to approach them for help. These findings may

highlight a limitation of the training model used in the current study. While training sessions

were allocated to learning skills and behaviours to initiate a helping conversation, the link

between this initial stage in the process of a helping conversation and the role of the peer

counsellor need to be discussed with regard to trainees’ expectations. Another possibility for

the absence of this initiating behaviour may be that it contributes to status differences among

adolescents. Researcher reflections of data concluded that some peer counsellors believed

that others might feel pressured or intruded upon if approached by them as indicated by

categories depicted in Table 7.9.

In the earlier discussion regarding skill implementation, participants’ reports of

efficacy with regard to skill implementation were positive three months following the

training. Researcher reflections of the data concluded that because participants’ self-reports

of efficacy were high that their expectations with regard to performing their role as a peer

counsellor had been accomplished. Participants held a simplistic belief that because they had

the necessary skills to be a peer counsellor that skill acquisition and successful

implementation was all that was needed to successfully assume their anticipated role as a

peer counsellor. The categories of ‘not being approached for help by others’ and ‘no

opportunities to help others’ (Table 7.6) included responses which indicated that their

expectations about their role as a peer counsellor did not fit with those expectations held by

their peers. Additionally, they did not view the behaviour of intentionally approaching others

to provide help as belonging to the role of peer counsellor. These identified categories

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continued to influence peer counsellors’ responses six months after training and appeared to

threaten participants’ roles and their views of themselves in their role as peer counsellors.

The issue of expectations pertaining to participants’ roles as peer counsellors reflects

their ideas and beliefs about how they should appear or would like to appear as peer

counsellors and includes the participants’ beliefs about their efficacy. An efficacy

expectation is the individual’s belief that they are competent to perform a required behaviour

(Bandura, 1982). Beliefs about efficacy can be particularly influential to the extent they are

linked to specific, clearly envisioned ‘possible selves’ (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Another

limitation of the training program in the current study may have been the absence of

opportunities for participants to observe successful role models. The participants in the

project were the first group of students in the school to be trained as peer counsellors.

Findings from a study by Ibarra (1999) revealed that transition in roles involves three basic

tasks: (1) observing role models to identify potential identities, (2) experimenting with

‘provisional selves’ that serve as trials for possible but not yet fully elaborated identities, and

(3) evaluating the role using internal standards and external feedback. The absence of role

prototypes may have disadvantaged participants in the current study with regard to

successful role acquisition as a peer counsellor.

Ibarra’s (1999) suggestion that people adapt to their new role by experimenting with

‘provisional selves’ is illustrated in the responses from peer counsellors with regard to role

adjustment six months following the training (Table 7.7). Ibarra explains that ‘provisional

selves’ are temporary solutions used to bridge the gaps between the current role and the

representations they hold about what attitudes and behaviours are expected in the new role.

Her suggestions provide some explanation for the changes over time for participants in the

current study. The role assumed by peer counsellors three months after training clearly

reflected a ‘provisional self’ that changed and contributed to the development of a full

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identity over time. The themes of ‘adjustment to role’ and ‘role involvement’ six months

following training illustrate the beginning of this change process in the current study,

through responses suggesting promotional and personal adaptation strategies.

Yost, Stube and Bailey (1992) concluded that identity construction does not occur

simply by producing random ‘possible selves’ but is a process where the individual selects

and discards the possibilities they have considered using internal and external feedback

mechanisms. Engaging in a process of adaptation to their role as peer counsellors six months

after training illustrates how participants responded to the situational demands in the current

study which prompted them to create new aspects of their role identity. Their experiences

with regard to lack of opportunities to help and not being approached by others for help

provided feedback for the participants about their role which may have contributed to their

considerable escalation of interest in role attribution issues six months after training. This

increased interest in role attribution issues reflects a transition period from Time 3 where

participants fulfilled the role of peer counsellor according to their current self-definition to a

situation of adapting to improve the fit between themselves and their role in the community

at Time 4. Results indicate that there were a substantially higher percentage of responses six

months after training focusing on issues with regard to role involvement and adjustment to

role when compared with Time 3. It may have been that this focus on issues of adjustment

was part of a process of protecting their self-concept and identity. This is consistent with the

idea that, when faced with a potential threat to identity, highly identified individuals are

motivated to protect that identity because it makes an important contribution to their self-

concept (Branscombe & Wann, 1994; Mummendey et al., 1992).

As previously mentioned, the increased opportunity for counselling experience

between Time 3 and Time 4 provided participants in the current study with an opportunity to

improve their understanding of their role and refine their emerging notions of their role over

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time using internal and external feedback mechanisms. Over time, peer counsellors adapted

aspects of their identity to accommodate role demands and modified role definitions to

preserve and enact valued aspects of their identity. This behaviour fits with findings from

research by Ashforth and Saks (1995) examining work role transitions. The authors

identified that identity and role changes evolve interactively so that a new role is achieved

that is more than simply a compromise of role demands and self-demands.

Participants were highly cognizant of the need to appear to have credibility with their

peers before feeling competent in their new roles. By examining the qualitative results six

months after training, the researcher identified categories which reflected participants’

understanding of a need to adjust their role in the wider community. Adjustments in role

included the categories of how participants proactively executed their role, their perceptions

with regard to the importance of endorsement of the role by others, factors that contributed

to enhancing or constraining them from assuming their role and personal adjustments to their

role. Researcher reflections of the data concluded that participants’ responses suggest that

adaptation involved evaluating their success as peer counsellors against internal and external

standards.

The qualitative data also indicate that role attribution issues overall were of equal

importance to early and late adolescent peer counsellors (Table 7.13). Although role

attribution issues were more important for late adolescent peer counsellors than for early

adolescent peer counsellors over time (Table 7.14), with role attribution issues doubling in

their importance for late adolescent peer counsellors between Time 3 and Time 4. This is an

interesting finding and suggests that issues regarding role may not be as important for young

adolescents as they are for older adolescents. A substantial body of knowledge has been

generated from Erickson’s (1968) work on identity formation, however, this knowledge has

focused primarily on research with older adolescents. Little is known about identity

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development in early adolescence, with a lack of attention to identity development in early

adolescents stemming from the belief that identity assessment is not feasible due to the

cognitive and emotional immaturities of this age group (Adams & Montmeyer, 1983; Paikoff

& Brooks-Gunn, 1991). However, in a study exploring interpersonal identity formation

during early adolescence, Allison and Schultz (2001) found that for early adolescents the

exploration and commitment to processes associated with identity formation was just

emerging, reflecting a state of transition in interpersonal identity formation. It was found that

early adolescents had yet to experience a crisis in their search for an identity and may not

have given much serious thought to identity issues. From their findings it appears that

younger adolescents respond less to the internal drive of establishing an identity than older

adolescents. The possibility that early adolescent peer counsellors in the current study had

not yet confronted experiences challenging their search for identity is likely and could

explain the increased importance of role attribution issues for late adolescent peer

counsellors between Time 3 and Time 4 when compared with early adolescent peer

counsellors.

The responses from early adolescent peer counsellors six months after training

suggest that they may respond more to feedback from external sources than by reflecting on

their own internal experiences. This may be because adolescent peer counsellors respond to

external feedback rather than internal feedback to facilitate the adjustment process in their

role as peer counsellors. Researcher reflections of the data concluded that younger

adolescent peer counsellors responded to role adjustments (particularly with regard to

opportunities to help and not being approached for help) with only a few positively framed

suggestions to enable them to adapt to their role as a peer counsellor, for example ‘we should

have an office with our names on the door’ and ‘we should have special times when people

can come to talk to us’. Older adolescent peer counsellor responses were less positive and

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included pessimistic responses when discussing adjustment and adaptation strategies, for

example ‘they (peers) wouldn’t turn up to any activities that we were setting up’ and ‘the

name peer counsellor doesn’t really (have) a positive effect (on others)’. Additionally, older

adolescent peer counsellors believed that it would be more helpful not to be clearly identified

as peer counsellors in the wider school community, ‘it is better for trained peer counsellors

not to be identified but for them to simply exist and to help others when the opportunity

arises’. The latter comment reflects a focus on internal feedback mechanisms evident

through a degree of congruence between what older adolescent peer counsellors felt and

communicated about their competence in the peer counsellor role.

Ibarra (1999) describes participants in his study as displaying a dominant concern

with authenticity when experimenting with ‘provisional selves’ and adaptation to role.

Participants using true-to-self strategies avoided pretensions or exaggerated displays of

confidence. Younger adolescent peer counsellors in the current study seemed less concerned

with true-to-self strategies when making adjustments to their role as a peer counsellor. The

difference between younger and older adolescent peer counsellors with regard to true-to-self

strategies may account for the increased importance of role attribution issues for late

adolescent peer counsellors between Time 3 and Time 4.

Status. Just as personal identity is related to the participants’ experiences of their role

as peer counsellors in the current study so adolescent social identity is pivotal to the

participants’ experiences of their status among their peers. The issues with regard to status in

the current study revolved around the participants’ attempts to strengthen their personal

identity through becoming a peer counsellor while continuing to belong to their peer group

in the wider school environment. A wide-ranging literature review by Baumeister and Leary

(1995) suggests that people have a fundamental need to belong. A sense of belonging and

identity are closely related as people define themselves in terms of the groups of which they

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are members (Hogg & Abrams, 1988). It is no surprise that adolescents in particular are

concerned with group membership as emerging issues with regard to identity and peer group

membership are central to this stage of development (Erickson, 1968). Consequently, it was

also not surprising that, in the current study some members of the school population wanted

to train as peer counsellors as they saw this is an opportunity to strengthen their personal

identity through group membership as a peer counsellor. Participants self-selected to be

trained as peer counsellors and had chosen to commit themselves to the training because the

role of peer counsellor agreed with their own self-identity, social role-perception and their

views about who they would like to become in the future. Because not all students in the

school participated in the training, the participants in the study became members of a group

that was different from their peers. Status issues were by far the most important issues

discussed by peer counsellors in the current study (Table 7.12).

It is known that group membership is psychologically beneficial (Wright & Forsyth,

1997). According to social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), group memberships

contribute to both self-definition and self-esteem. However, in the current study, participants

attempted to fulfil the goal of self-identity by seeking membership from one group while

belonging to another group or by attempting to maintain membership of both groups which

raised issues with regard to status differences. Group membership as a peer counsellor raised

issues of difference for the participants because acquiring counselling skills created a status

difference based on their relative social and skilled standing in comparison to their peers.

Becoming a peer counsellor involved a process of transition from their peer group to

membership of a peer counsellor group. The experience of this transition from one status to

another resulted in the themes and categories identified in the qualitative data under the

heading of Status. Results from the qualitative data also reveal the impact of the social

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environment on the participants and their subsequent responses during this status passage as

they initiated a role that was new in the wider school community.

Bradby (1990) suggests that a status passage includes the anticipations and anxieties

experienced prior to the event. Participant responses from the qualitative data immediately

following training indicated that while status issues were more important than skill

implementation issues, none of the participants anticipated group membership as a peer

counsellor in the wider school community as being difficult. Responses suggested that

participants believed they were the same as their peers and that their peers would also

believe that peer counsellors were the same as them (Table 7.8). Immediately following

training, participants’ responses indicated that they perceived themselves as possessing

specific characteristics plus skills that contributed to their role as peer counsellors (Table

7.8). Researcher reflections of the data suggest that while the peer counsellors recognised

differences between themselves and their peers with regard to helping others as a

consequence of their training, believing that they were more skilled than their peers, they

also wanted to believe that they were the same as their friends and peers who were not peer

counsellors. They believed that despite their role as peer counsellors, their peers would share

this view.

Researcher reflections concluded that, immediately following training peer

counsellors felt strongly affiliated to their peer groups and frequently talked about the

importance of their friends rather than referring to their membership of the peer counsellor

group (Table 7.8). They indicated little anticipation with regard to a process of transition

from peer group to peer counsellor group and exhibited limited insight into the future

possibility of belonging to an emerging group of peer counsellors and the impact of the

social environment on this process. The ability to anticipate membership of a new group may

reflect a limitation of the training model used in the current study. Three training sessions

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were devoted to ethical considerations when using counselling skills, and to peer counsellor

expectations and limitations. However, this training did not include reference to the reality

that training as a peer counsellor would mean that they would in the future belong to a new

group which would be different from their current peer groups. It might be useful in future

programs to include information highlighting the fact that after training as a peer counsellor,

individuals would belong to a peer counsellor group which would have its own distinctive

identity. The importance of understanding the role that trainees will occupy in the wider

community is essential to maximise smooth status passage (McIntosh, 2003). The transition

from one group to another in the current study can be described by identifying the process

that participants used to manage their status passage and can help understanding with regard

to status differences when becoming a member of the peer counsellor group.

The results from the qualitative data in the current study suggest that peer counsellors

used a similar process to one described by McIntosh (2003) to address the difficulties

encountered with regard to status differences. McIntosh explored the professional

socialisation of nurses, and described how nurses addressed the problematic issues of

difference as they became and sustained being professional. A three-stage process which

emerged involved (1) assuming adequacy, (2) realising practice, and (3) developing a

reputation. This process is similar to one previously identified by Stonequist (1966) in his

study of ethnic groups and marginal populations.

Assuming adequacy is characterised by a diminished awareness of others’ opinions

and is brought about through concentrating on technical tasks to the relative exclusion of

interpersonal tasks (McIntosh, 2003). In assuming adequacy, peer counsellors in the current

study indicated this stage in the process by concentrating on successfully implementing

counselling skills with a diminished awareness of whether others respected them. As

discussed earlier, this was the case for participants in their role as peer counsellors

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immediately following training. However, three months after training it became clear that

participants were conscious of differences between themselves and their peers with regard to

the way they behaved as peer counsellors (Table 7.9). Rather than gain support for their

emerging role through the peer counsellor group, it appeared from the theme in Table 7.9

(Status with regard to relationships with others), that peer counsellors’ personal identity was

retained individually, mainly through links outside the group. A group of people who start a

course together can be called a collectivity and are likely to gain support from each other

through the process of collective passage (Bradby, 1990). However, in the current study at

three months following the training there was a surprising lack of group affinity among peer

counsellors. Responses indicated that there continued to be strong support for the fact that as

a peer counsellor they were still closely affiliated with their friends. Understanding

adolescent peer group formation can help with regard to the relevance of this phenomenon in

the current study.

Groups in early adolescence have previously been described in terms of cliques,

which are small groups made up of linked friendships (Parker, Rubin, Price, & DeRosier,

1995). These reports are consistent with Turner’s (1987) description of “psychological

groups” which are subjectively important to the individual. In the current study, younger

adolescent peer counsellors, in particular, continued to be strongly identified with their

friendship groups. It has been suggested that the strength of relationships with friends who

are weakly bonded to an individual is likely to have a minimal influence whereas friends

who are strongly bonded with an individual are likely to have a stronger effect (Tremblay,

Masse, Vitaro, & Dobkin, 1995). These findings might explain why, for younger adolescent

peer counsellors in the current study, support from friendship groups was particularly

important (Table 7.9) and influential, preventing them from assuming a group identity with

other peer counsellors where bonds were not as strong or influential.

222

Researcher reflections from the data concluded that there was some indication that

belonging to the peer counsellor group was less central for younger participants in part

because they were themselves in a process of life transition. As adolescents, early adolescent

peer counsellors may have been strengthening relationships with their small friendship peer

groups which appeared to be more pertinent and important to them and which provided them

with enhanced psychological well being when compared to belonging to the peer counsellor

group. However, it was clear from the high percentage of responses with regard to being

clearly identified in their role as peer counsellors at Time 3 that participants also wanted to

be seen as different from their peers.

Macintosh (2003) described stage two of the process of status passage (realising

practice) as a stage of becoming aware of discrepancies between expectations and real

experiences and attempting balance between them. The high percentage of responses with

regard to being negatively received in their role by their peers compared to being positively

received by peers at Time 3 (Table 7.9) and at Time 4 (Table 7.10) indicated that peer

counsellors were becoming aware of the incongruity between their expectations of being part

of a peer group while also being different from their peer group. Responses such as ‘they

make up false problem’, ‘people have been approaching me sarcastically’, ‘they say they

would never come to a peer counsellor for help’ and ‘I have been told lies’ indicated that

peer counsellors were beginning to experience some stress associated with the reality of

being a peer counsellor. Status difference issues were most important for peer counsellors

three months following training and remained important six months after training compared

to immediately following the training (Table 7.12). Encountering the negativity from peers at

Time 3 may have resulted in participants having to justify their role to others who did not

share their vision. The situation where peer counsellors were clearly experiencing difficulty,

is similar to those experiences identified by Pillhammar-Andersson (1995) in a study

223

exploring the concept of marginality in nursing education during this stage of status passage.

Pillhammar Andersson observed that participants in her study described their experience of

being in the intersection between being a student and professional worker. During this

experience participants expressed uncertainty, loss of status and an identity crisis. For some

students there was a crisis of duality where they were caught between their old loyalty to

their colleagues and a new and developing sense of loyalty to the nurses on the wards. At

this point the feeling of marginality became so intense that they almost completely lost their

sense of self. They were uncertain about where they really belonged as a student or

professional. Similarly, it appears that the participants in the current study experienced

difficulties in moving from membership of their peer group to membership of the peer

counsellor group and understanding the role that friends played in this transition. This crisis

of duality is likely to have contributed to the increased focus on status issues at Time 3.

The high percentage of responses with regard to the category of ‘peer counsellors

need to be clearly identified’ in the wider school community (Table 7.9) reflected

participants’ attempts to balance the emerging differences between themselves and their peer

group at Time 3. By becoming more prominent as peer counsellors in the school community,

it is likely that peer counsellors believed that they would be more accepted by their peers.

Balancing expectations and reality was observed in the behaviour of participants in the

current study through responses in the category of ‘promotion of the peer counsellors’ role’.

As well as attempting to justify their role as peer counsellors to others, responses in this

category also indicated an emerging strategy for strengthening the bond between members of

the peer counsellor group.

