Administrative Policies of Akbar

THE TAMIL NADU NATIONAL LAW SCHOOL

HISTORY PROJECT

ON

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES OF AKBAR

SUBMITTED TO

Prof. BIJU JOSEPH

VISITING FACULTY, HISTORY

SUBMITTED BY

VEDAVALLI.S

REGISTER NO : BA0140073


CERTIFICATE OF THE SUPERVISOR

This is to certify that the work incorporated in this minor project report

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES OF AKBAR is a project work carried out by

bearing, under my guidance and supervision for the award of the Degree of

B.A.,LL.B(Hons.) of The Tamil Nadu National Law School, Thiruchirappalli.

________________________

(Signature of the Supervisor)

Prof. Biju Joseph

Visiting Faculty,

History

The Tamil Nadu National Law

School ,Thiruchirappalli.


DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES

OF AKBAR” submitted to the Tamil Nadu National Law School, Thiruchirappalli,

is a record of an original work done by me under the guidance of Prof. Biju Joseph,

Visiting Faculty for History, and this project work is submitted in the partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of B.A.,LL.B(Hons.) .

The results embodied in this thesis have not been submitted to any other University

or Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

Date : 1st May 2015 ____________________

S.Vedavalli

Register No : BA0140073


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction - 5

Objective of the Study - 6

Review of Literature - 6

Early years of Akbar - 7

Administration of Akbar - 8

Political government - 10

Taxation - 12

Military Administration - 13

Religious policies - 16

Ain-i-Akbari - 18

Judicial System - 20

Conclusion - 21

Bibliography - 22


INTRODUCTION

The Mughals ruled in India for around 200 years. The Mughal Emperors built an empire and laid the foundations of administration system upon which the British built further. The Mughal period is reckoned with reference to the invasion and conquest of India by Babur in 1526 till the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, even though the last of the Mughals was Bahadur Shah who was emperor during the early British years in India. He ended up as an exile in Burma.

Sher Shah, who ruled for a short while from 1540 to 1545, is remembered for providing “an administrative blueprint from which Akbar and his ministers later profited”. Akbar repaired, improved, organized and perfected every single department of the state with admirable skill and expedition. He bequeathed to his successors the legacy of a well-organized administrative structure and traditions of a just and tolerant policy as the essential conditions of a durable and good government.

Policy-making was retained with the Mughal emperor. Provincial governments were allowed initiative and decision-making in matters of local interest. Mughal Emperors maintained contact with all parts of his kingdom, through systematic touring. However, the emperor who can lay claim to having attempted and established systems in the executive, judicial and religious spheres, in a conscious and deliberate manner, is Akbar. The long duration of his reign, from 1556 to 1605, contributed to achieving this.

Akbar had a majestic and imperial approach in all that he did. He was strict yet generous. He was well-informed on almost every aspect of Mughal Administration System. The magic of his magnetic leadership and imagination motivated his lieutenants to give of their best. He chose men of learning and culture as his diwans but changed them often to ensure that no one became too powerful.


OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study are :

To understand the important conditions during the Medieval Indian period.

To know how Akbar’s Administrative policies were efficient in spite of the

fact that he was illiterate.

To gain knowledge about the important regulations of Akbar.

To understand the taxation system during Akbar’s reign.

To know the military reforms undertook by Akbar.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl : I have referred to certain important ains(regulations) mentioned

in the book.

Article : Akbar and the Mughal State: The Quest for Legitimization in Hindustan by Christopher P. Holland :

In this article Holland has mainly focused Akbar’s quest for legitimization of Mughal Rule in India. I have referred to the Administration of Akbar and understood many policies from this article.

Socio-Cultural and Economic History of Medieval India by Dr. Ganewar Nayak :

In this book the entire history of Mughal period is described by the author. It is based on survey of many other works of historians. References to Akbar’s life, his religious policies are made.


EARLY YEARS OF AKBAR

Jalal-ud-din Muhammed Akbar , known as the Akbar the great, (1542-1605) was Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, in Umarkot in Sindh. He was third and greatest ruler of the Mughal dynasty in India. He was only a boy when, in January of the year 1556, his weak and incompetent father Humayun died in an accidental fall. Akbar was proclaimed emperor in 1556 under the tutelage of his father’s (Humayun) trusted military commander, Bairam Khan. At his succession Akbar was only thirteen-strong-willed, impulsive, and untrained. He had rejected all efforts to educate him. He remained illiterate, the only Mughal Emperor to do so.