As discussed earlier, a older adolescent peer counsellors were more disillusioned

about their role in the wider school community at this stage of their status passage (Table

7.6) and more pessimistic with regard to the success of their adjustment strategies than

224

younger adolescent peer counsellors (Table 7.7). Data from Time 4 show that overall, peer

counsellors report stronger and more supportive relationships with friends at Time 3 than at

Time 4 (Tables 7.9 and 7.10), indicating a shift from three months after training to six

months following training. It appears that adopting the identity of peer counsellor was

complicated at three months after training because of the dual social roles in which the

participants were engaged; it is likely that they wanted to maintain their role within their

peer group as well as become identified with the new peer counsellor group. However, it

seems that six months after training participants began to recognise ongoing contact with

friends as a form of support which in fact enabled them to develop their peer counsellor role.

The less important role that peers generally played with regard to support (Table 7.10) was

acknowledged through responses included in the category of ‘relationship with others with

regards to skill acquisition’. The responses in this category indicated that participants

believed that their relationships with their peers had changed as a result of learning specific

counselling skills but that their relationship with friendship groups remained important and

supportive. Researcher reflections of the data concluded that these results were an indication

that as a group, peer counsellors were beginning to recognise their membership as a peer

counsellor in the peer counsellor group.

As a group six months after training, peer counsellors actively participated in a range

of strategies in an attempt to differentiate themselves in their developing role including

wearing a badge and producing a promotional video. However, differences continued to exist

between older and younger peer counsellors with regard to whether they should be clearly

identified in the wider school community (Table 7.10). One explanation for the difference

between older and younger peer counsellors with regard to the issue of identification with

the peer counsellor group might be that older adolescents’ believe they are better able to help

their peers as peer group members rather than as peer counsellor group members. Research

225

with adult subjects shows that there is evidence that membership of a social group can have a

powerful influence on perceptions of what can or cannot be achieved (Hackett, 1995;

Oyserman, 1995). It may be that older adolescent peer counsellors had a perception that as a

member of a peer counsellor group they would not be able to help others as well as they

could as an individual within their wider peer group. Differences between older and younger

participants with regard to issues of identification with the peer counsellor group may also be

explained by personal identity formation literature. As discussed earlier, Allison and Schultz

(2001) found that for early adolescents the exploration and commitment to processes

associated with identity formation were just emerging. As a consequence it may be that the

younger adolescent peer counsellors relied more strongly on group membership to realise

their identity and roles rather than in the more intimate one-to-one relationships which

characterise older adolescent social relationships.

Stage three of the transition process described by McIntosh (2003) involved

developing a reputation. Three strategies were identified at this stage; mentoring, influencing

other’s impressions and engaging and disengaging with promotional activities. These

strategies were used by peer counsellors and identified six months after training in the

current study. Firstly, one participant volunteered to become an assistant trainer in a

subsequent peer counsellor training program. This participant viewed mentoring other

trainees as a way to contribute to their own personal identity as a peer counsellor. Secondly,

several peer counsellors spoke at the school assembly about peer counselling to influence

student impressions of peer counsellors. Additionally, as a group, the peer counsellors

prepared a promotional video which was shown at the school assembly. Thirdly, researcher

reflections of qualitative data concluded that older adolescent peer counsellors were more

likely to engage and disengage with promotional activities. Older adolescent peer

counsellors were more constrained by competing educational demands and commitments

226

than their younger cohorts. Their commitment to establishing a group identity was marked

by fluctuating commitments to promoting the peer counsellor group. Engaging and

disengaging in promotional activities as described by McIntosh (2003) in her study was seen

to be influenced by several factors; stage of career, opportunity, amounts of personal energy

and time, extent of concern for the future of the profession, vision for the future and amount

of professional pride. It was noted that iterations of this transition process occurred with

participants repeatedly experiencing the stages. In the current study several of these factors

were particularly pertinent for older adolescent peer counsellors such as stage of education,

opportunity, amounts of personal energy and time, and academic and extracurricular

commitment.

Associated factors influencing status cannot be ignored. Evidence indicates that

group identification and global personal self-esteem are robustly related (Cameron, 1999).

Similarly the contextual factor of the wider environment may influence the extent to which

peer counsellors were supported with regard to carrying out their role as peer counsellors.

Finally, adjustment strategies used to cope with the difficulties of role transition will provide

information with regard to whether or not peer counsellors can sustain their role within the

school community. Research questions four and five explored these contextual factors and

results will be reported and discussed in the following chapter.

227

CHAPTER 8

Study 2 Quantitative Data Results and Discussion

The current project aimed to explore and understand the way adolescents make

sense of helping behaviour among themselves. The findings from multiple sources of data

provide a means of enhancing rigour and at times provide opportunity for the results of

one method to inform another. However, the aim in this project was to use a variety of

data collection measures to form diverse platforms for understanding the experience of

participants and thus avoid common limiting assumptions when making conclusions.

Chapter 7 identified differences in the way early and late adolescent peer counsellors

experienced their training and performance in the role of peer counsellor. These

differences were identified from qualitative data and reflect the lived experience of

participants over time. Their responses reflect affective reactions and cognitive

perceptions from their intrapersonal experiences.

The results from the quantitative measures used in Study 2 relate to the effect of

the intervention on participants with regard to the specific domains of emotional

competence, self-concept, coping styles and perceptions of school climate over time.

Quantitative data collection enabled the researcher to continue to pursue the examination

and understanding of participants’ experience by using self-report measures which

enabled them to continue to ‘tell their story’ in ways that elicited different and more

objective information than that obtained from the qualitative data.

This chapter continues to report and discuss the results of research questions asked

in Study 2 (questions four and five of the project):

Research Questions

4. How does a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program influence peer

counsellors’ emotional competence, self-concept, and the coping strategies used?

228



The chapter will be divided according to the research questions.

Participants

The same participants used to answer research question three (see chapter 7) in

Study 2 were used to answer research questions four and five. Study 2 initially comprised

27 subjects (20 females and seven males) who had completed training in Study 1 in

specific counselling microskills in any one of the subgroups A, B, C or D. During Study 2

seven subjects dropped out of the training program leaving 20 (15 females and five

males) to complete the training. Because of timetabling constraints and study

commitments only 17 subjects were consistently available to complete all measures from

Time 1 through to Time 4. The final group comprised five females from grade eight with

a mean age of 12.6 years, three females and three males from grade nine with a mean age

of 13.1 years, two females from grade 10 with a mean age of 14.6 years, and two females

and two males from grade 11 with a mean age of 15.6 years. The results reported in this

chapter are based on data collected from the 17 subjects who consistently completed the

measures from Time 1 through to Time 4.


A new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program was developed and

used as the intervention in this study to answer the research questions. This intervention is

described in detail in chapter 7.

Research Question 4

Research question four aimed to discover whether the new adolescent-friendly

peer counsellor training program influenced peer counsellors’ perceptions of their

emotional competence, self-concept, and coping strategies.

229


The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire (Schutte, et al., 1998) was

used to measure emotional competence. The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

(Piers, et al., 1984) was used to assess the self-concept of participants’. The Adolescent

Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis 1993) was used to identify the coping strategies used

by participants. Details of these measures and the data gathering procedures are included

in chapter 4.

Analysis

A repeated measures analysis of variance was carried out on all measures to

discover changes over time as a result of the impact of the intervention on the

participants’ perceptions of their emotional competence, self-concept and coping styles.

Cronbach’s alpha was obtained on all measures used in the present study.

Results from qualitative data (chapter 7) indicated differences in some responses

over time between grade eight and nine (early adolescent) participants and grade 10 and

11 (late adolescent) participants with regard to their experience of helping. Because

numbers in each group were small it was not possible to look for significant differences

between early and late adolescent participants on quantitative measures using analysis of

variance. Differences in responses between the two groups identified from qualitative

data stimulated the exploration of possible differences on quantitative data. These

analyses were conducted as part of an exploratory process and not with the aim of finding

significance. Mean scores were examined to explore trends in differences between early

adolescent and late adolescent peer counsellors over time. Mean scores were considered

with regard to shifts and/or differences on the measures of The Self-Report Emotional

Competence Questionnaire, the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept subscales, and the

three coping styles of the Adolescent Coping Scale. Examination of mean scores provided

230

information which thickened the participants’ story with regard to their experiences as

peer counsellors. Results from the quantitative findings helped in understanding the

phenomena of adolescent peer counselling.

Results

Results of the quantitative data will be reported under the headings of the

quantitative measures used to answer research question four.

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire.

Research question four aimed to discover whether involvement in the program

influenced participants’ self-reports of their emotional competence. Cronbach’s alpha was

obtained on the Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire used in the present

study. The internal consistency for the Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire

was .86 confirming its usefulness as a measure in the current project. A repeated

measures analysis of variance was performed on the data for the Self-Report Emotional

Competence Questionnaire to determine whether there was significant change in the total

emotional competence scores over time for peer counsellors as a result of the

intervention. No significant differences were found.

Mean scores for total emotional competence were examined to determine trends in

changes over time for all peer counsellors. Table 8.1 and Figure 8.1 illustrate the mean

scores for emotional competence for peer counsellors over time.

Table 8.1. Means scores for emotional competence for peer counsellors over time

Time n M SD

1 17 124.38 14.50

2 17 129.63 15.57

3 17 128.44 17.13

4 17 127.00 16.20

231

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n Sc

ores

Peer counsellors

Figure 8.1. Emotional Competence mean scores for all peer counsellors

Examination of the total emotional competence mean scores for all peer

counsellors point toward differences in mean scores at different times. Participants report

their emotional intelligence to be highest at T2 and at T3 with a slight reduction between

T3 and T4.

Qualitative data suggested differences between early and late adolescent peer

counsellors with regard to their experience in the role of peer counsellor. Results from

qualitative data were used as a stimulus to explore these age group differences. Table 8.2

and Figure 8.2 illustrate the mean scores for emotional competence for early adolescent

peer counsellors and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

232

Table 8.2

Emotional competence total mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

over time

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Time n M SD

n M SD

1 11

124.90 16.90 6 123.50 10.74

2 11

130.70 16.66 6 127.03 14.87

3 11

132.50 19.13 6 124.67 15.02

4 11 132.50 19.12 6 122.33 11.67

116

118

120

122

124

126

128

130

132

134

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n Sc

ores

EarlyLate

Figure 8.2. Mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Emotional

Competence

Mean scores for the Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire were

examined to explore trends in the differences over time for early adolescent and late

adolescent participants. Examination of the mean scores for early adolescent peer

counsellors show a steady increase in scores over time with emotional competence scores

being higher at T4 compared to T1. These trends suggest that younger adolescents may

see themselves as increasing in emotional competence over time. Specifically, they

indicate that older adolescent peer counsellors report their emotional intelligence as

233

diminishing from T1 to T4, and that older adolescent peer counsellors report their

emotional competence as increasing to peak at T2 but then declining to below pre-

intervention levels at T4.

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale.

As well as examining the effect of the program on emotional intelligence research

question four also aimed to discover whether involvement in the program influenced the

participants’ self-concept. For the present study, the internal consistency for the subscales

of the Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale ranged from .75 to .83. A repeated

measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the data from the Piers-Harris

Children’s Self-concept Scale to determine whether there were significant differences in

subscale scores for peer counsellors over time. While most of the subscale names are self-

explanatory, they merit some description to help in understanding the impact of the

intervention. Behaviour, for example, involves school, home and social behaviour (e.g.,

getting into trouble, being well-behaved). Intellectual and School Status includes such

self-descriptors as smart, volunteering, being an important member of the class and

contributing to the class. Physical Appearance includes ‘classmates thinking I have good

ideas’ and being a leader, along with several body image items. Anxiety involves worry,

being afraid and giving up easily along with other more general measures of the self.

Popularity includes some self-evident items along with associated items such as ‘my

classmates in school think I have good ideas’ and ‘I am different from other people’.

Happiness and satisfaction is self-explanatory and items measure these attributes.

Subscales are scored in the direction of positive self-concept so that a high score indicates

a high level of assessed self-concept within that specific dimension.

No significant differences over time for peer counsellors as a result of the

intervention were found on the subscales of Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale.

234

Although there were no significant differences (and small group size prevented any valid

analysis of this kind), mean scores for the subscales were studied to explore trends over

time for peer counsellors. Table 8.3 and Figure 8.3 illustrate the mean scores for self-

concept subscales for peer counsellors over time.

Table 8.3

Mean scores and standard deviations for peer counsellors on the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-

concept subscales over time

Behaviour Status Appearance Anxiety Popularity Happiness

Time

n

M SD

M SD

M SD

M SD

M SD

M SD

1

17 14.24 2.04 12.35 4.13 8.41 3.00 10.41 2.93 7.82 2.78 8.94 1.08

2

17 14.00 2.52 13.94 3.21 9.65 2.49 10.59 3.65 9.06 2.38 8.71 2.02

3 17 14.41 2.15

14.59 3.06 10.94 3.17 11.06 2.58 9.53 2.03 8.14 1.95

4 17 14.07 1.49

13.13 3.40 9.94 2.96 10.88 2.96 9.69 1.44 9.19 1.10

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n Sc

ores

StatusAppearanceFreedom from AnxietyPopularity

Figure 8.3. Difference between subscale scores of Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept

Scale

235

Consideration of mean scores indicates that on the subscales of Status,

Appearance, Freedom from Anxiety, and Popularity, peer counsellors appear to report

consistent improvement over baseline self-reports to T3 with a deterioration from T3 to

T4 on the all the subscales except for Popularity. However, mean scores show an overall

slight improvement from T1 to T4 on all these subscales. Mean scores convey that

Behaviour and Happiness subscales remained fairly stable over time.

The subscales of Status, Appearance, Freedom from Anxiety and Popularity were

of particular interest to the current study. Results indicate that the mean scores on the

subscales of Appearance, Status, Freedom from Anxiety, and Popularity appear to be

highest at T3. On the subscale of Appearance at T3 it seems that peer counsellors reported

feeling more positive than at T1 with regard to their appearance as well as with regard to

attributes such as leadership and the ability to express ideas. Mean scores illustrate that on

the subscales of Status and Popularity at T3 peer counsellors may have felt more equal to

their peers than at T1, as well as suggesting that peer counsellors felt as though they were

important member of their peer group and were well respected. Mean scores for Freedom

from Anxiety suggest that peer counsellors felt slightly more content with themselves at

T3 than at T1 with lesser major emotional worries or fears. In addition mean scores also

suggest that Status dropped markedly at T4. It may be that participants were feeling less

respected by and less important or equal to their peers at T4 when compared with their

perceptions at T3.

Because qualitative results suggested differences between early and late

adolescent peer counsellors, mean scores for the subscales of the Piers-Harris Children’s

Self-concept Scale were explored to determine trends in the differences over time for

early adolescent (grade 8/9) and late adolescent (grade 10/11) participants. Tables 8.4 to

236

8.7 and Figures 8.4 to 8.7 illustrate the mean scores for the Piers-Harris subscales for

early adolescent peer counsellors and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

Mean score differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on the

subscales of Behaviour and Happiness indicated little difference and could not be

considered influential on participants’ experiences as peer counsellors. Therefore mean

score differences were not examined on these subscales to determine trends in the

differences over time for early and late adolescent peer counsellors.

Table 8.4 and Figure 8.4 illustrate the mean scores for the Status subscale for early

and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

Table 8.4

Status subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Status Time n M SD n M SD 1 11

13.18 2.82 6 9.33 3.61

2 11

14.00 2.56 6 12.83 4.07

3 11

14.82 1.53 6 14.67 1.21

4 11 15.00 1.61 6 12.20 4.14

237

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate

Figure 8.4. Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Status

subscale

Examination of means score results are consistent with the suggestion that both

early and late adolescent peer counsellors report a steady increase in their positive self

assessment of their ability with respect to intellectual tasks and positive appraisal from

others to T3. At T4, while early adolescent peer counsellors report further positive self-

assessment, late adolescents’ scores reflect the opposite.

Tables 8.5 and Figure 8.5 illustrate the mean scores for the Appearance subscale

for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

238

Table 8.5

Appearance subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over

time

Early Adolescence Late Adolescence Appearance Time n M SD n M SD 1 11

9.82 2.40 6 5.83 2.22

2 11

10.18 2.63 6 8.67 2.65

3 11

10.64 3.74 6 11.52 1.87

4 11 10.73 2.53 6 9.17 2.63

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate

Figure 8.5. Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Appearance

subscale

This subscale reflects the participants’ attitudes concerning their physical

appearance as well as attributes such as leadership and the ability to express good ideas.

Both early and late peer counsellors appear to report improvement in this subscale from

T1 to T3. At T4, while early adolescent peer counsellors report further positive self-

239

assessment in this domain, late adolescents’ scores reflect a decline in their appraisal of

these traits.

Tables 8.6 and Figure 8.6 illustrate the mean scores for the Freedom from Anxiety

subscale for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

Table 8.6

Freedom from anxiety subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer

counsellors over time

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Freedom from Anxiety Time n M SD n M SD 1 11

1118 2.27 6 9.00 3.68

2 11

10.55 3.44 6 11.50 2.34

3 11

11.27 2.83 6 11.17 2.22

4 11 11.09 2.50 6 9.67 1.94

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n Sc

ores

EarlyLate

Figure 8.6. Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Freedom

from Anxiety subscale

For late adolescent peer counsellors mean score differences reflect self reports of

less anxiety at T2, immediately following training, but convey more vulnerability with

regard to troubling moods and thoughts at T3 and further at T4. Mean scores are

240

consistent with the suggestion that early adolescent peer counsellors however, find moods

and thought more troubling at T2, then become freer from anxiety over time.