A strong personality and successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to nearly all of the Indian sub-continent north of Godavari River. His supremacy and influence however extended over the entire country because of Moghul military, political cultural and economic dominance. To unify vast empire, Akbar established a centralized system of administration through the empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through matrimony and diplomacy. In order to preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that own him the support of his non-Muslim subjects.

By 1560, Akbar took the complete reign of the empire into his own hands. Akbar’s was an apotheosis of rule in the Indo-Pak subcontinent. The British who came few decades later found Akbar’s system of administration as their precursor. His religious policies, however, is the subject of controversies among the historians of the Mughal rule.


ADMINISTRATION OF AKBAR

The Administrative System of Akbar holds a significant place in Indian History. Emperor Akbar’s administration system was built on systematic imperial policies which survived several generations. The wide and sweeping conquests of Mughal emperor Akbar are an eloquent testimony to his extraordinary military talents. But it would be a mistake to look upon Akbar as a mere conqueror. He was even greater as an administrator. The administrative machinery of the Mughals, which functioned throughout the Mughal rule, was introduced by Akbar. That is why by Mughal Administration means Akbar’s administration. Akbar was not only a brave soldier, a successful leader and a great religious reformer but also a great administrator.

Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal rule in India. But be died before he could consolidate. Humayun was unequal to the task he was called upon to fulfill. Akbar was required to build a new, and he built to last. Historians have rightly accorded him the distinction of being regarded as the architect of the Mughal Empire of India. Like all rulers of his age Akbar was a despot, but he did not abuse his position for personal welfare. The administration of Akbar was based on the principles of the moral and material welfare of people. He extended equal treatment to all classes of his subject irrespective of the faiths they professed. He pursued a liberal and benevolent policy and believed that the end of government was to promote the welfare of the governed.

Akbar inherited a composition of government based on the experience of the Delhi Sultanate. Babur and Humayun had no time to modify the system, a new momentum to it being given by Shershah. The system Akbar devised had some novel features. The functions and responsibilities of the various departments were carefully laid down so that they did not encroach on each other and at the same time balanced and supported each other. Thus, a system of checks and balances was devised. In this way, Akbar infused new life into the system.


King Akbar made sincere efforts to bring order and discipline in the work of government. He introduced the system of paying his officers in cash instead of granting them jagir as was the past. He thoroughly reorganized the revenue administration system with the help of Raja Todar Mal. He made a thorough and minute survey of all lands and classified those under three heads according to their fertility. He fixed the revenue at one-third of the gross produce and allowed it to be paid either in kind or in cash. His revenue settlement was modeled on that of Sher Shah and it brought lasting benefits to his people.

The Mughal government of Akbar was divided divided into fifteen administrative units known as Subhas, viz., Delhi, Agra, Ajmer, Lahore, Kabul, Multan, Ahmedabad, Ahmednagar, Malwa, Khandesh, Berar, Allahabad, Oudh, Bihar and Bengal. He placed a governor named Subahdar in charge of each Subah. He was to be held responsible to the Emperor for the maintenance of peace and order within the Subah. Each Subah was again divided into a number of small administrative units known as Sarkars. The officer in charge of a Sarkar was known as Faujdar. Both in the centre and in the provinces there was an elaborate staff of bureaucratic officials. The most prominent among them were the Dewar, in charge of revenue department, the Bakshi in charge of pay department, the Mir Babar in charge of shipping, ports and ferries, the Wakia Navis in charge of the Record Department, and Sadar, in charge of the Ecclesiastical Affairs.

The military administration of Akbar is also praiseworthy. Mughal Akbar reformed the existing military organization by introducing regular gradation of military officers called Mansabdars. They were divided into 33 grades. They received fixed pay from the state and were required to render such military duties as were entrusted to them from time to time.

Akbar realized that India being the common land of the Hindu and the Muslim alike, the policy of Government should be directed towards securing the goodwill of all classes of hi subjects. He acted up to this principle and succeeded in evolving what may be called a nation-state in India. He introduced various reforms in all the branches of the administration, whether central, provincial, revenue, military or judicial.


POLITICAL GOVERNMENT

Central Administration:

Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since the Delhi Sultanate, but the functions of various departments were carefully reorganized by laying down detailed regulations for their functioning. Akbar was the overall in-charge of the central government. All the executive, judicial and legislative powers of the state were combined in him. There were no limitations on his despotism and his word was law. But Akbar had always the welfare of his people in his mind and so his was a benevolent despotism. He himself supervised all the branches of his administration and worked hard to discharge his manifold duties. He would hold an open court, listen to the complaints of his subjects and try to pacify them.