Tables 8.7 and Figure 8.7 illustrate the mean scores for the Popularity subscale for

early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

Table 8.7

Popularity subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Popularity Time n M SD n M SD 1 11

9.00 2.36 6 5.67 2.25

2 11

9.45 2.01 6 8.33 3.01

3 11

9.64 2.11 6 9.50 2.89

4 11 10.27 1.42 6 8.00 1.26

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n Sc

ores

Early

Late

Figure 8.7. Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Popularity

subscale

Mean scores show a slight but gradual increase in peer counsellors’ positive

evaluation of popularity with classmates and peers for early adolescents and a more

marked increase for later adolescents from T1 to T3. At T4 however, late adolescent peer

241

counsellors appear to report more negative evaluations of themselves and early

adolescents appear to report an increase in their perceptions of their popularity.

On the subscales of Status, Appearance, Freedom from Anxiety and Popularity,

differences in mean scores are consistent with the suggestion that late adolescent peer

counsellors’ report elevated evaluations of their self-concept at T3. However, late

adolescent peer counsellors appear to report more negative evaluations at T4. This is not

the same for early adolescent peer counsellors where differences in mean scores are

consistent with the suggestion of elevated evaluations at T3 with either reported

improvement in, or steady self-concept on, these subscales at T4.

The Adolescent Coping Scale

Research question four included discovering whether involvement in the

adolescent peer counsellor training program and functioning in the role of peer counsellor

influenced the way participants coped with their own difficulties. The Adolescent Coping

Scale was used to address this part of the question.

As described in chapter 7, the Adolescent Coping Scale can be scored on three

factors which have been called Solving the Problem, Reference to Others and Non-

Productive Coping. Scoring on these factor scores are adjusted so that the three factors

can be directly compared with each other in relation to the frequency of use of each style

of coping. Higher scores indicate that the style of coping is used a great deal whereas low

scores indicate that the style of coping is not used at all.

The internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha was obtained for the Adolescent

Coping Scale coping styles, for the current study. In the current project, Cronbach’s alpha

was .90 for Solving The Problem, .77 for Reference to Others and .90 for Non-Productive

Coping.

242

The Solving the Problem factor represents a style of coping characterised by

working at a problem while remaining optimistic, fit, relaxed and socially connected. The

subscales included in this factor are solving problems, seek relaxing diversions, physical

recreation, seek to belong, work hard and achieve, focus on the positive, invest in close

friends and seek social support. The Reference to Others factor is characterised by

attending to others for support whether they are peers, professional or deities. The

subscales included in this factor are seeking spiritual support, seeking professional help

and social action. The Non-productive Coping factor represents a combination of non-

productive avoidance strategies that have been empirically associated with an inability to

cope. The subscales of this factor include worry, wishful thinking, not cope, ignore the

problem, tension reduction, keep to self and self-blame.

A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to ascertain

whether the coping styles used by peer counsellors significantly changed over time. No

significant differences were found on the coping style of Solving the Problem, Reference

to Others, or Non-Productive Coping.

Qualitative results discussed in chapter 7 suggested differences between early and

late adolescent peer counsellors. Results from qualitative data have been used as a

stimulus to explore these age-group differences quantitatively. Tables 8.8 to 8.10 present

the mean scores for each of the three coping styles of the Adolescent Coping Scale for

early adolescent peer counsellors (grade 8/9) and late adolescent peer counsellors (grade

10/11) over time. Figure 8.8 illustrates the differences between the degrees to which early

adolescent peer counsellors use all three coping styles. Figure 8.9 illustrates the

differences between the degrees to which late adolescent peer counsellors use all three

coping styles.

243

Table 8.8.

Problem solving style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Problem Solving

Time n M SD n M SD 1 11

3.51 .47 6 3.73 .56

2 11

3.29 .47 6 3.82 .54

3 11

3.46 .45 6 3.83 .38

4 11 3.49 .56 6 3.44 .44

Table 8.9.

Reference to Others style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Reference to Others

Time

n M SD n M SD

1 11

2.57 .58 6 2.32 .61

2 11

2.22 .56 6 2.59 .20

3 11

2.43 .49 6 2.55 .24

4 11 2.37 .62 6 2.46 .23

Table 8.10.

Non-Productive style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

Early Adolescents Late Adolescents Non-productive


2.34 .39 6 2.63 .23

2 11

2.36 .61 6 2.84 .25

3 11

2.50 .48 6 2.59 .40

4 11 2.67 .66 6 2.61 .61

244

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

Problem SolvingReference to OthersNon-productive coping

Figure 8.8. Difference between the degrees of use of coping styles over time for early

adolescent peer counsellors.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n S

core

s

Problem SolvingReference to OthersNon-productive

Figure 8.9. Difference between the degrees of use of coping styles over time for

late adolescent peer counsellors

Exploration of mean scores are consistent with the suggestion that Problem

Solving coping strategies were used frequently by both early and late adolescent peer

counsellors (Fig. 8.8) from prior to the intervention to six months post-intervention. Mean

scores also convey the notion that Non-Productive coping strategies were used

245

sometimes. From T2 to T4 mean scores show that there appears to be an increase in the

use of problem solving strategies for early adolescent peer counsellors. For late

adolescents mean scores suggest that there appears to be a slight increase in the use of

problem-solving strategies from T2 to T3 followed by a decrease from T3 to T4. From T2

to T3 mean scores suggest that there appears to be an increase in non-productive coping

strategies for early adolescents and a decrease for late adolescents. From T3 to T4 there

appears to be an increase in Non-Productive coping style for both groups.

Strategies involving Reference to Others appear to be used very little over time,

by both groups but mean scores suggest that these strategies may have been used most at

T2.

Figure 8.10 illustrates the differences between the degree to which early and late

adolescent peer counsellors use the Problem Solving Style.

3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n Sc

ores

EarlyLate

Figure 8.10. Differences between the degree to which early and late adolescent peer

counsellors use the Problem Solving style

As shown in Figure 8.10 both early and late adolescent peer counsellors appear to

use Problem Solving strategies frequently. Late adolescent peer counsellors seem to make

246

use of Problem Solving strategies most at T2 and T3, immediately following the training

and after three months. Early adolescent peer counsellors seem to make use of Problem

Solving strategies least at T2, but their use of these strategies appears to increase from T2

to T3. From T3 to T4 mean scores show that late adolescent peer counsellors may rely on

Problem Solving strategies less, while early adolescent peer counsellors may rely on

Problem Solving strategies more.


adolescent peer counsellors used the Reference to Others coping style.

2

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

1 2 3 4Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate


counsellors use the Reference to Others style

Figure 8.11 shows that strategies included in the coping style of Reference To

Others were used very little over time by both early and late adolescent peer counsellors.

At T2, T3 and T4 it appears that late adolescent peer counsellors made use of strategies

involving Reference to Others more than early adolescent peer counsellors. While it

247

seems that late adolescent peer counsellors relied more on Reference to Others at T2 than

early adolescent peer counsellors, both groups used this coping style less from T3 to T4.


adolescent peer counsellors use the Non-productive coping style.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate


counsellors use the Non-Productive coping style

Figure 8.12 shows that Non-Productive coping strategies appear to be used “very

little” to “sometimes” for both early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

Generally Non-Productive coping strategies seem to be used more by late adolescent peer

counsellors than early adolescent peer counsellors. The largest differences in use appear

to be at T1 and T2 as shown in Figure 8.12.

Research Question 5

Research question five aimed to discover whether the new adolescent-friendly

peer counsellor training program influenced peer counsellors’ perceptions of the current

school climate.

248


With regard to their experience of helping, results from qualitative data indicated

differences in some responses over time between grade eight and nine (early adolescent)

participants and grade 10 and 11 (late adolescent) participants. Because numbers in each

group were small it was not possible to look for differences between early and late

adolescent participants using analysis of variance. Instead total mean scores on the School

Climate Survey were explored to identify trends in differences between early adolescent

and late adolescent peer counsellors over time. Examination of mean scores was

stimulated by qualitative findings and helped in further understanding the phenomena of

adolescent peer counselling.

Results

The School Climate Survey

The School Climate Survey was developed by the researcher and a full description

of its development, and psychometric analysis, can be found in chapter 5. Research

question five aimed to discover whether involvement in an adolescent-friendly peer

counsellor training program influenced participants’ perceptions of the current school

climate over time. To answer this question the School Climate Survey was used.

Cronbach’s alpha for the School Climate Survey was .89 for Factor 1, and .88 for Factor

2, indicating reliability for both Factor 1 and Factor 2 as subscales of the School Climate

Survey. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the factor

scores and the total school climate scores to discover whether there were changes in peer

counsellors’ perceptions of school climate over time. Factor 1, Student Perceptions of

Student Relationships, pertained to the way in which students related with each other,

Student expectations regarding peer relationships, the way in which students relate with

adults and prosocial behaviour among students. Factor 2, Student Perceptions of

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Teachers’ relationships with Students and other Staff, primarily related to students

perceptions of their experiences with teachers and other staff, teacher/staff behaviours

with students, and the interactions between teachers, staff and parents. Overall School

Climate Total reflects participants’ perceptions of cognitive/managerial and psychosocial

dimensions of school climate. School climate total and factor scores are scored in the

direction of positive perceptions of school climate so that a high score indicates a positive

assessment of student relationships with students, teachers’ relationships with students

and other staff, and the total school climate.

No significant changes were found on Factor 1, Student Perceptions of Student

Relationships, Factor 2, Student Perceptions of Teachers’ relationships with Students and

other Staff, or the School Climate Total.

Mean scores for the Factors and Total School Climate Score were examined to

explore trends in changes over time for peer counsellors. Table 8.11 illustrates the mean

scores for peer counsellors on the Total School Climate and on the factors of Student

Perceptions of Student Relationships, and Student Perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships

with Students and other Staff over time. Figure 8.13 illustrates the Total School Climate

mean scores for all peer counsellors over time and Figure 8.14 illustrates the differences

between factor mean scores on school climate for all peer counsellors over time.

250

Table 8.11.

Mean scores and standard deviations for peer counsellors on factor scores and total

school climate score of the School Climate Survey over time

School Climate Total

Student

Perceptions of Student

Relationships

Student Perceptions of Teachers’ relationships with Students and other

Staff

Time n M SD M SD M SD 1

17 154.06 21.14 74.56 12.82 59.82 11.14

2

17 154.20 24.46 75.81 15.73 58.00 14.54

3

17 151.00 15.15 75.50 12.29 55.47 8.94

4 17 142.93 11.00 73.25 12.15 49.53 10.93

136138140142144146148150152154156

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

Peer Counsellors

Figure 8.13. Total School Climate scores for all peer counsellors over time.

251

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

Student Perceptions ofStudent Relationships

Student PerceptionsofTeachers' relationshipswith Students and otherStaff

Figure 8.14. Differences between factor scores for all peer counsellors over time.

Exploration of mean scores of the School Climate Total suggest a trend

indicating that a positive perception of the school climate was highest at T2 and lowest at

T4, at levels below those prior to the intervention. Exploration of the mean scores of

Student Perceptions of Student Relationships (Factor 1) and Students Perceptions of

Teachers’ Relationships with Students and Other Staff (Factor 2) are consistent with the

suggestion that peer counsellors’ perceptions decreased over time from T1 to T4.

Because numbers in each group were small it was not possible to look for

differences between early adolescent (grade 8/9) and late adolescent (grade 10/11) peer

counsellors using an analysis of variance. Consequently mean scores for the Total School

Climate, Factor 1 (Student Perceptions of Student relationships) and Factor 2 (Student

Perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other Staff) were explored to

determine trends in differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors with

regard to their perceptions of school climate over time. Table 8.12 to 8.14 and Figures

8.15 to 8.17 illustrate the mean scores for school climate for early adolescent peer

counsellors and late adolescent peer counsellors over time.

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Table 8.12

Mean scores for School Climate Total for early adolescent peer counsellors and late

adolescent peer counsellors over time.

Early Adolescent Late Adolescent Time n M SD n M SD 1 11 152.81

17.30 6 156.83 24.91

2 11 141.81

14.03 6 167.66 32.24

3 11 142.81

10.68 6 153.33 22.64

4 11 153.54

9.95 6 143.00 27.05

125

130

135

140

145

150

155

160

165

170

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate

Figure 8.15. Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on School

Climate Total

Mean scores suggest that early adolescent peer counsellors perceived school

climate to be more negative at T2 than at T1 but that they appear to gradually become

more optimistic and positive about the school climate over time. By contrast late

adolescent peer counsellors appear to perceive their school climate to be more positive at

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T2 than at T1 but gradually seem to become more negative about the school climate over

time.

Table 8.13.

Mean scores for Student Perceptions of Student Relationships for early and late

adolescent peer counsellors over time

Early Adolescent Late Adolescent Student Relationships with Students

Time n M SD n M SD 1 11 73.45 10.56 6 69.17 14.68

2 11 68.18 6.70 6 77.83 18.88

3 11 71.45 8.31 6 75.50 16.95

4 11 74.55 8.14 6 66.67 19.56

6062646668707274767880

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate

Figure 8.16. Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on

Student Perceptions of Student Relationships

Differences in mean scores between early and late adolescent peer counsellors

show that late adolescents appear to have their most positive views about student

relationships with students at T2 (see Figure 8.16). However, changes in mean scores

convey the notion that these perceptions become increasingly negative until they fall

254

below baseline levels at T4. For early adolescent peer counsellors, perceptions with

regard to student relationships with students appear to be most negative at T2 but become

more positive at T3 and rise above baseline levels at T4.

Table 8.14.

Mean scores for Student perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other

Staff for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

Early Adolescent Late Adolescent Teachers relationships with students and other staff


57.55 11.79 6 64.00 9.42

2 11

46.73 14.24 6 65.00 11.91

3 11

54.27 8.63 6 57.67 9.89

4 11 55.36 11.49 6 52.67 14.84

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1 2 3 4

Time

Mea

n S

core

s

EarlyLate

Figure 8.17. Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Student

Perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other Staff

From T1 to T2 late adolescent peer counsellors appear to report more positive

perceptions of teachers’ relationships with students and other staff than early adolescent

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peer counsellors. Mean score differences between early and late adolescents reflect an

increase in positive perceptions from T1 to T2. From T2 to T4 the perceptions of late

adolescent peer counsellors seem to continually decrease on this factor whereas the

perceptions of early adolescent peer counsellors continuously increased on this factor,

with the early adolescent peer counsellors reporting more positive perceptions than late

adolescent peer counsellors at T4.

Discussion of Quantitative Data

Research question four aimed to discover how a new adolescent-friendly peer

counsellor training program influenced the peer counsellors’ reports of emotional

competence, self-concept, and coping strategies. Research question five aimed to discover

how a new adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program, influenced the peer

counsellors’ perceptions of the current school climate. Four psychometric assessments

were used to address these questions with the aim of broadening the researchers

understanding of the phenomena of adolescent peer counselling. Because subject numbers

were small, investigation of whether there were differences between the responses of

early and late adolescent peer counsellors was explored by studying differences in mean

scores which might suggest trends of interest. The above results will be discussed under

the headings of the measures used.

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire.

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire was used to discover the

differences in peer counsellors’ self-reports of their emotional intelligence over time as a

result of the training program and their experience as peer counsellors in the wider school

community. Emotional intelligence is best viewed as an information processing set of

skills involving perception, understanding, and management of emotional behaviour

(Berkeley, Storino & Saarni, 2003). Saarni (1990) describes emotional competence as the

256

demonstration of self-efficacy in social transactions. As mentioned in the previous

discussion with regard to skill implementation the skills of emotional intelligence are

operationalised when using counselling microskills and reflect the individual’s emotional

competence or self-efficacy in social transactions. Results from The Self-Report

Emotional Competence Questionnaire reveal how peer counsellors judge themselves with

regard to using their emotional intelligence to create and maintain helping relationships,

which will enhance their peers’ well being and also enable the peer counsellors

themselves to cope with their own well being at the same time.

There were no significant differences with regard to changes on total emotional

intelligence scores over time for peer counsellors. When mean scores from The Self-

Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire were explored, and the outcomes suggested

that it was not useful to look at scores for all peer counsellors as a group. Data suggested

that for late adolescent peer counsellors, from immediately following the training, mean

scores decreased continuously, whereas for early adolescent peer counsellors mean scores

increased.

Saarni (1990) proposes that emotional competence may be promoted in a variety

of ways either through formal curricula to address issues related to emotional competence

or through Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) programs such as those developed by

Elias et al. (1997) and Payton et al. (2000). The content of the peer counsellor training

program involved training in the use of social and emotional competencies. Consistent

with Saarni’s (1990) proposition, immediately following training in the current study,

mean scores rose implying that emotional competence was promoted as a result of the

training (Table 8.1).

Mean scores from The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire revealed

differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to using their

257

emotional intelligence to create and maintain helping relationships with their peers. The

findings (Table 8.2 and Figure 8.2) are consistent with the suggestion that younger peer

counsellors in this study judged themselves more competent after training with regard to

using their emotional intelligence to create and maintain helping relationships with their

peers than before training. These outcomes are consistent with the suggestion that the

peer counsellor training program and experience as a peer counsellor may have

contributed to teaching and/or enhancing emotional competence in younger adolescents in

this project. It is interesting to note that these reports continue to rise with time. However,

these trends need to be considered cautiously. Saarni (1999) suggests that the skills of

emotional competence may also be developmentally variable. That is, their manifestation

in younger adolescents is more concrete, and more situationally bound. Additionally,

Saarni reminds the reader that emotional competence is not a trait that resides in the child

but rather characterises a set of skills that are learned and applied to dynamic encounters

with the social environment. Therefore differences between younger and older adolescent

peer counsellors identified as a result of exploration of means from The Self-Report

Emotional Competence Questionnaire may reflect issues to do with how participants self-

report at different times rather than measuring differences between participants’

emotional intelligence.

Little research has examined the usefulness of emotional intelligence self-report

measures in adolescents (Spirito et al., 1991). Ciarrochi, Chan and Bajgar (2001) suggest

that this lack of research is perhaps justified by the limitations of self-report measures,

which include the potential that adolescents will distort their responses for reasons of

social desirability and will not have sufficient insight into their own emotional

intelligence to accurately report it. This suggestion might well be of relevance when

258

examining the differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors obtained in

the current study.

Bacchini and Magliulo (2003) assessed differences in self-image and perceived

self-efficacy in early, middle and late adolescence. They hypothesised that older

adolescents would describe themselves in a more positive way than younger adolescents.

They did not confirm this hypothesis. Instead they found that during the last phase of

adolescence “social optimism” tends to diminish and the area of interpersonal relations no

longer constitutes the centre around which to construct one’s identity. They also

discovered a weakening of perception of personal efficacy and increased difficulty coping

with negative emotions by older adolescents. They suggest that this results from the

cumulative effect of stress from failures experienced over time. These findings fit with

the outcomes implied by the current study. Late adolescent peer counsellors only

expressed higher levels of confidence and competence with regard to their

social/emotional transactions with others, after the initial training when it might be

expected that they would be feeling positive with regard to their emotional competence.

However, with time they re-evaluated their efficacy more negatively. This may well have

occurred as a result of late adolescent peer counsellors being sensitive to negative

feedback from their peers.

The findings of Bacchini and Magliulo (2003) suggest that there are

developmental differences in perceived self-efficacy between early, middle and late

adolescence. These findings are relevant to outcomes suggested from The Self-Report

Emotional Competence Questionnaire in the current study which infer that while the peer

counsellor training program and experience as a peer counsellor may teach, raise

awareness of, and/or enhance emotional competence skills, that with time late adolescent

peer counsellors may re-evaluate their efficacy negatively with regard to using emotional

259

competence skills whereas the early adolescent peer counsellors continue to evaluate their

efficacy more positively.

The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

In previous research it has been found that the training of peer counsellors, and

acting in the role of a peer counsellor, influences the self-concept of peer helpers

positively (Abu-Rasain & Williams, 1999; Carbonell, Reinherz, & Giaconia, 1998;

Kohler & Strain, 1990; Price & Jones, 2001; Turner, 1999; Varenhorst, 1992).

Examination of the means in Table 8.3 and Figure 8.3 in the current study shows that the

outcomes are consistent with these findings on all subscales except for Behaviour and

Happiness. Following peer counsellor training and while acting in the role of peer

counsellor, participants’ self reports of self-concept on the subscales of Status,

Appearance, Freedom from Anxiety and Popularity improved. However, the subscales of

Behaviour and Happiness remained stable over time. Both early and late adolescent peer

counsellors were affected in these areas of self-concept with the mean scores improving

over baseline self-reports (Tables 8.4 to 8.7).

Self-concept, self-esteem, and self-worth are considered to be terms that are

interchangeable (Bracken & Mills, 1994; Gans, Kenny & Ghany, 2003). Piers (1994)

contended that the terms self-esteem and self-regard are interchangeable with the self-

concept measured by the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale used in the present

study. Self-concept as measured by this instrument is reported to be relatively stable but is

also affected by the child's reference group (Piers, 1984). Research has also shown that

adolescents’ descriptions of self-attributes depend on which social role they are being

asked to describe (Harter & Monsour, 1992). Markus and Nurius (1986) describe self-

concept as a more expansive phenomenon than is reflected by traditional views. They

suggest that the phenomena of self-concept should be examined not as a single

260

generalised view of the self but rather as the current or working self-concept. In view of

this research, examination of mean scores on specific domains over time was seen to be

more useful in the current study than examining global self-concept when exploring the

relationship between the participants’ self-concept and their experience as a peer

counsellor.

Previous studies examining changes in self-concept of adolescent peer helpers

only reported changes in global self-concept scores. They did not examine changes in

particular domains of self-concept such as those measured by the subscales of the Piers-

Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale. Bracken and Mills (1994) suggest that when self-

concept scales are used to evaluate the effects of interventions on subjects’ specific areas

of functioning, a multi-dimensional model is an important consideration. Unlike the

previous studies mentioned, the outcomes of the current study considered the influence of

peer counsellor training on varying domains of self-concept.

In his study exploring the impact of a social intervention strategy on adolescent

personality subgroups, Rosenberg (2002) discovered that the program had a major impact

on the Piers-Harris subscales of Status, Popularity and Physical Appearance. Status as

measured by the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale involves participants feeling

equal or superior to peers, being an important member of the class and being well

respected for their ideas. The subscale of Popularity reflects subjects’ feelings about

themselves in peer relationships. The subscale of physical Appearance and attributes

reflects subjects’ self- appraisal of the traits of physical appearance as well as attributes

such as leadership and the ability to express good ideas.

The social intervention strategy used in the Rosenberg (2002) study used a mix of

educational and sociological methods to teach prosocial skills. The adolescent-friendly

peer counsellor training program developed and used in the current study is also a social

261

intervention strategy and makes use of educational and sociological methods to teach

prosocial skills. Outcomes in the current study are consistent with Rosenberg’s (2002)

findings, as in the current study positive changes on participants’ self-concept appear to

have occurred in the areas of Status, Popularity, Physical Appearance and Attributes.

While the overall change on all three aspects of peer counsellor self-concept from

prior to the intervention to six months following the intervention suggests a positive

change, there did appear to be some differences between early and late adolescent peer

counsellors. Self-concept, as reported by both early and late adolescent peer counsellors

seemed to improve over time with regard to status, popularity, and physical appearance

and attributes, from prior to the intervention to three months post-intervention. However,

from three months post-intervention to six months post-intervention differences are

suggested between early and late adolescent peer counsellors. Early adolescents’ scores

suggest continual improvement in reports of self-concept whereas for late adolescents

there seems to be a decline in self-concept on these scales. Late adolescent peer

counsellors’ perceptions may reflect a possible internalisation of the low appraisal of

others with regard to status when compared to their younger cohorts. They indicate a

decline in positive self-assessment of their physical appearance and attributes of

leadership and, with regard to popularity, late adolescent peer counsellors’ reports suggest

a more negative evaluation of themselves.

There were other differences noted between early and late adolescent peer

counsellors. With regard to anxiety, early adolescents’ self-reports showed them as

feeling more anxious immediately following the training than at any other time. This

suggests that the task of learning peer counselling skills may have been experienced as

stressful for early adolescent participants. Their reported level of anxiety then reduced at

three months post-intervention and even further at six months post-intervention. In

262

contrast, for late adolescent peer counsellors, they report that their anxiety increased from

immediately following training to six months post-intervention. One possible explanation

for these differences might relate to the “buffer” effect discussed by Pizzamiglio (2003)

who discovered that in early adolescence popularity acted as a “buffer” which moderated

the association between average levels of perceived social competence and anxiety. An

increase in scores on the subscales of Popularity for early adolescent peer counsellors

suggests the possibility of popularity’s role as a protective factor against anxiety in the

current study.

Youngs et al. (1990) and Garton and Pratt (1995) found a negative relationship

between stressful events and self-concept in adolescents. Youngs et al. found that

stressful events tend to have a greater effect with increasing age. Garton and Pratt also

found a significant relationship between age and the negative effect of stress, with older

students reporting stressful events as having a greater negative effect. Outcomes, implied

in the current study, suggest that anxiety increased from three months post-intervention to

six months post-intervention for late adolescent peer counsellors signifying that acting in

the role of peer counsellor may have been experienced as increasingly stressful.


When adolescents have difficulties or problems they use strategies to cope with

them. Frydenberg (1997) suggests that there are no inherently right or wrong coping

strategies but that it is important that adolescents learn to judge circumstances as being

within their control and that they expand their repertoire to use more of the available

strategies in appropriate contexts. In interpreting the results of the Adolescent Coping

Scale, it is important to emphasise that the function of coping strategies is to alleviate the

anxiety and stress associated with problems or difficulties experienced so that the young

person feels better.

263

In the current study, the overall results suggest that peer counsellors relied

strongly on a Problem Solving coping style, using productive strategies, to deal with

stressful issues that arose for them from prior to the intervention to six months following

the intervention. A Non-Productive coping style was also used, very little to sometimes.

Strategies involving social support, in the form of Reference to Others coping style, were

used very little.

It is tempting to think that because peer counsellors made most use of productive

coping strategies that they would not use non-productive strategies. The findings in the

current study, however, make it clear that the peer counsellors used productive strategies

and also sometimes non-productive strategies. These findings are similar to those found

by Frydenberg and Lewis (2002) when examining the coexistence of productive and non-

productive coping strategies in adolescents. They suggest that the link between productive

and non-productive strategies is a naturally occurring one. As in the current study they

asked subjects to report on their concerns in general rather than with regard to a specific

concern. Consequently, there may be a range of concerns represented, which could

explain the range of strategies used. It may be that some concerns elicit productive

responses whereas others stimulate Non-Productive coping. Additionally, it may not only

be the nature of the concern that leads to a wide range of coping responses but perhaps the

extent of concern about a particular issue which may also influence the coping response

used. The findings in the current study support the notion that the use of productive and

Non-Productive coping strategies naturally coexists.

Social support has generally been considered to be an important factor in coping

(Cohen & Wills, 1985; Dakof & Taylor, 1990; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Sarason, Pierce &

Sarason, 1990). What is interesting to note in the current study is that peer counsellors

appear to have made little use of Reference to Others, the coping style which is

264

characterised by attending to others for support (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1997). In a study

examining the relationship between young people’s declared inability to cope and coping

styles, Frydenberg and Lewis (2002) discovered that more use of Reference to Others was

predictive of less ability to cope and suggest that this finding may indicate that strategies

like seeking social support and seeking professional help are at times an index of

dependence rather than an indication of a capacity to cope effectively. Because peer

counsellors in the current study made little use of Reference to Others, it seems likely that

they had good coping skills and did not need to be dependent on others.

Social support can be construed as a moderator of stress as it includes gaining

advice and assistance from family friends or teachers (Compas, 1987). Previous research

relating to the stress-buffering effects of social support is not conclusive (Frydenberg &

Lewis, 2004) with both conceptual and methodological difficulties making it impossible

to draw definite conclusions to date (Compas, 1987). The results in the current study are

consistent with the idea of a stress buffering effect, indicating that when the coping style

of Reference to Others was used more frequently, Non-Productive coping decreased in

some instances.

When exploring the differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors

(Figures 8.8 and 8.9), mean score differences suggest that late adolescent peer counsellors

experienced a decline in the use of Problem-Solving strategies from three months

following the training whereas early adolescent peer counsellors show an increase in the

use of Problem-Solving strategies from immediately following the training. This suggests

that there may be a difference in the way early and late adolescent peer counsellors

respond to being a peer counsellor. Additionally, it is interesting to note that Frydenberg

and Lewis (2004) discovered differences between younger and older adolescents with

265

regard to their ability to cope with stress, with their data reflecting a noticeable increase in

older students professing least ability to cope.


Although the measurement of school climate traditionally has been that of using a

single scale, more recent assessment instruments have taken a multidimensional approach

(Sims, 2000). The survey developed and used in the current study responded to this shift

in instrument design by including items that identified both student perceptions of student

relationships and student perceptions of teachers’ relationships with students and other

staff. Consequently it is not surprising that the survey separated into two distinct factors.

Both of these factors include relationship dimensions of respect, trust, cohesiveness and

caring and system dimensions of morale and expectations. One factor embraces

perceptions of student relationships with students and the other, teacher relationships with

students and other staff. Peer counsellor responses to the School Climate Survey indicate

their perceptions of how these dimensions are reflected in relationships among their peers

and between their peers and teachers. More positive perceptions indicate a positive school

climate and negative perceptions indicate a negative school climate on each factor.

The importance of creating a positive climate for prosocial behaviour cannot be

overstated. It can be assumed that peer counsellor responses reflect their opinion of how

positive or negative the school climate is with regard to a number of issues. It seems

likely that one of the issues affecting the peer counsellors’ responses after training would

be the extent to which they felt supported by students and teachers in their role as peer

counsellors.

Examination of the results from the School Climate Survey suggests that it is not

useful to look at scores for all peer counsellors as a group. Data indicate that for late

adolescent peer counsellors, factor scores and the total school climate mean scores

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increase from prior to the intervention to immediately following the intervention and then

progressively decrease until six months following the intervention. In contrast, early

adolescent peer counsellors’ mean scores decrease from prior to the intervention to

immediately following the intervention and then progressively increase until six months

following the intervention. Consequently when scores for early and late adolescent peer

counsellors are combined changes in scores tend to cancel each other out. The difference

between early and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to their perceptions of

school climate suggests that the older adolescent peer counsellors may perceive the wider

school community as less supportive following training and that younger adolescent peer

counsellors may perceive the wider school environment as more supportive.

Peer counsellors in the current study may have had a level of confidence that the

prosocial activity that they were about to engage in would benefit the community and that

because of this their peers in the school community would share this belief. For late

adolescent peer counsellors it is likely that believing that their peers might share their

vision might well have positively influenced their perception of the school climate.

Exploration of mean scores show that late adolescent peer counsellors’ perceptions of

their peers relationships with each other improved from prior to the training to

immediately following the training. Their responses indicated that they had more positive

perceptions with regard to the extent to which they believed their peers supported and

helped each other.

It might be expected that late adolescent peer counsellors would experience a

sense of confidence immediately following the training due to the acquisition of

appropriate counselling skills. This expectation is consistent with the elevated mean

scores which indicate that their perceptions with regard to trust, caring and cohesiveness

among their student peers had become more positive at this time. It is also possible that

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late adolescent peer counsellors would have a sense of relatedness with their peers

immediately following the training and might also believe that the school community

would be responsive to them in their role as peer counsellors.

The mean score trends in the current study indicate that having completed the

training, and after three months acting in the role of peer counsellor, late adolescent peer

counsellors’ perceptions of student relationships with each other had become more

negative than previously. It is possible that this may have been due to absence or

reduction of relatedness and support from their peers at this time. Further, decline in

negative perceptions of student relationships with students was evident at six months.

This decline in positive perceptions may be understood through the consideration of

previous research results on the importance of school climate on motivation. Several

researchers of school climate have noted the centrality of social factors in student

motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Goldstein, 1999; Resnick et al., 1997). Furrer and

Skinner (2003) suggest that a sense of relatedness with specific social partners may

function as a motivational resource when students are faced with challenge or difficulties.

In times of stress students who experience trusted others as “backing them up,” respond

with more vigour, flexibility, and constructive actions. In the current study there may

have been a circular interaction between the late adolescent peer counsellors’ perceptions

of relationships of their peers and their motivation to perform in the role of peer

counsellor.

Exploration of mean scores suggests that late adolescent peer counsellors

perceived teachers’ relationships with students and other staff to be considerably less

positive following training than before training. It is interesting to note that after the

participants’ were taught the importance of effective listening and openness to others’

ideas, they judged their teachers’ behaviours more harshly. Similar findings were

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discovered by Smith, Daunic, Miller and Robinson (2002) when examining the impact of

conflict resolution and peer mediation programs in high schools. They found a significant

attitudinal change in peer mediators’ ratings of teacher communication following

mediation training and experience, with post-training ratings of teacher communication

being less positive.

Another possible reason for the decline in positive perceptions of teachers’

relationships with students by late adolescent peer counsellors might have been a

discovery that teachers often respected only the most able students. This discovery could

easily have arisen from the peer counsellors’ contact with peers who had felt unsupported

by teachers and had sought help from peer counsellors to deal with this particular

problem. Consequently it is possible that late adolescent peer counsellors may have

recognised unfairness in the treatment of some of their peers by teachers. This is

consistent with the findings of Roeser, Midgley and Urdan (1996) in their study focusing

on school psychological environment and relationship and goal dimensions. They

discovered that when students perceived that only the most able students were recognised,

rewarded, and given support, that they also perceived the relationships between students

and teachers in the school to be less warm and responsive.

Outcomes in the current study suggest differences between early adolescent peer

counsellors’ and late adolescent peer counsellors’ perceptions of school climate. Mean

scores illustrate how early adolescent peer counsellors initially perceive the relationships

between their student peers negatively. However, because mean scores rise immediately

following the training, early adolescent peer counsellors appear to illustrate the process

described by Furrer and Skinner (2003) and respond to the challenge of becoming a peer

counsellor by drawing on their relationships with their peers as a way of motivating them

to deal with the challenges and difficulties of their new role. Social-cognitive views of

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motivation emphasise how students derive meaning from their experiences in

achievement settings (Roeser, Midgley & Urdan, 1996). Roeser et al. (1996) explain that

the relationship between aspects of the learning environment and students sense of

relatedness and community in schools have much in common and may be useful in

understanding the reasons for early adolescent peer counsellors’ more positive views of

the school climate at this time. Deci and Ryan (1985) believe that early adolescents

actively attempt to make meaning of their middle school experiences in terms of their

needs for competence and relatedness. The perceptions of the school environment are

thought to shape student school-related beliefs, affect, and behaviour. The authors suggest

that positive relationships with teachers may serve a particularly important role in

facilitating adjustment during early adolescence when young people need non-parental

role models and mentors. This dependence or reliance on teachers as adults to assist early

adolescent peer counsellors with adjusting to their role as a peer counsellor may account

for their positive perceptions of teachers’ relationships with students. Further

confirmation for this reason for early adolescent peer counsellors’ school climate

responses can be found in results from studies investigating the relationship between

school climate and peer social intervention strategies. While there is an absence of

research examining the impact on student perceptions of school climate following training

in counselling skills, in a study by Nelson-Haynes (1996) examining the effectiveness of

a student conflict resolution program in high schools, the author found significant

differences between grade levels (senior school and middle school) on perceptions of

school climate. Nelson-Haynes suggests that possible reasons for this significance were

developmental factors, older students being more aware of chaos and violence in their

immediate environment, and younger adolescents having a sense of security and believing

that adults will “fix” the problem.