Akbar was, however, assisted by a number of ministers in the administration. Among others, the most important ministers were –

the Vakil, who maintained a general control over all the central departments and acted as the chief adviser of the King;

Diwan, who was in-charge of finance and revenue; Mir Bakshi, who maintained the records of all the Mansabdars and

distributed pay among the high officials; Sadar-i-Sadur, who acted as a religious adviser to the king, disbursed royal

charity and discharged the function of the Chief Justice of the empire.

Beside these four ministers, there were other ministers of lower rank-

Khan-i-Saman, who was in-charge of the royal household; Muhtasib, who saw that the people (Muslims) led a highly moral life

according to the Muslim law; and Daroga-i-Dak Chowki, an officer who was in-charge of the postal and

intelligence department.


Provincial Administration:

Akbar divided his vast empire into fifteen (15) Subas or provinces. In each suba or province there was a Subedar, a Diwan, a Bakshi, a Sadr, a Qazi, a Kotwal, a Mir Bahr and Waqa-i-Nawis.1

The Subedar or Governor was the head of the provincial administration. He enjoyed vast powers and was in-charge of the provincial military, police, judiciary and the executive.

The (provincial) Diwan was in-charge of the provincial finance and all bills of payments were signed by him.

The Bakshi looked after the management of the provincial army. The Sadr was in-charge of the judicial charity department. The Qazi was in-charge of the judicial department of his province. He

supervised the work of Qazis in the districts and towns. The Kotwal was the supreme administrator of all the ‘thanas’ of the province

and was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in all the cities. The Mir Bahr was in-charge of customs and taxation department. The Waqa-i-Nawis was in-charge of the secret service of the province.

The provinces were further divided into Sarkars and Sarkars into Parganas. The head of the Sarkar was Faujdar who kept his own small force and maintained law and order in his area. He was assisted by a number of other officials who collected the revenue, maintained the accounts and deposited the money into the state treasury. The head of the Parganas was called Shikdar whose functions were the same as those of the Faujdar in a Sarkar. Each Pargana comprised several villages. Each village was under the charge of a Muqaddam, a Patwari and a Chowkidar who carried on the work of administration with the help of the village panchayat.

1 http://www.trcollege.net/


TAXATION

In 1574 Akbar revised his tax system, separating revenue collection from military administration. Each subah, or governor, was responsible for maintaining order in his region, while a separate tax collector collected property taxes and sent them to the capital. This created checks and balances in each region, since the individuals with the money had no troops, and the troops had no money, and all were dependent on the central government. The central government then doled out fixed salaries to both military and civilian personnel according to rank.2

The first finance minister of Akbar was Muzaffar Khan. Todar Mal, Muzaffar Khan and Shah Mansur were the three most notable finance ministers of Akbar and all the three were skilled financiers and first-rate administrators. The Diwan or finance minister was assisted by Diwan-i-Khalsa, who was in charge of Khalsa (crown or reserved) lands; Diwan-i-Jagirs, who was in charge of the lands that were given in lieu of service or as free grants (sayurghal); Sahib-i-Taujih, who was in charge of military accounts; and Diwan-i-Bayutut, whose duty was to supervise the accounts of various workshops attached to the court.

The Mir Bakhshi or Pay-Master General ranked next to the imperial Diwan. His office corresponded to the Diwan-i-Ariz of the Sultanate period. The Mir Bakhshi was required to maintain a register in which names, ranks and salaries of mansabdars were recorded. All orders of appointment to mansabs of all ranks were passed through his office. One of his most important duties was to prepare a list of guards who had to keep watch around the royal palace.

Land Revenue Administration:

Land Revenue was the chief sources of income of the Government. So, Akbar paid special attention towards the organization of the land revenue administration. With the help of his Diwan (Revenue Minister), Raja Todar Mal, Akbar introduced many reforms in his revenue department. First of all, the land was measured into ‘bighas’, secondly, all the cultivated land was classified into four divisions – Polaj, Parauti, Chachar and Banjar. The Polaj land was always cultivated and was never allowed to fallow; the Parauti land was allowed to fallow 2 "Akbar the Great." Bio. A&E Television Networks, 2015. Web. 15 Apr. 2015.


for a year or two to recover its strength; the Chachar land had to be left uncultivated for three or four years and Banjar land had to be left fallow for five years or more. Thirdly, the total produce of each land was determined separately. Fourthly, the share of the state was fixed at one-third of the total produce. Land revenue was paid in cash or in kind, but cash payment was preferred. Loans with small interest were advanced to the cultivators. In case of famine, drought or another unexpected calamity, remission was granted and even loans were advanced for purchase of seeds and animals. The revenue collectors were asked to be friendly towards the cultivators and not to oppress them on every account. As a result of these measures the revenue of the state greatly increased, the cultivators became better off and the country became prosperous. The abundance of food also made the life of the common man better and happier than before.