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Conclusion

Study 2 aimed to investigate how an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training

program affected the participants’ experience of being a peer counsellor and also how the

training program impacted on their perceptions of their emotional competence, self-

concept, use of coping strategies and their perceptions of the school climate. The

quantitative data provides a different platform from that provided by the qualitative data

from which to view the experience of adolescent peer counsellors following training, and

acting in the role of peer counsellor. The interpretation of data resulting from the

examination of mean score differences over time needs to be considered with caution. In

particular interpretation of data resulting from the examination of mean score differences

between early and late adolescent peer counsellors warrants careful consideration due to

the low numbers of subjects in each group. Further research using larger samples is

needed to confirm the trends suggested in the current study.

Trends identified in the current study indicated an improvement in both early and

late adolescent participants’ emotional competence and self-concept as a result of training

using an adolescent friendly peer counsellor training program and acting in the role of

peer counsellor. Additionally, trends identified that adolescent peer counsellors in the

current study demonstrated a preference for using productive coping strategies. On all the

quantitative measures used, the responses of early adolescent peer counsellors rise over

time, and responses of late adolescent peer counsellors fall. In particular, non-significant

differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors were discovered with

regard to their perceptions of school climate, with early adolescent peer counsellors

perceiving the wider school community as more supportive. These findings deserve some

mention and it is suggested that these outcomes are related to developmental stage issues,

which may be responsible for these trends.

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The current project also aimed to understand the impact of the intervention on non

peer counsellor students in the wider school community with regard to the way they feel

about themselves, their use of coping strategies and their perceptions of school climate.

The following chapter will report and discuss the results to research questions six, seven

and eight which explore these questions.

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CHAPTER 9

Study 3 Impact of the Intervention on Non-Peer Counsellor Students

Research Questions

This chapter reports the results and discusses the findings with regard to the

following research questions:


counsellor training program and exposure to trained peer counsellors influence

the way students who are not peer counsellors feel about themselves?



the coping strategies used by students who are not peer counsellors?



the perception of students who are not peer counsellors with regard to the current

school climate?

The above questions were answered using data collected from three measures;

the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale (Piers, et al., 1984)), the Adolescent

Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993) and the School Climate Survey developed

by the researcher for the current project (for a full description of the measures used

see chapters 4 and 5). Data were collected prior to the intervention and three months

after completion of the training when peer counsellors had been acting in the role of

peer counsellor in the school community for three months.

Participants

Both male and female students from grades nine, 10, 11 and 12 relating in a

peer environment in a denominational high school participated in the study. Data for

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the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale was collected from 72 females and 58

males at Time 1, and 58 females and 55 males at Time 3. Data for the Adolescent

Coping Scale was collected from 59 females and 55 males at Time 1, and 65 females

and 59 males at Time 3. For both measures students from grades nine with a mean age

of 13.51 years were categorised as early adolescents and students from grades 10 and

11 with a mean age of 15.03 years were categorised as late adolescents.

When collecting data for the School Climate Survey, grade 12 students were

included with late adolescents. Details with regard to inclusion of grade 12 students

will be discussed later, under the heading Procedure and Measures. Data for the

School Climate Survey was collected from 123 females and 115 males at Time 1, and

97 females and 98 males at Time 3. For the School Climate Survey, the mean age for

late adolescent students from grades 10, 11 and 12 was 16.12 years. Table 9.1 outlines

the total number and gender of students completing each measure at each time.

Table 9.1

Number and gender of subjects in each group.

Subjects

Piers-Harris Children’s

Self-concept Scale



T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3

Total Non-peer counsellors

N=130

N=113 N=114 N=124 N=238

N=195

Males

N=58 N=55 N=55 N=59 N=115 N=98

Females

N= 72 N=58 N=59 N=65 N=123 N=97

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The intervention for this study was the introduction of a new adolescent-

friendly peer counsellor training program and exposure to the trained peer counsellors

(for a full description see chapter 7). The training program was conducted over three

months to train 20 self-selected high school students as peer counsellors. Following

the completion of training, for a further period of three months, the peer counsellors

were available in the high school environment to help their peers who had problems

or difficulties.


The quantitative measures of the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale

(Piers, et al., 1984), The Adolescent Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993) and

the School Climate Survey developed by the researcher, were used to provide

information about whether the intervention influenced the perception of students who

were not peer counsellors with regard to their self-concept, their perception of their

coping styles and their perception of the school climate over time.

Grade nine, 10, and 11 students who were not peer counsellors, completed the

three standardised measures prior to the intervention (T1) and again three months

after completion of peer counsellor training (T3), a total of six months between T1

and T3. Due to restrictions imposed by the school because of timetabling constraints

and academic demands, grade 12 students were only able to complete one survey. A

large sample size was required to enable a factor analysis to be conducted on the

School Climate Survey which was developed for this project. Tabachnick and Fiddell

(2001) state that a minimum of five subjects per variable is required for factor

analysis and that a sample of 100 subjects is acceptable but that sample sizes of 200

plus are preferable. Therefore, the School Climate Survey, and not the other measures,

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was selected as the survey to be completed by grade 12 students at T1 and again at

T3. The inclusion of grade 12 students in the data for the School Climate Survey

explains the larger sample sizes for late adolescents at T1 and T3 on that measure,

compared with the late adolescent sample sizes on the other two measures.

Grades nine, 10 and 11 were each divided into three relatively equal groups

with each group completing a different measure (either the Piers-Harris Children’s’

Self-concept Scale, The Adolescent Coping Scale, or the School Climate Survey) at

T1, with the same groups completing the same measure at T3. Subject numbers from

T1 to T3 varied due to absenteeism and school curriculum demands. The measures

were administered by the school counsellor who had been previously trained by the

researcher to administer the measures. Administration of the measures was uniform

across all grades. Students were assured of the confidentiality of their responses and

the voluntary nature of their participation.

Further analysis of the data was guided by findings from study two. In study

two, differences were found between the way early and late adolescent peer

counsellors responded on the measures used. Because of this discovery the researcher

decided to include a comparison of the results between early and late adolescent non-

peer counsellors in the current study. Table 9.2 shows the number of subjects tested at

T1 and T3 on each measure.

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Table 9.2. Number of subjects in each group.

Subjects

Piers-Harris Children’s

Self-concept Scale



T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3

Total Non-peer counsellors

N=130

N=113 N=114 N=124 N=238

N=195

Early adolescent Non-peer counsellors

N=42 N=34 N=35 N=39 N=37 N=27

Late adolescent Non-peer counsellors

N= 88 N=79 N=79 N=85 N=201 N=168

Quantitative Data Results

The results are described under research question headings and under the

subheadings of each measure; the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale, the

Adolescent Coping Scale, and the School Climate Survey.

Research question 6

Research question six aimed to discover whether a new adolescent-friendly peer

counsellor training program introduced into a high school and exposure to trained

peer counsellors, influenced the way students who were not peer counsellors felt

about themselves.


A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the

data from the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale to determine whether there

were significant differences in subscale scores for non-peer counsellors over time.

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Table 9.3 presents the mean scores for non-peer counsellors for the subscales of the


Table 9.3.

Differences over time for total sample of non-peer counsellors for Piers-Harris

Subscales Time 1

(n = 130) Time 3

(n = 113)

Variable M SD M SD Behaviour 12.83 3.42 12.93 3.37

Status 11.78 3.39 11.54 3.77

Appearance 7.93 3.30 7.80 3.24

Anxiety 10.18 3.29 10.52 3.11

Popularity 8.45 2.68 8.63 2.58

Happiness 8.25 1.98 7.99 2.18

Overall, no significant differences in self-concept were found on the Piers-

Harris subscales for non-peer counsellors from Time 1 to Time 3.

A one-way analysis of variance was performed on the data from the Piers-

Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale to determine whether there were significant

differences in self-concept between early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors.

Table 9.4 presents mean scores for the Piers-Harris subscales for early and late

adolescent non-peer counsellors.

279

Table 9.4.

Piers-Harris subscales for early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors

Early Adolescent Late Adolescent Variable

Time n M SD n M SD

Behaviour 1 42 13.09 3.39 88 12.83 3.42 3 34 12.85 3.28 79 13.00 3.42 Status 1 42 12.45 3.42 88 11.45 3.35 3 34 11.44 3.72 79 11.62 3.81 Appearance 1 42 7.86 3.43 88 7.97 3.25 3 34 7.94 2.98 78 7.74 3.35 Anxiety 1 42 10.81 2.93 88 9.88 3.42 3 34 10.29 3.35 79 10.63 3.00 Popularity 1 42 8.38 3.01 88 8.49 2.53 3 34 7.88* 3.09 78 8.95* 2.27 Happiness 1 42 8.21 2.20 88 8.27 1.87 3 34 8.59 1.41 79 7.72 2.39

Note: *p< .05 Results indicate the only significant difference was that late adolescent non-

peer counsellors rated their self-concept on the subscale of Popularity significantly

higher than that of early adolescent non-peer counsellors at Time 3, (F (1,110) = 4.16,

p < .05).

Research question 7

Research question seven aimed to ascertain whether the introduction of a new

adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program and exposure to trained peer

counsellors influenced the coping strategies used by students who were not peer

counsellors using the Adolescent Coping Scale.

The Adolescent Coping Scale

As described in chapter four, the Adolescent Coping Scale can be scored on

three factors which have been called Solving the Problem, Reference to Others and

Non-Productive Coping. Scoring on these factors is adjusted so that the three factors

can be directly compared with each other in relation to the frequency of use of each

280

style of coping. A repeated measures analysis of variance was performed to discover

whether the coping styles used by non-peer counsellors changed over time. Table 9.5

presents the coping style mean scores for non-peer counsellors over time.

Table 9.5

Differences over time for total sample of non-peer counsellors for Adolescent Coping

Styles

Time 1 (n = 114)

Time3 (n = 124)

Variable M SD M SD

Problem Solving 66.36 8.93 62.12 11.06

Non-productive coping 49.62 10.58 48.57 11.13

Reference to Others 33.67 9.63 32.89 10.05 Overall no significant differences were found in the degree to which each

coping style was used by non-peer counsellors over time.

A one-way analysis of variance was performed on the data from the

Adolescent Coping Scale to determine whether there were significant differences in

the degree of use of the coping styles between early and late adolescent non-peer

counsellors. Table 9.6 presents the mean scores for the coping styles of the early and

late adolescent non-peer counsellors.

Table 9.6.

Adolescent Coping Scale subscales for non-peer counsellors

Early Adolescent Late Adolescent Variable Time n M SD n M SD

Problem Solving 1 35 68.78 7.15 79 65.29 9.46 3 39 63.33 12.41 85 61.56 10.41 Avoidance 1 35 49.49 11.41 79 49.68 10.28 3 39 48.65 10.53 85 48.54 11.46 Reference to Others 1 35 36.90 9.61 79 32.24 9.35 3 39 34.61 11.92 85 32.10 10.05

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Overall no significant differences were found in the degree to which each

coping style was used between early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors.

Research Question 8

Research question eight aimed to discover whether the introduction of a new

adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program and exposure to trained peer

counsellors influenced the perceptions of school climate of students who were not

peer counsellors over time using the School Climate Survey.


The mean scores for Factor 1 (Students’ perceptions of Student relationships),

Factor 2, (Students’ perceptions of Teachers’ relationships with students and other

staff), and the School Climate total were used to measure changes in subjects’

perceptions over time (see chapter five for factor details). A repeated measures

analysis of variance was performed to discover whether the perceptions of school

climate of non-peer counsellors changed over time. Table 9.7 presents mean scores

for non-peer counsellors with regard to their perceptions of school climate over time.

Table 9.7.

Differences over time for non-peer counsellors for school climate total and subscales

Time 1 (n = 238)

Time3 (n = 194)

Variable M SD M SD

Student relationships with Students

58.83 9.74 59.37 9.75

Teachers relationships with Student /other teachers

50.09 9.09 49.58 9.23

School Climate Total

108.91 16.04 108.95 16.90

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No significant differences over time for non-peer counsellors were found on

the factors of Students’ perceptions of Student relationships (F (1, 430) = .333, p >

.05), Student perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other Staff, (F

(1, 430) = .329, p > .05) and School Climate Total, (F (1, 430) = .001, p > .05).

A one-way analysis of variance was performed on the data from the School

Climate Survey to determine whether there were significant differences in perceptions

of school climate between early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors over time.

Table 9.8 presents the mean scores for the factors and school climate total for early to

late adolescent non-peer counsellors over time.

Table 9.8

School climate mean scores for early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors Early Adolescent Late Adolescent Student perceptions of student relationships

Time n M SD n M SD

1 37 61.80* 11.48 201 58.28* 9.31 3 27 59.78 9.63 168 59.49 9.89 Student perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other Staff

1 37 51.54 10.19 201 49.82 8.88 3 27 48.30 10.05 168 49.91 9.21 School Climate Total 1 37 113.34 20.32 201 108.10 15.04 3 27 108.07 18.10 168 109.35 17.05

Note: p <.05 Results indicate that perceptions of early adolescent non-peer counsellors were

significantly more positive than those of late adolescent non-peer counsellors with

regard to Student Relationships with Students prior to the intervention at Time 1 (F

(1,236) =4.13, p< .05). No other significant differences were found.

Discussion

A number of authors suggest that when delivering counselling services in

schools it is helpful to take a systemic perspective (Davis, 2001; Hinkle & Wells,

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2001; Keys & Lockhart, 1999; Nicoll, 1992; Sink & Yillik-Downer, 2001). In

general, systems theory states that individuals impact on and are impacted by the

systems of which they are a part (Minuchin, 1974). In the current study systems

theory is used to explore how the subsystems made up of individual peer counsellors

and peer counsellors as a group impact on the wider system of the high school

environment. Introducing a peer counsellor training program into a high school

intentionally results in changes in the behaviours of students trained as peer

counsellors. Systems theory suggests that these changes will inevitably impact on the

wider system, that is on the whole school environment including students who are not

peer counsellors. In the current study, the impact of the peer counsellor program on

students in the wider high school environment was investigated by measuring changes

in students’ perceptions of self-concept, school climate and changes in their use of

coping strategies.

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

Results in the current study indicate no differences in scores for non-peer

counsellor students on the subscales of the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

three months after completion of training of peer counsellors. An explanation for the

absence of change may relate to Piers’ (1984) suggestion that self-concept is

relatively stable over time while acknowledging that it is affected by the child's

reference group. If this is true it might be expected that any change in self-concept in

the wider system would only occur after an extended period of time and not

necessarily within three months of introducing an intervention.

Examination of early and late adolescent student scores indicate that late

adolescent non-peer counsellors rated their self-concept on the subscale of Popularity

significantly higher than that of early adolescent non-peer counsellors three months

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after peer counsellor training. The subscale of Popularity reflects subjects’ feelings

about themselves in peer relationships. It is known that adolescents increasingly

distance themselves from parents and spend more time by themselves and with

friends, as they get older (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). It is possible that because older

adolescents spend more time with their peers that they have more opportunity to

develop positive relationships with their peers resulting in them believing that they

have increased levels of popularity. This may not be the case for younger adolescents

who are just beginning to strengthen and use peer relationships as a reference group

(Pletsch et al., 1991). It is interesting to note that the data reflected in Study 3 is

different to those results of study 2, which examined the differences between early

and late adolescent peer counsellors and where late adolescent peer counsellors report

more negative evaluations of their popularity. However the differences can be

explained in that the adolescent peer counsellor group related their experience of

being in the role of peer counsellor as being stressful and unrewarding and perceived

themselves to be different from their peers at this time.


It was anticipated that a social support resource such as a peer counsellor

program would influence the coping strategies used by students in the wider school

environment. It was expected that results indicating a more frequent use of the coping

style of Reference to Others might indicate that the peer counsellor program had

encouraged students in the wider community to use the social support resource

provided by peer counsellors. However, there were no significant changes in the

coping styles of students in the wider school community following the intervention in

study three.

285

Seeking help from peers is recognised as an important coping strategy used by

adolescents (Boldero & Fallon, 1995; Frydenberg & Lewis, 1998; Rickwood, 1992;

Whitaker et al., 1990). However Boldero and Fallon (1995) point out that there are

several factors influencing help seeking behaviour in adolescents and Wilson and

Deane (2001) have examined and identified help seeking barriers in adolescents. The

help seeking behaviours of adolescents may go part way in explaining the results,

which show that the degree of use of the coping style Reference to Others in

particular did not change over time for non-peer counsellors in the wider high school

community. Help seeking behaviours include communication about a problem or

troublesome event and involves self-disclosure. Self-disclosure involves revealing

information about oneself to another person known as the target person (Jourard &

Lasakow, 1958). The choice of a target person for self-disclosure has been associated

with age and gender (Seiffge-Krenke, 1993), and studies indicate that one tends to

disclose more to opposite sex friends than to any other target person as one grows

older (Jourard, 1961; Rickwood & Braithwaite, 1994). In the current study the

availability of more female than male peer counsellors may have limited the

opportunity for some students in the wider school community to find an appropriate

target person when seeking help. Additionally, the occurrence of self-disclosure is

often dependent on the reciprocating of self-disclosure by the target person (Jourard &

Jaffe, 1970; O’Kelley & Schuldt, 1981; Weigel, Weigel, & Chadwick, 1969; Wilson

& Deane, 2001). The training program in the current study emphasised the importance

of reciprocal self-disclosure when helping peers. However students in the wider

school community, accustomed to sharing personal problems with friends, may have

had a perception of peer counsellors as being somehow different from their friends

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with regard to mutual sharing and may have been less inclined to seek them out for

help as a result.

Another factor affecting help seeking is that of stigma. Studies on help-

seeking behaviour have shown that many people prefer to go without help rather than

turn to others for help (Furnham & Wardely, 1990; Kuhl et al., 1997). It has been

suggested that the major obstacle to approaching others for help is the stigma

associated with help seeking which threatens one’s self-esteem and that the emotion

of shame in the process of help seeking highlights the possibility that this emotion

rather than rational cognitive processes used to evaluate the benefits of seeking help

might shape help seeking behaviour (Lee, 2002; Newman, Murray, & Lussier, 2001).