MILITARY ADMINISTRATION

Akbar paid much attention towards the organization, equipment and discipline of the army. Akbar was an ambitious and noble commander who built the largest army ever in the history of the Mughal empire. By the end of the 16th century, a Mughal army in the field resembled a city on the move. For efficient military administration he introduced a new system known as the Mansabdari System.

Mansabdari System:

The Mansabdari System was yet another achievement of Mughal Administration System. During the rule of the Mughals, every activity of the state administration was centred round the emperor. The Mughals developed ‘nobility’ (mansabdars) to look after administration, but took steps to ensure that there was always an element of insecurity in their position, so that the monarch could control them. The emperor alone could confer, decrease, increase and resume the mansabs. Mansab was the grant to every official, of the rights to enjoy a jagir. The term jagir meant revenue assignments (not land itself) for services rendered (instead of a cash salary). The jagirdari system did not affect the land rights of the cultivators or the hereditary rights of the middlemen or zamindars. The mansabdar collected revenue from his jagir through zamindars who collected dues from the cultivators. Frequent transfers


of jagirs were made. When a mansabdar died, his entire personal property was taken over by the State and after deducting what he owed to the State, the balance would be returned to his heirs. There could be no hereditary claim over the mansabs. Nobles received salaries in cash also. The nobles had to place their entire time and service at the disposal of the emperor.

The Mansabdars had to maintain soldiers according to his grade or rank. There were thirty three grades of these Mansabdars who maintained soldiers ranging from 10 to 10,000. They were paid salaries in cash and the system of assignments of lands was discouraged. They were directly under the charge of the emperor and were promoted, degrade or dismissed at his will. He also revived the practice of taking the descriptive rolls of the soldiers and branding the horses.3

A large number of troops were, no doubt, supplied by these Mansabdars but Akbar had maintained a standing army of his own. The Mughal army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery, elephants, and navy. The cavalry was the most important wing of the army and special attention was paid towards its organization and equipment.

The military organization of Akbar had no doubt certain defects (e.g., The Mansabdars cheated the government, the soldiers were more loyal to the chiefs than to the emperor, the practice of payment through the Mansabdars was precarious and often led to abuses, efficiency of one unit to unit, etc.) but still under Akbar it worked well because of his uncommon ability as a leader and an administrator, great vigilance and discipline.

Merits : Mansabdari system was a progressive system adopted by Akbar for the reorganization of the army. No other Indian ruler had ever thought and planned on such lines as followed by Akbar. He tried to establish a link between chieftainship and feudalism through Mansabdari. Some of the Mansabdars were given liberty to recruit their soldiers from their own tribe and religion but they had to owe unconditional allegiance to the central government. The system of Mansabdari freed the emperor from the grips of the feudal lords as it put an end to the Jagirdari system. The post of a Mansabdar was not hereditary; hence every new Mansabdar received his Mansab from the emperor. His promotion and demotion also depended on the mercy of the emperor; hence he had to be faithful and devoted to 3 Mughal Administration System in India by Kavita Pandey, Web. Important India


the emperor, failing which he was deprived of all the privileges by the Emperor. It lessened the chances of revolt in the empire. Akbar also sought the help of his hereditary martial elements and brave citizens to join the royal army and he, thus, contributed to the political unification of the country.

Demerits : As most of the Mansabdars were foreigners they did not have any love towards Indian empire, hence Akbar failed to organize a national army with the help of these Mansabdars. Moreover, as the soldiers were recruited by the Mansabdars and they received their salary and promotion from the Mansabdars, they remained loyal to their masters instead of the Mughal emperors.

The Central army remained weak as the soldiers of the Mansabdars had different training of arms and discipline with their Mansabdars. They failed to coordinate with the royal army at the time of peril. As no systematic training was imparted to the soldiers by the central government before waging wars, their fitness remained always in doubt and their weapons and standards remained poles apart from one another.

With the passage of time the Mughal army began to deteriorate, the high officers of the army began to take their wives and concubines with them to the battlefield which affected the power and speed of the army otherwise.

The Mansabdari system created some malpractices in the army system. As the solders received their salaries through Mansabdars, they embezzled a lot of amount in transaction. Moreover, these Mansabdars horses and thus they amassed a huge amount.