This might be particularly true for adolescents. A major disruptive emotion of

adolescence is shame (Shave & Shave, 1989). Adolescents frequently experience

feelings of ridicule, humiliation and embarrassment and it is understandable that

seeking help might publicly identify them as not being able to cope exposing them to

being stereotyped, and discriminated against. Stereotypes are a means of categorising

information about social groups and people can quickly generate impressions and

expectations of individuals who belong to a stereotyped group (Hamilton & Sherman,

1994). With regard to adolescents in the current study, it is likely that approaching a

peer counsellor would result in being stereotyped and would invite negative emotional

reactions from others leading to discrimination.

Adolescents may be especially sensitive to issues of privacy, confidentiality,

trust and a close relationship with the help giver (Kuhl, Horlick & Morrisey, 1997;

Dubow et al., 1990; Wilson & Deane, 2001). In the current study, it may be that

students in the wider high school environment may have been uncertain about the

extent to which confidentiality and privacy would be preserved and therefore reluctant

287

to approach peer counsellors at T3. Additionally, adolescents are concerned with

group membership as emerging issues with regard to identity and peer group

membership are central to this stage of development (Erickson, 1968) and according

to social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) group memberships contribute to

both self-definition and self-esteem. It is possible in the current study that the stigma

associated with help seeking challenged the adolescents’ personal and social identity

and the risks associated with approaching peer counsellors for help outweighed the

benefits of seeking social support for problems.

In a study by Yagil and Israelashvili (2003), it was found that it is likely that a

professional helper who demonstrates positive characteristics will generate positive

emotions in a potential help seeker and increase that person’s readiness to seek help.

Study two in the current project suggests that, at times, peer counsellors were

pessimistic about how their role was perceived by their peers and how positively they

were being received. In the current project, because peer counsellors were the

pioneers of a peer counsellor program, it is likely that at times they may not have

experienced positive emotions with regard to their role and status within the wider

school community. These negative emotional responses of peer counsellor about their

role may have contributed to their peers feeling uncertain about seeking help from

peer counsellors.

Finally, Seiffge-Krenke (1993) found that differences in the use of coping

strategies depended on the type of problem and Esters (2001) emphasised the

importance of similarity between the helper and receiver of help in at risk high school

students’ preferences for counsellor characteristics. Because in the current study peer

counsellors self-selected to be trained and were not nominated by their peers, issues

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with regard to peer counsellor similarity with and differences from their peers may

have been an obstacle for students in the wider school community when seeking help.


Results indicate that adolescents in the wider school environment did not

change with regard to their perceptions of school climate three months after the

completion of peer counsellor training. Early adolescent non-peer counsellors had

significantly more positive perceptions of school climate on Factor 1 with regard to

student relationships than late adolescent non-peer counsellors prior to the

intervention. Items on Factor 1 of the School Climate Survey, perceptions of Student

Relationships with Students, relate to prosocial behaviour among students. It is

possible that because of a strong investment in social identity development, early

adolescents have more confidence that student relationships are respectful, trusting,

caring and cohesive than older adolescents. It is known that although the influence of

peers is strong, young adolescents confirm the importance of family (Benson et al.,

1987; Offer et al., 1988) and are often likely to refer to their family and other adults as

well as their peers when resolving problematic issues. The responses of early

adolescents in the current study may reflect the fact that early adolescents have less

knowledge with regard to student relationship difficulties than older adolescents

because they are still strongly connected to the family, family values and opinions.

As mentioned previously, late adolescents spend increasingly more time by

themselves and with friends (Baltes & Silverberg, 2000; Steinberg & Morris, 2001)

and as adolescents get older they appear to shift in their help seeking away from

parents and towards boyfriends and girlfriends (Ciarrochi et al., 2003). It is possible

that late adolescents are more in touch with problems with regard to peer relationships

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and issues experienced by their peers and as a result experience student relationships

more negatively than younger adolescents.

Interestingly following the completion of the peer counsellor training program

and after the peer counsellors had been acting in their role as peer counsellors for

three months, early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors show no significant

differences with regard to their perceptions of student relationships. Results indicate

(Table 9.7) that mean scores for late adolescent non-peer counsellors are higher at

three months after the intervention compared with prior to the intervention and that

mean scores for early adolescent non-peer counsellors are lower. It is possible that as

a result of the peer counsellor program late adolescent non-peer counsellors

experience more respectful rapport between students, have an increased confidence in

the way problems will be solved among students, and observe more obvious displays

of kindness and concern for others.

Summary

Systems theory predicts that when one member or some members of a system

change there is a ripple effect so that other members of the system change. It was

anticipated that the introduction of the peer counsellor program would produce a

ripple effect and that results of the impact of the intervention would be reflected in

positive changes with regard to self-concept, coping and perceptions of the school

climate of students in the wider system. These expectations of change may have been

unrealistic in the current study when compared with outcomes from other studies

examining the impact of peer counsellor programs in high schools.

Firstly, the ripple effect may initially, during the three months immediately

following training, have impacted only on recipients of help or on students closely

associated with peer counsellors. It is possible that over a longer time and with an

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increase in the number of trained peer counsellors that the ripple effect would be more

far-reaching. In the current study the trained peer counsellors were pioneers of a

program which was to serve as an adjunct to other counselling services provided in a

high school. In the current study peer counsellors had been acting in their role for

only three months at the time of evaluation and compared with the number of students

in the school they were a relatively small group. Finally the non-peer counsellor

students in the current study were part of a denominational school where it is likely

that high levels of pastoral care already existed. Students may have had more frequent

exposure to and encouragement with accessing alternative types of social support.


programs have been relatively unsystematic and sparse (Morey & Miller, 1993). In

particular there has been no research evaluating the impact of adolescent peer

counsellor programs on adolescent coping strategies.

Research results of studies examining peer counsellor interventions are

confusing because some programs which are described in the literature as adolescent

peer counselling programs do not involve what is typically known as counselling.

Instead these programs rely on teaching skills which deal with mediation, conflict

resolution, befriending, psychoeducational strategies or tutoring (Cowie, 1999;

Demetriades, 1996; Frisz, 1999; Morrison, 1987; Ortega & del Rey, 1999; Osterman,

et al., 1997; Shiner, 1999; Topping & Ehly, 1998). In those studies that do train

adolescents in facilitative counselling microskills the impact on the wider school

environment has not been evaluated by collecting data from all students in the wider

school environment but instead has relied on data either from the peer counsellors

themselves or the direct recipients of help. For example, when studying the effects of

a peer counsellor program on school climate, Swen (2000) relied on data from peer

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counsellors only. Similarly Abu-Rasain and Williams (1999) relied on data from

recipients of help in focus groups and self-reports from peer counsellors. Also Morey

and Miller (1993) studied student satisfaction with peer counselling in high schools

with results obtained from recipients of help. It is clearly not satisfactory to attempt to

measure the impact of an adolescent peer counselling program on the wider school

environment by relying only on data from either the helpers or the recipients of help.

The current study was unable to identify any impact on the wider school

environment as a result of the introduction of a peer counsellor program. However,

this may be because the data was collected only three months following the

completion of training. The other studies mentioned previously which attempted to

evaluate the impact of adolescent peer counsellor programs on the wider system by

collecting data from either peer counsellors or recipients of help collected data over

periods ranging from eight to 12 months (Abu-Rasain & Williams, 1999; Morey &

Miller, 1993; Swen, 2000). As stated previously, evaluation of the impact of the

adolescent peer counsellor program in the current study may have been premature. If

data had been collected at a later stage it may have been possible to identify changes

in the wider system if these had, in fact, occurred.

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CHAPTER 10

Discussion, Limitations, and Contributions of the Current Project

The current project looked at adolescent peer counselling as a social support

strategy to assist adolescents to cope with stress. The project explored the prosocial

behaviour of providing emotional and psychological support by focusing on the

helping conversations of young people. An intervention research process was used to

ascertain what young people do and say when helping each other, and to then, on the

basis of data, develop an intervention in which the specific prosocial behaviour of

providing conversational social support could be enhanced and examined. The impact

of the intervention on the adolescent participants was examined.

The present study provides confirmation of a number of findings that other

studies have identified regarding the idiosyncratic nature of adolescent

communication, and the conversational and relational behaviours of young people

(Chan, 2001; Noller, Feeney, & Peterson, 2001; Papini & Farmer, 1990; Rafaelli &

Duckett, 1989; Readdick & Mullis, 1997; Rotenberg, 1995; Turkstra, 2001; Worcel et

al., 1999; Young et al., 1999). It extends this research by identifying the specific

conversational characteristics that young people use in helping conversations.

The project confirmed the researcher’s expectation that some counselling

microskills currently used in training adolescent peer counsellors are not easy to use

by adolescents and are considered by them to be unhelpful. It also identified that some

typical adolescent conversational helping behaviours which have been proscribed for

use in other adolescent peer counsellor training programs are, in fact, useful in

adolescent peer counselling. The project conclusively demonstrated that the

adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program developed overcame the

difficulties of skill implementation identified in the adolescent peer counselling

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literature (Carr, 1984). It also identified for the first time the process used by

adolescent peer counsellors to deal with issues related to role attribution and status

difference. Problems of role attribution and status difference have been highlighted in

previous adolescent peer counsellor training literature as being problematic (de

Rosenroll, 1988). The current study contributes new information to the peer

counselling literature through the discovery of important differences between early

adolescent and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to acquiring and

mastering counselling skills, and their response to role attribution and status

difference issues among their peers. Additionally the project examined the influence

of an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program on non-peer counsellor

students in the wider adolescent community of the high school. In particular, the

project was interested in whether exposure to trained peer counsellors influenced

students who were not peer counsellors with regard to perceptions of their self-

concept, their degree of use of specific coping strategies and on their perceptions of

the school climate.

As a result of the substantive findings the current project makes a significant

contribution to social support and prosocial theory and adolescent peer counselling

literature. It extends the range of prosocial behaviours addressed in published research

by specifically examining the conversational helping behaviour of adolescents from a

relational perspective. The current study provides new information that contributes to

knowledge of social support in the form of conversational behaviour among

adolescents identifying the interactive, collaborative, reciprocal and idiosyncratic

nature of helping conversations in adolescents. It also responds to suggestions in peer

counsellor training literature (Tindall, 1989) that trainers explore a variety of ways to

approach a single training model that can augment and supplement the training

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process to meet specific group needs by investigating which counselling skills and

behaviours adolescent peer counsellor trainees preferred, were easy to use by them,

and were familiar to them, and then incorporating these skills and behaviours into a

typical helping conversation.

This chapter provides a discussion of the findings, methodology and

contributions of the current study as well as identifying the limitations, possibilities

and implications for future research in the area of adolescent peer counselling.

Contribution Of Qualitative Findings

Adolescent Conversational Helping Behaviour

The current study confirmed that the goals of counselling and the counselling

conversation identified by young people are consistent with those described in the

counselling literature by many authors (Egan, 1994; Geldard & Geldard, 2001;

Nelson-Jones, 1997; Sanders, 1996; Wolfe & Dryden, 1996). Similarly, the findings

show that young people share comparable beliefs about the helping relationship as

described by authors such as Egan (1994) and Rogers (1965) and the conditions

required for personal disclosure described in the literature (Rosenfeld & Kendrick,

1984). In particular, the findings in the current study validate the researcher’s

expectation that adolescents have distinct ways in which they use conversational

characteristics to achieve the goals of a helping conversation and an appropriate

helping relationship. The findings indicate that young people express empathy by

being strongly evaluative and persuasive, that they offer endorsements, praise,

recommend, sympathise, and reassure, to indicate the helper’s solidarity with the

situation being discussed, and that they share their personal point of view by giving

advice and reassurance and by making evaluative responses.

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The findings of the current study contradict some currently held beliefs about

what is appropriate in adolescent counselling conversations. Some of the typical

conversational characteristics of helping behaviour mentioned above, and identified in

the current study, are described as unacceptable in the counselling literature. In

particular, in the peer counsellor training literature some conversational characteristics

have been categorised as roadblocks to communication, have been described as

unhelpful, and have therefore been actively discouraged (Carr & Saunders, 1980; de

Rosenroll, 1988; Morey & Miller, 1993; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter, 1989;

Tindall, 1989; Turner, 1999). However, the results of this research project strongly

suggest that these so-called roadblocks to communication are particularly useful in

adolescent helping conversations. The findings from the present study indicate that

rather than being unhelpful, the typical conversational skills used in adolescent

helping conversations are, in fact, useful responses that are not negative in effect and

do not retard helpful interpersonal relationships among adolescent peers in helping

conversations and are salient to young people. The present study identified those

counselling microskills used in current adolescent peer counsellor training programs

which young people find difficult to use or unhelpful in helping conversations with

their peers. Of particular importance is the finding that the microcounselling skills of

reflection were perceived by young people as being both difficult to use and

unhelpful. This finding has significant implications for future adolescent peer

counsellor training programs as currently such programs place heavy reliance on the

use of reflective skills (Carr & Saunders, 1980; de Rosenroll, 1988; Morey & Miller,

1993; Myrick & Sorensen, 1988; Painter, 1989; Tindall, 1989; Turner, 1999).

The present study confirms the ease of use and usefulness of some counselling

processes which are included in current peer counsellor training programs with

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adolescents including support for the use of a problem-solving process that does not

compromise the conversational nature of helping or interfere with the reciprocity of

the relationship (Morey & Miller, 1993). Understanding the difference between open

and closed questions, their usefulness with regard to eliciting different information

and the value of using them at specific times in the conversation was also appreciated.

Additional new findings that had not been anticipated by the researcher were that

adolescents place a strong emphasis on instilling hope and optimism in the person

being helped. This aspect of counselling receives little attention in both the adult

counselling and adolescent peer counselling literature. Additionally, contrary to

popular belief about successful communication and useful counselling skills the study

revealed that young people find that advice giving and receiving advice is useful

subject to conditions which they implicitly understand. Findings from the present

study confirm that ambiguous statements and the announcement of a problem are

signals that advice is being sought. While these signals are indirect, they are

recognised as requests for advice or input from the helper by both the helper and

person being helped. Young people respect the readiness of the person being helped

by recognising that while a particular course of action worked for them it may not be

right for someone else. Additionally young people recognise that the choice and

responsibility for accepting suggestions and advice is up to the person requesting

help. Findings in the present study show that rather than being ambivalent about

giving advice as a way of helping others to solve their problems, young people are

very clear about the circumstances under which advice should be given and that

advice giving occurs within a process of collaborative problem solving.

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Adolescent Peer Counsellors’ Experience with regard to their Training and Role as

Peer Counsellors

Major contributions of the current study were findings related to the experience of

participants as adolescent peer counsellors. Findings with regard to skill

implementation, role attribution and status differences, identified in previous

adolescent peer counsellor training research as being problematic (Carr & Saunders,

1980; de Rosenroll, 1988), were of particular interest.

The content and the model of training used in the current study enabled the

participants to use counselling skills with a reasonable level of comfort. Most

importantly it was found that the participants did not feel de-skilled with regard to

their own typical helping behaviours during the training process. Thus the findings

conclusively demonstrated that the adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training

program overcame the difficulties of skill implementation identified in previous

adolescent peer counsellor training literature (Carr, 1984).

The current project has clearly demonstrated that there are advantages in using an

adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program which enhances typical

adolescent conversational helping behaviours within the counselling process.

However, a problem was discovered when some participants expressed

disappointment after the training precisely because it did primarily focus on

enhancing typical adolescent helping behaviours. These participants believed that they

had not being taught anything new or different even though training was aimed at

enhancing their natural skills and they had been taught to use a sequential counselling

process. This finding highlights a limitation of using the current training model. A

recommendation therefore, is that trainers using this model, need to clearly point out

to participants that they will learn how to enhance their current helping skills and

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incorporate them into a counselling process rather than assuming that participants will

notice the training format and understand that training will not involve learning

entirely new counselling skills exclusively.

Issues related to role attribution and status differences appeared to be difficult for

peer counsellors in the current study despite school wide advertising of the project

and circulating information with regard to its purpose and intent. This confirms

suggestions in the adolescent peer counselling literature that these factors are

problematic (de Rosenroll, 1988). Participants in the current study held the

expectation that, because of their training as peer counsellors, their peers would

automatically respect their counselling abilities and approach them for help.

It was found that adolescent peer counsellors not only require counsellor training

but also need to adopt social norms and rules with regard to the way they should

conduct themselves if they are to be valued as helpers by their peer group. This may

include behaving in ways that indicate assurance of privacy, impartiality and

confidentiality, as well as behaviours that indicate confidence, and genuine interest

and proactive concern. These findings may highlight a limitation of the training model

used in the current study, where training sessions were allocated to learning skills and

behaviours to initiate a helping conversation. However, it is recommended that in

future training programs the link between the initial stage of beginning a helping

conversation and the behavioural role of the peer counsellor needs to be included. In

particular, behaviours with regard to appropriately and proactively approaching others

with the intention of helping need to be defined. It appears that an important inclusion

for success of delivering peer counsellor services is to allocate specific time during

training where peer counsellors can brainstorm ways in which they can be flexible

and creative with regard to targeting students in need and attracting potential users of

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their service. A limitation of the current study was that the peer counsellor training

program was the first to be conducted in the school. Consequently the trained peer

counsellors did not have previously trained peer counsellors as role models. Because

transition in roles involves the observation of role models (Ibarra, 1999), the absence

of opportunities for participants to observe successful role models may have been a

limitation when attempting to overcome role attribution issues.

Findings of the current project indicate that the role of adolescent peer counsellor

is closely associated with the adolescent developmental process of individual and

social identity formation. Participants had volunteered to become peer counsellors and

were highly motivated to protect their identity because the peer counsellor role made

an important contribution to their self-concept. Participants exhibited a high

investment in achieving goals related to their individual and social identity and

appeared to be committed and determined to persevere in, and adjust to, the role

transition process.

The current study identified that status issues were by far the most important

issues for adolescent peer counsellors. This is not surprising as adolescents generally

are concerned with peer group membership which is a central feature for this stage of

development (Erickson, 1968). Because not all students in the school participated in

the training, participants in the study became members of a group that was different

from their peers. Group membership as a peer counsellor raised issues of difference

for the participants because acquiring counselling training created a status difference

based on their relative social and skilled standing when compared with their peers.

A major discovery of the current project was that the difficulties experienced by

participants with regard to role and status issues were adequately resolved by the

participants themselves and that intervention by adults was unnecessary. Adolescent

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peer counsellors resolved issues with regard to role and status difference through

responses suggesting promotional and personal adaptation strategies. Personal identity

and role changes evolved interactively so that a new role was achieved that was more

than simply a compromise of role demands and self-demands. Over time peer

counsellors adapted aspects of their identity to accommodate role demands and

modified role definitions to preserve and enact valued aspects of their identity.

Adjustments in role included participants proactively executing their role, and

responding to feedback with regard to endorsement of the role by others, and factors

that contributed to enhancing or constraining them from assuming their role.

Participants’ responses suggested that adaptation involved evaluating their success as

peer counsellors against internal and external standards. The current study identified

this process of resolution and confirmed what has been found in other studies

(McIntosh, 2003) that role and status difficulties can be resolved through a three-

staged process over time. This resolution process is discussed fully in chapter eight.

Findings in the present study show that participants focused on issues with regard

to being different from their peer group rather than on issues related to belonging to a

distinct and alternative group (that of peer counsellors). This tendency in participants’

responses may reflect a limitation of the current study. The importance of

understanding the role that trainees will occupy in the wider community is essential to

maximise smooth status passage (McIntosh, 2003). In the current study three training

sessions were devoted to ethical considerations when using counselling skills, and to

peer counsellor expectations and limitations with regard to the way peer counsellor

services would be delivered. However, the training did not include reference to the

reality that training as a peer counsellor would mean that they would in the future

belong to a new “group” which would be different from their peer groups. It might be

302

useful in future programs to include information highlighting the fact that after

training as a peer counsellor, individuals would belong to a peer counsellor group

which would have its own distinctive identity and role regardless of whether peer

counsellor services were delivered formally or informally. Having said this, another

way to minimise the negative effects of status difference is for all students to

participate in a peer counsellor training program. It may be that when all students

share the same social and skilled standing with regard to having acquired counselling

skills to help their peers status differences will be eliminated.

Developmental Age Differences

An important and new contribution of the current study is the identification of

differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to their

experience of peer counselling, In particular, with regard to acquiring and mastering

counselling skills, role attribution issues and issues regarding status differences. It is

well recognised in the literature researching prosocial behaviour among adolescents

that there are gender differences (Cowie, Naylor, Talamelli, Chauhan & Smith, 2002;

Switzer, Simmons, Dew, Regalski, & Wang, 1995). However, little attention has been

given to whether there are differences between early and late adolescents. In the

current project it was found that early adolescent peer counsellors were slower to

move through the developmental process of mastering and then using skills in

informal counselling conversations than older adolescent peer counsellors. This

finding clearly has implications with regard to training early and late adolescents in

the same group and also with regard to duration, frequency and temporal format when

training each of these groups separately. It may be that when training early

adolescents the training process will take longer and include more frequent repetition

of some components of training.

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Older adolescent participants appeared to question the prominence of their profile

in the school community and anticipated negative consequences as a result of their

role more frequently than early adolescent peer counsellors. This behaviour which

resulted in the older adolescents discerning differences in conversation and

experimenting with the delivery of peer counsellor services when confronted with

negative or difficult peer responses was seen by the researcher to be a part of a

process of personal identity construction. In contrast early adolescent participants

responded and adjusted to negative feedback using strategies that would enhance and

augment their social identity.

Consideration of developmental stage differences between early and late

adolescent peer counsellors might be helpful in reducing the difficult aspects of role

attribution and status difference issues within each age group. These findings suggest

that attention during the recruitment process to ensuring homogeneity based on

developmental stage is desirable. However, further research would be required to

confirm this suggestion.

Contribution of quantitative findings

As intended, the quantitative data provided a different platform to that of the

qualitative data from which to view and contribute to information about the

phenomena of adolescent peer counselling. With regard to adolescent peer

counsellors’ emotional competence, the current study is consistent with results of

previous studies which have suggested that emotional competence may be promoted

and enhanced through social and emotional learning programs (Elias et al., 1997;

Payton et al., 2000; Saarni, 1990). The peer counsellor training program used in this

study is a social intervention strategy involving training in the use of social and

emotional competencies. Data indicated trends which reflected an improvement in

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both early and late adolescent participants’ emotional competence immediately after

training. This suggests that the adolescent-friendly training program developed in the

current study is useful in enhancing and promoting emotional competence. However,

although trends revealed that the emotional competence of early adolescents

continued to increase over the following six months after training, the trends suggest

that the emotional competence of late adolescents appeared to decline over this

period. Further research is needed to discover how emotional competence of both

early and late adolescents can be maintained over time using larger subject numbers.

As in previous studies (Abu-Rasain & Williams, 1999; Carbonell, Reinherz, &

Giaconia, 1998; Kohler & Strain, 1990; Price & Jones, 2001; Turner, 1999;

Varenhorst, 1992), the current study revealed trends which suggest positive change in

self-concept occurring as a result of peer counsellor training. These findings extend

the findings of other studies with regard to changes in self-concept of adolescent peer

counsellors as a result of peer counsellor training. Previous studies examining changes

in self-concept of adolescent peer helpers have only reported changes in global self-

concept scores (Abu-Rasain & Williams, 1999; Carbonell, Reinherz, & Giaconia,

1998; Kohler & Strain, 1990; Price & Jones, 2001; Turner, 1999; Varenhorst, 1992).

The current study extended this work and examined the influence of peer counsellor

training on varying domains of self-concept and identified trends consistent with the

notion of overall positive change on the self-concept subscales of Status, Popularity,

Physical Appearance and Attributes and Freedom From Anxiety, but not on the

subscales of Happiness and Behaviour. The value in examining changes on various

domains of self-concept lies in the researcher’s ability to specifically identify those

aspects of self-concept that are either positively or negatively influenced as a result of

an intervention.

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Through the use of the Adolescent Coping Scale (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993),

new information has been obtained with regard to the way adolescents cope with

stress when training to become peer counsellors. They reported that they relied

strongly on Problem Solving coping strategies to deal with stressful issues that arose

for them as well as using non-productive coping strategies. This is consistent with the

findings of Frydenberg and Lewis (2000) who found the coexistence of productive

and non-productive coping strategies in adolescents. Peer counsellors in the current

study used the coping style of Reference to Others less than either Problem Solving or

Non-productive coping styles, suggesting that peer counsellors as a group may have

good coping skills and do not need to be dependent on others.

While in previous studies (Cowie, Naylor, Talamelli, Chauhan & Smith,

2002; Switzer, Simmons, Dew, Regalski, & Wang, 1995) gender differences have

been explored with regard to peer counsellor training, service delivery and program

evaluation, differences related to developmental stage have received little attention. In

the current study numbers in both the early adolescent and late adolescent groups

were small and therefore it was not appropriate to conduct quantitative analysis.

Quantitative findings provide another platform which might suggest that

developmental issues contribute to differences between early and late adolescent peer

counsellors with regard to their experience of training and acting in the role of a peer

counsellor. The emotional competence of early adolescent peer counsellors reportedly

increased over time whereas the emotional competence of late adolescent peer

counsellors decreased over time. A possible explanation for the increase in emotional

competence of early adolescent peer counsellors may be that issues with regard to

social identity development might have influenced their experience of training and

acting in the role of peer counsellor. As previously noted, early adolescent

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participants may have responded and adjusted to their experience as peer counsellors

using strategies that enhanced and augmented their social identity. The reported

positive perceptions of early adolescent peer counsellors with regard to their

emotional competence may indicate responses that reflect social desirability. In

contrast with early adolescent peer counsellors, as found in the qualitative data, late

adolescent peer counsellors were more pessimistic about their experience as peer

counsellors. It is likely that this would have affected their reporting of emotional

competence.

Exploration of quantitative data with regard to changes in self-concept in the

current study raise the question of whether differences between early and late

adolescent peer counsellors exist. The outcomes might suggest that there could be

developmental differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on the

subscales of Status, Popularity, Physical Appearance and Attributes and Freedom

From Anxiety. Early adolescent peer counsellors improved in their perception of self-

concept whereas for late adolescents there was a decline in self-concept on these

scales. Pizzamiglio (2003) suggested that popularity acts as a “buffer” which

moderates the association between social competence and anxiety among early

adolescents. Taking this into account, it is possible that in the current study the stage

related developmental issues of social identity and the importance of popularity

within the early adolescent’s social group might have been responsible for the positive

perceptions of early adolescent as peer counsellors and have positively influenced

their experience of training and acting in the role of a peer counsellor.

Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors were also

suggested with regard to the degree of use of specific coping strategies. These

differences were noticed in particular at three and six months following training when

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feedback from their peers with regard to their role was highly negative. Late

adolescent peer counsellors used problem-solving strategies less than early adolescent

peer counsellors. This suggests that there may be a difference in the way in which

early and late adolescent peer counsellors respond to the stress of being a peer

counsellor. As discussed the difference may suggest that early adolescent peer

counsellors have a more positive and optimistic outlook with regard to their

experience of being a peer counsellor when compared with late adolescent peer

counsellors.

Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors were also

discovered with regard to their perceptions of school climate. Younger adolescent

peer counsellors perceived the wider school community as more supportive following

training than older adolescent peer counsellors. Once again developmental stage

factors present plausible reasons for this difference. Younger adolescents are more

likely to perceive teachers as supportive, and to have a sense of security in the belief

that adults will “fix” the problem.

On all the quantitative measures used, although significance was not obtained

and subject numbers were small, the mean responses of early adolescent peer

counsellors rose and responses of late adolescent peer counsellors fell. It is suggested

that these outcomes may be related to developmental stage issues and could be

responsible for this profile. However, because of the limitation in the current study of

low numbers in both the early and late adolescent groups further research is necessary

with larger numbers to confirm these findings.

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Theoretical Contribution

The theoretical contributions of the current study relate to prosocial behaviour

among adolescents, social support, and peer counsellor training. Each of these will be

discussed.

Prosocial behaviour among adolescents

The current study confirms and extends the findings of other studies with

regard to adolescent prosocial behaviour. It was found that there was a difference

between early and late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to the strategies used

and their motivation when providing social support to their peers. Early adolescent

peer counsellors were more likely than older adolescents to use strategies that would

enhance and augment their social identity and respond for reasons of social

desirability when providing social support to their peers. Thus their prosocial

behaviour may be motivated by social rewards. Late adolescent peer counsellors

appear to be concerned more with a fit between their search for self-identity and their

views of themselves as prosocial beings. They appear to be more altruistic than early

adolescents. These outcomes are consistent with the definition of prosocial

personality suggested by Penner and Finkelstein (1998) who acknowledge that other

modes of prosocial behaviour besides altruism are evident. They describe behaviours

motivated by the expectation of social rewards as being included in the definition of

the prosocial personality. The findings of the current study suggest that the reason for

these differences in the adolescent population, when compared with other age groups,

are because of developmental stage related differences between early and late

adolescents.

The range of prosocial behaviours addressed in published research, which is

restricted to examining overt behaviours such as sharing, helping, and volunteering is

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extended in the current study. It follows the recommendations of Eberley and

Montmayor (1998) who suggested that research was needed into other forms of

prosocial behaviour and extends previous research by specifically examining the

conversational helping behaviour of adolescents from a relational perspective.

Social support

Social support in the form of conversational behaviours is known to enhance a

person’s physical and psychological well-being (Esterling, Antoni, Fletcher,

Margulies, & Schneiderman, 1994; Jourard, 1971; Papini & Farmer, 1990;

Pennebaker, 1995; Raphael & Dohrenwend, 1987; Wegner, 1994). However, there are

no studies which attempt to understand how the process works between adolescents.

The current study provides new information that contributes to knowledge of social

support in the form of conversational behaviour among adolescents. Horowitz et al.

(2001) recommend that attempts to research supportive conversational reactions need

to emphasise continuous dimensions rather than categories which are discrete and

dichotomous and explore the impact of how linguistic conventions can transform

responses. The current study follows these recommendations and contributes to the

social support literature by identifying the interactive, collaborative, reciprocal and

idiosyncratic nature of helping conversations in adolescents. Additionally the study

explores the linguistic conventions in adolescents’ conversations that are aimed at

enhancing emotional and psychological well being.

Vaux (1988) and Cohen (1992) argue that the theoretical definition of social

support is restrictive and inadequate. These authors agree that a global definition

should not be used to describe social support. They suggest that types of relationships,

interactions between the provider and recipient of social support, reasons for

providing support, reciprocity, and recipient and provider characteristics are other

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facets of the multidimensional concept of social support which are not captured in the

theoretical definitions. The authors also point out that models used to examine the

concept of social support typically found in the research literature are limited and can

generally be categorised as provider models. Though these models are important

because social support involves the provision of a resource, they are extremely narrow

in their performance as models to investigate the phenomena of social support. The

current study responds to the concerns of Vaux and Cohen and contributes to the

multidimensional definition of social support through an examination of the exchange

of resources between adolescents, the interaction between provider and recipient, the

structural constraints such as role attribution and status differences as barriers to

adolescent help seeking behaviour, and the provider characteristics and behaviours of

adolescents during a socially supportive conversation.

Peer counsellor training

Tindall (1989) suggests that trainers explore a variety of ways to approach a

single training model that can augment and supplement the training process to meet

specific group needs. The adolescent peer helper training literature fails to identify

how models of training have been adapted to include these recommendations.

Examination of current literature suggests that these recommendations may never

have been considered. The current study addressed this concern by investigating

which counselling skills and behaviours adolescent peer counsellor trainees preferred,

were easy to use by them, and were familiar to them, and then incorporated these

skills and behaviours into a typical helping conversation.

Morey and Miller (1993), in examining the relationship between student

satisfaction and peer counsellors’ style of helping, recommend that peer counsellor

training go beyond its primary emphasis on empathic listening and move toward a

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consultative and collaborative model in which the peer counsellors learn to work

alongside the student as a co-problem solver. These authors reinforce the importance

of no advice giving and empathic listening. The current study contributes to the peer

counselling movement by demonstrating that it is advantageous when training

adolescent peer counsellors to go one step further and deliberately make use of the

idiosyncratic conversational helping behaviours of adolescents while focusing on the

process of the helping conversation. A major contribution of the current study is the

development of a manualised adolescent friendly peer counsellor training program

which combines typical adolescent communication and conversational processes with

specific counselling microskills identified by young people as easy-to-use, useful and

compatible with their typical conversational behaviours.

The current literature on adolescent peer counsellor training identifies

skill implementation, role attribution and status differences as problematic for young

people when acting in the role of peer counsellor (Carr, 1984; de Rosenroll, 1988).

The current study confirms these difficulties but contributes to the adolescent peer

counsellor literature by developing a program which eliminates skill implementation

issues and identifies the process used by adolescent peer counsellors to deal with the

difficulties associated with role attribution and status difference.

Methodological contributions

Longitudinal design

The longitudinal design adopted in the current study provided an opportunity to

examine outcomes for peer counsellors and non-peer counsellor students over time.

The ethnographic theoretical framework used as a basis for the current study provided

an opportunity to explore the way relationships are embedded in particular, times and

particular places. Consideration for this methodological design made it possible for

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the experiences of peer counsellors, in particular, to be examined with regard to the

way in which they resolved problems identified in the literature with regard to role

attribution and status difference issues. By embracing a longitudinal design, the

current study has provided the strongest support to date for the finding that adolescent

peer counsellors are able to independently resolve issues of role attribution and status

difference when acquiring and using counselling skills with their peers.

Evaluation of the wider school environment


programs have been relatively unsystematic and sparse (Morey & Miller, 1993). In

the current study, the intention was to evaluate the impact of the intervention with

regard to the value of peer counsellors as a resource to be used by their peers in the

high school community. It could be argued that it is not satisfactory to attempt to

measure the impact of an adolescent peer counselling program on the wider school

environment by relying on data from either the helpers or the recipients of help who

represent only a small subset of the entire population. In all previous studies,

evaluating outcomes of the peer counselling intervention has relied on feedback from

peer helpers or the recipients of help. A methodological advantage of the current

study was that data was collected from the wider school community to explore the

impact of the intervention on that community as it was seen to be more appropriate to

target a wider sample than either helpers or recipients so that the data would

accurately reflect the value of the intervention as a ‘resource’ in the high school

community.

Intervention Research

A major methodological contribution of the current study was the use of an

intervention research focus. Because of the developmental life stage characteristics,

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and the idiosyncratic communication and relationship behaviours of adolescents, an

intervention research approach was seen to be more likely to capture the interest of

young people, particularly in view of the potential outcome for them. This approach

aims to further participants’ interests in the research design, maximise their control

over the research process, and enhance the relationship between the researcher and

participants thereby increasing the potential richness of the data gathered (Fryer &

Feather, 1994). The central feature of intervention research is that it leads to

participants’ perceptions of the intervention having positive outcomes (Fryer &

Feather). The current study provided training for adolescents in peer counselling as a

central feature of the research which enabled them to fulfil a specific role in the

school community. The peer counsellor training program developed in collaboration

with the subjects of the study demonstrates the invaluable contribution of using an

intervention research process in adolescent research.

The principle of maximising participants’ control and participation is a

fundamental tenet of the intervention research process. The participants’ role in the

current study was central in deciding the content and format of the weekly training

session in the peer counsellor training program. In helping conversations using role-

plays, subjects simulated the experience of counselling and being helped. The role-

play topics were selected by the subjects and agreed upon by the whole group as

being issues relevant to young people. Role-plays made it possible for the researcher

and participants to reflect and to seek specific feedback regarding the developmental

stages of a helping conversation, to identify which typical adolescent counselling

microskills could be used, and to take into account the ease with which the subjects

could incorporate specific helpful counselling microskills into the helping

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conversation. Additionally the feedback regarding the interaction between the helper

and the person being helped during the conversation was obtained.

Using an intervention research approach the subjects in the second study of

the current project were trained as peer counsellors using information identified in the

first study. During this process the program developed as it proceeded, taking into

account feedback from the participants and information they provided about their

learning needs. Thus the research and the development of the program was consistent

with intervention research which focuses on research through "doing", deliberately

using the research project itself as a vehicle for implementing desired change.

Development of the School Climate Survey

A major contribution of the current project was the development of an

individualised School Climate Survey. Individualised school climate surveys have

been used to research specific parameters and/or concerns of a particular school.

When exploring issues with regard to prosocial behaviour and social support it was

deemed essential that the measurement used to gain understanding of these issues

specifically inquire about the interrelation of social factors and individual thoughts

and behaviour.

In the current project the researcher developed a climate assessment

instrument that focused on the psychosocial dimensions of school climate. The five

categories chosen from those discussed in the literature to operationalise the

psychosocial dimensions of the school climate survey were those of Respect, Trust,

Cohesiveness, Caring, and Morale and Expectations. These categories were a

composite mainly of affective-experiential items as well as a mixture of cognitive-

managerial items and were seen to be the most suitable to capture student perceptions

of the affective-experiential and cognitive managerial status of the school. Specific

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scale construction techniques were employed (Mueller, 1986) as they were thought to

be essential for retrieving information from individuals when intentionally seeking

positive or negative attitudes about school climate. Therefore each item was

developed such that it expressed a clearly negative or positive opinion and neutral

items were avoided. Using a cumulative model of response processes (Likert scale)

rather than responses from an ‘ideal point’ was desired in this survey to more

accurately discover current perceptions in school climate rather than perceptions of

preferred school climate.

The importance of creating a positive climate for prosocial behaviour cannot

be overstated. The significance of the School Climate Survey developed in this

project lies in its focus on the psychosocial dimensions of school climate and its

relationship with perceived support for peer counsellors from both peers and teachers

and other staff.

Evidence of psychometric integrity for item and factor scores was observed in

the development of the survey. The School Climate Survey developed for this project

identified two factors. Items on Factor 1 pertain to the way in which students relate

with each other, their expectations regarding peer relationships, the way in which

students relate with adults and prosocial behaviour among students. Items on Factor 2

primarily relate to students’ perceptions of their experiences with teachers and other

staff, teacher/staff behaviours with students, and the interactions between teachers,

staff and parents. The School Climate Survey developed for this project can be seen to

help generate data that described the present cognitive-managerial and affective

experiential status of the school. It is a survey that could be used in future research,

particularly where information is required with regard to ascertaining the degree to

which students positively perceive the relationships between students, and between

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students and staff. Additionally, the survey has value in exploring the outcome of

interventions that impact on the link between social factors and the thoughts and

behaviour of individual students.

Contribution of the researcher as part of the intervention and evaluation.

A major contribution of the current study was the transparency of the

subjectivity of the researcher. In the collection, analysis and interpretation of the data

and during the more intimate interactions that occurred between myself, the

researcher, and the participants during training, supervision, assessment and as a

moderator of focus groups, I believe that I was able to contribute to and receive

information from the participants and from the context within which the research was

being conducted. This interactive approach and its responsiveness to the project

provided an opportunity for developing more reflective understandings about the

processes involved when adolescents counsel their peers.

By including my interpretations as part of my methodology I believed that I

could draw on relevant data from my personal and professional experience. My

interest in the subject area derived from my previous training and counselling

practice, and my experience as a counsellor.

The work of Cunningham (1988) provided the method which would place me,

the researcher, within the research so that I could be considered a part of my research.

Contextual locating facilitates the linking and weaving together of insight developed

in a number of different ways. Because the current project has been stimulated by

ideas which came out of my own experience as a counsellor and my knowledge of

adolescent development, to exclude myself from the research would have ignored my

role in data gathering, analysis, interpretation, and theory generation as a practitioner.

For example, by recycling memories of conversations and contacts with participants

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recorded in my journal records I created an opportunity which heightened my

awareness of distinguishing between inventing personal meaning and knowledge

which was of value to me, and meaning and knowledge which could be of value to

others. This process of heightened awareness provided an opportunity in which I did

not suppress my primary subjective experience or allow myself to be overwhelmed

and swept along by it, but rather to raise it to consciousness and use it as part of the

inquiry process. Reason (1988) uses the terms ‘critical knowing’ and ‘critical

subjectivity’ to describe a similar process.

Because of my involvement in the research project changes to the training

content and model as well as the data collection process were anticipated and carried

out. For example, a major contribution regarding differences in age emerged because

my clinical observations of behavioural differences between older and younger

participants enabled me to anticipate the possibility of developmental differences with

regard to their experience as peer counsellors. In this sense the evaluation itself was a

developmental process since the methods of inquiry grew out of questions raised by

the dynamics of the project as it evolved. Continued involvement in the project

allowed me direct contact with participants and their experience and bypassed

reliance on the use of hearsay to draw conclusions and make interpretations.

Limitations of the current study

With regard to collection of quantitative data a limitation of the current study

was the small sample numbers in each of the early and late adolescent peer counsellor

groups. Small sample sizes constrained the statistical analyses with a consequence

that a hypothesised significant difference between early and late adolescent peer

counsellors was not able to be explored statistically.

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It is recognised that subjects dropping out of the project between the end of

Study 1 and the completion of Study 2, is a distinct limitation of the current project.

Data with regard to the reasons for subjects dropping out, would have contributed

information with regard to differences between the group that completed the project

and the group that dropped out. This information may have identified that the dropout

group was in fact, a completely different group of students on particular dimensions

and as a consequence, added to the richness of the interpretations.

Another limitation relates to the collection of quantitative data on emotional

competence. Little research has examined the usefulness of emotional competence

self- report measures in adolescents (Spirito et al., 1991). Ciarrochi, Chan and Bajgar

(2001) suggest that this lack of research is perhaps justified by the limitations of self-

report measures, which include the potential that adolescents will distort their

responses for reasons of social desirability and will not have sufficient insight into

their own emotional intelligence to accurately report it. This may have been the case

in the present study. The tendency by adolescents to over inflate efficacy reports with

regard to their emotional competence limited accurate interpretation of the emotional

competence of both early and late adolescent peer counsellors. This limitation has

wider implications with regard to using self-report measures in adolescent research

unless those measures are used to compare same age subjects. In the current study the

use of a self-report measure, the Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire

(Schutte et al., 1998), that was not normed, made it difficult to fully explore the data

with regard to emotional competence.

A further limitation of the current study was a short time frame of three

months between pre-and post-intervention assessments of the wider school

community. Systems theory would predict that when one member or some members

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of a system change there is a ripple effect so that other members of the system change

(Minuchin, 1974). It was anticipated that the introduction of the peer counsellor

program would produce a ripple effect and that results of the impact of the

intervention would be reflected in positive changes with regard to self-concept,

coping and perceptions of the school climate of students in the wider system. Being

able to measure these expectations of change may have been unrealistic taking into

account the short time frame used.

No evidence of school wide change in non-peer counsellor student attitudes of

school climate was found following the introduction of the peer counsellor program in

the current study. Similarly, there was no evidence of changes with regard to non-

peer counsellor students’ self-concept or an increase in the frequency with which they

used the coping strategy of social support. Once again the time frame of three months

between pre- and post-intervention assessments might have contributed to the lack of

findings. Clearly further research over a longer period of time would be required to

assess whether such changes occur on these dimensions.

In those studies that do train adolescents in facilitative counselling microskills,

the impact on the wider school environment has not been evaluated by collecting data

from all students in the wider school environment but instead has relied on data either

from the peer counsellors themselves or the direct recipients of help. For example,

when studying the effects of a peer counsellor program on school climate, Swen

(2000) relied on data from peer counsellors only. Morey and Miller (1993) studied

student satisfaction with peer counselling in high schools with results obtained from

recipients of help. Similarly, Abu-Rasain and Williams (1999) relied on data from

recipients of help in focus groups and self-reports from peer counsellors. These

studies relied on data collected over periods ranging from eight months to two years.

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It is possible in the current study that the ripple effect may initially, during the

three months immediately following training, have impacted only on recipients of

help or on students closely associated with peer counsellors. It is possible that over a

longer time and with an increase in the number of trained peer counsellors that the

ripple effect would have been more far-reaching. However, further research would be

required to determine whether this is the case. As stated previously evaluation of the

impact of the adolescent peer counsellor program in the current study may have been

compromised due to the limited time frame of the project. Studies have noted that it

may take several years for a school wide program such as a peer counsellor program

to become institutionalised and valued as a whole school activity (Lindsay, 1998;

Smith, Daunic, Miller & Robinson, 2002).

In the current study the trained peer counsellors were pioneers of a program

which was to serve as an adjunct to other counselling services provided in the high

school. Peer counsellors had been acting in their role for only three months at the

time of evaluation and compared with the number of students in the school they were

a relatively small group. This fact may also have been a factor limiting the evaluation

of the intervention. Finally the non-peer counsellor students in the current study were

part of a denominational school where high levels of pastoral care already existed.

Students may have had more frequent exposure to, and encouragement to use,

alternative types of social support. This would make it difficult to identify the effect

of the program on the wider school community.

Another limitation identified in the current study relates to difficulties faced

by the researcher as part of the research process in an external institution. At times it

was difficult to balance the needs of the participants while taking into account the

expectations of school personnel. Finding time for peer education and supervision

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while meeting the demands of school personnel with regard to curriculum priorities

and timetabling was an ongoing challenge of this type of situation based research.

Implications and recommendations of the current study

Implications with regards to developmental stage differences

Developmental stage related differences between early and late adolescent

peer counsellors have been identified in the current study. It is suggested that the

identified differences be taken into account when recruiting early and late adolescents

for inclusion in peer counsellor training programs. It is recommended that in future

research into adolescent peer counselling homogenous groups of either early

adolescents or late adolescents should be used. This would make it possible to obtain

more accurate evaluation of processes and outcomes with regard to role attribution

and status difference issues. Additionally, this would reduce the limitations related to

the use of self-report measures mentioned earlier.

Recruitment processes which rely on nominations from peers, teachers or

other adults are generally based on the students’ availability, verbal and leadership

skills, motivation and responsibility (Tobias & Myrick, 1999). This process of

recruitment may be highly appropriate for peer counsellor training of early adolescent

participants as the process of recruitment emphasises the social issues of belonging to

the group and being valued by others and fits with the early adolescents’ focus on

social identity construction. This process of recruiting early adolescent trainees to

become peer counsellors is more likely to result in the trainees being accepted and

valued by their peers.

However, a self-selection recruitment process may be more appropriate for

older adolescents rather than having them selected or nominated by others. Because of

the importance of integrating personal constructs with regard to their self-identity,

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recruitment processes which rely on self selection may be more appropriate as these

volunteers may be better able to accommodate and adjust to negative feedback from

their peers. Older adolescent volunteers are more likely to be committed to the

process of providing social support for their peers through the role of peer counsellor

which agrees with their own self-identity, social role perception and their views about

who they would like to become in the future.

It is recommended that it could be useful for future research to discover more

about the differences between prosocial peer counselling behaviours of early and late

adolescents. With larger numbers of subjects, important differences between early and

late adolescents may be identified along with the possibility of identifying differences

in changes over time for these groups.

Recommendations with regard to methodology

The substantive findings of the current study have implications with regard to

future research into prosocial behaviour among adolescents, and in particular, with

regard to conversational prosocial behaviour. Researchers could easily misconstrue

behaviours as being unhelpful if they do not understand the ongoing social

community of their subjects. The findings in the current study highlight the danger

when conducting research into adolescent peer counsellor training and adolescent

prosocial behaviour, of discounting and excluding prosocial attributes emphasised and

valued by young people. Whether adolescents view a peer as prosocial depends on the

helper’s overall behavioural repertoire and their benevolent intent and should not be

seen as dependent on those specific communication skills deemed appropriate and

acceptable in the counselling and communication literature. It is possible for the

adolescent helper to use their typical conversational helping skills and still have their

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peers consider them to be a prosocial person providing emotional and psychological

support.

Is recommended that future research on the value of peer counsellor

interventions as a resource in the wider school community employ methodology

which includes a longitudinal design of much longer than the three months duration

used in the current study. It is clear that it may take several years for a school wide

program such as a peer counsellor program to become institutionalised and valued as

a school activity (Lindsay, 1998; Smith, Daunic, Miller & Robinson, 2002).

A limitation identified in the current study relates to difficulties faced by the

researcher in the research process. While these limitations deserve consideration, the

involvement of the researcher in the research project should be valued even though it

runs counter to the notion that ‘objectivity’ can only be achieved through maintaining

distance. Rather, it is strongly recommended that future research should embrace a

methodological tool such as contextual location to illuminate understanding of

phenomena being examined.

Recommendations with regard to adolescent peer counsellor training

Because some participants trained in the current study using an adolescent-

friendly peer counsellor training program were dissatisfied with regard to whether

they had learned new skills or not, future research of adolescent peer counsellor

training might include evaluation of an intervention that extends the current study.

Evaluation of an intervention based on a model of training suggested in the peer

education literature could provide valuable information with regard to the success of

peer led adolescent peer counsellor training.

Peer education has become an increasingly popular way of carrying out health

promotion work with young people. A basic ethos of peer education is that it is

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designed to be by and for young people; they themselves largely determine what is

relevant in terms of information and how it is to be delivered (Backett-Milburn &

Wilson, 2000). Backett-Milburn and Wilson suggest that this concept can be

disconcerting for adult stakeholders because if young people are left in control of

what is happening they can much less easily be made the mouthpiece for adult

messages or exhortations. The fear that inaccurate information or the wrong message

will be given is a real concern for adult stakeholders.

Two important points flow from this observation when considering the peer

education model as a template for training young people to use a counselling process

with their peers. First is confronting the fear that young people may use

communication strategies that are considered by adult counselling professionals to be

unhelpful. When considering such a model for training adolescent peer counsellors,

the need for trainers to relinquish some control over what young people included in

the training content, precisely in order to enable them to perform their role as peer

counsellors in appropriate and relevant ways, would be difficult to accept. Adopting

such a model would require trainers to allow young people in general the space to

make their own choices and mistakes with regard to the way they provided

counselling support to their peers. Secondly, when young people do what they

determine to be relevant and helpful with their peers as peer counsellors, assessing the

impact upon the recipients is difficult, as adolescent helping conversations occur

informally and rely on what in most instances is a confidential service.

While encouraging young people to make their own choices and mistakes with

regard to the way they provide counselling support to their peers, it is important that

they are given information to enable them to take into account important factors

which relate to helping others. For example, issues relating to personal growth, values

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clarification, understanding and respecting difference, limits to confidentiality, ethical

considerations when using helping skills, helper expectations/limitations, and referral,

all need to be taken into account in any training model.

Further implications from this study are that although the participants in the

current study resolved issues with regard to role attribution and status difference over

a period of time, role attribution and status difference issues could be eliminated if

peer counsellor training was provided for all students and not just some. The

researcher agrees with the argument in the literature that social and emotional learning

programs should be incorporated into the classroom curriculum (Jones & Sandford,

2003). Because adolescents provide emotional and psychological support to peers

informally, it is possible that training for all students in the provision of

conversational social support would be useful. As a result of the training students

could then be invited to participate in specific programs where they could use their

enhanced helping skills if they chose. Issues of role attribution would be minimised

through the process of inviting students to participate in specific programs where they

could use their skills as students. Volunteering for such roles would make them no

different from their peers with regard to the skills required to function in these roles.

The opportunity to perform in specific programs would then be a choice based on

desire rather than difference. There is no doubt that findings in the current study

confirm findings in other studies with regard to the benefits to adolescent peer

counsellors of acquiring and using counselling skills with peers (Abu-Rasain &

Williams, 1999; Carbonell, Reinherz, & Giaconia, 1998; Kohler & Strain, 1990; Price

& Jones, 2001; Swen, 2000; Turner, 1999; Varenhorst, 1992). It is recommended that

research should be conducted to investigate the value of incorporating a peer

counsellor training program into the classroom curriculum.

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The data from the National Curriculum Integration Project (Jones & Sandford,

2003) leave no doubt that conflict resolution education infused into the ongoing

curricular can have a significant and lasting impact on classroom climate. Based on

these findings, recommendations from the current study suggest that future models for

training peer counsellors blend components of peer counsellor education and social

and emotional learning with education. As a result of enhanced individual

competencies, constructive prosocial behaviour that enacts a caring community will

be promoted (Deutsch, 1973). A constructive, caring classroom community is the

foundation for the development of students’ social and character development (Elias

et al., 1997; Saarni, 1999; Salovey & Sluyter, 1997). In making these

recommendations a number of directions need to be explored, such as what are the

long-term benefits for students, teachers and schools that are presented with the

opportunity to learn these skills in the classroom and hence create caring and

constructive learning environments?

The current study clearly identified that adolescent peer counsellors preferred

to use typical conversational skills when helping their peers rather than use micro

counselling skills that are currently taught in adolescent peer counsellor training

programs. Additionally they like to use conversational skills which have been labelled

as ‘roadblocks’ (Carr & Saunders, 1980). Consequently it would be useful for future

research to examine the actual conversational behaviours used by adolescent peer

counsellors after training, by comparing those who have been trained using a

traditional adolescent peer counsellor program with those trained using an adolescent-

friendly peer counsellor training program as developed in the current study. The

researcher suggests that it is likely that most trained adolescent peer counsellors will

revert to using their preferred conversational helping skills and behaviours after

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training regardless of the type of training used. Further research such as that suggested

could clearly contribute to our knowledge of adolescent peer counselling processes.

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