RELIGIOUS POLICIES

Religious policy of Akbar was that of complete toleration. His policy was based on the principle of universal peace. Akbar was the first among the emperors of Delhi who pursued such a policy. It was Akbar, who, from the very beginning of his reign, gradually accepted a policy of dynamic toleration and active sympathy for religious and spiritual movements. Various factors were responsible for the liberal views and policies of religious toleration of Akbar.

Akbar became unhappy with the increasing criticism of his relaxed attitude regarding non-Muslims in his government. Akbar's attitude was undoubtedly related to his vision of an empire with a diversity of faiths and cultures. Akbar's ire also reflected a hardening of his iron will and his fiercely individualistic personality. The establishment of a new religion, Din-i llahi (Divine Faith), was a result of Akbar's consistent confrontations with his orthodox opponents.

Akbar was keen to know the truth of religion. He used to remember God, came in contact with saints and went on pilgrimage to Ajmer several times at the mausoleum of Sufi saint Shaikh Muin- ud-din Chishti. He also respected very much Shaikh Salim Chishi of Fatehpur Sikri. In 1575 A.D., he constructed Ibadat Khana, (House of worship) at Fatehpur Sikri in which regular discussion on religion took place. He wanted to ensure religious peace and security to the Empire. His abolition of pilgrimage tax and Jizya, construction of the Ibadat Khana etc. were all done with this purpose. Akbar's policy of religious toleration was based on his final belief that there is truth in every religion. To put into practice, he formed certain regulations such as people of all faiths i.e. Muslims, Hindus, Christians, and Jains were allowed to construct buildings for purpose of their worship, to propagate their faith peacefully and celebrate their religious fairs and festivals; state services were open to people of all faith; uniform taxation system was applied to all citizens and no social distinction was to be observed among the people on the basis of differences of their religion.

Akbar personally observed certain practices. He celebrated all festivals of the Hindus and the Muslims alike at the court. He stopped eating beef, reduced non-vegetarian diet, kept fire burning in his palace for twenty-four hours, stopped going


on hunting and tried to stop unnecessary killing of birds. Akbar provided equal protection to all religions and the made no distinction between his subjects in any field on the basis of religion.4

Jizyah:

Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah is a per capita tax levied on a section of an Islamic state's non-Muslim subjects, who meet certain criteria. The tax is and was to be levied on able-bodied adult males of military age (but with specific exemptions). From the point of view of the Muslim rulers, jizya was a material proof of the non-Muslims' acceptance of subjection to the state and its laws. In return, non-Muslim subjects are permitted to practice their faith, to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy, to be entitled to the Muslim state's protection from outside aggression, and to be exempted from military service and from the zakat tax levied upon Muslim citizens. The Hindus hated and evaded jizya.

In 1564, Akbar abolished Jizya which was levied from the Hindus. This was hated by the Hindus because it was a symbol of their inferiority and involved a lot of humiliation. When Jizya was levied, the Muslims alone were the true citizens of the state, but after its abolition, both Hindus and Muslims became equal citizens of the state.

In 1563, Akbar abolished the pilgrimage tax. He was opposed to the policy of taxing people while they were performing their religious duties. All restrictions on the building of places of worship were removed. The result was that a large number of temples were built all over the country. Akbar set up a large number a Translation Department for translating the religious books of the Hindus into Persian.

4 Religious Policy of Akbar, Web, IndiaNetzone.


AIN-I-AKBARI

Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign. Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume history of Akbar’s reign, titled Akbar Nama. The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors and the second volume recorded the events of Akbar’s reign. The third volume is the Ain-i-Akbari. The Ain-i-Akbari or the "Constitution of Akbar", is a 16th-century, detailed document recording the administration of emperor Akbar's empire. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the revenues and the geography of his empire. It also provides rich details about the traditions and culture of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect about the Ain-i Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.

The Ain-i-Akbari is itself divided into five books. The first book deals with the imperial household, and the second with the servants of the emperor, the military and civil services. The third book deals with the imperial administration, containing the regulations for the judicial and executive departments. The fourth book contains information about Hindu philosophy, science, social customs and literature. The fifth book contains sayings of Akbar, along with an account of the ancestry and biography of the author.

Important Ains:

The Muster of Man(Ain 76 Book 1 ):

The business which Akbar Majesty transacts is multifarious. A large no. of men were appointed on the days assembly of expenditure was announced. Their merits are inquired into and the coin of knowledge passes the current. Some pray his majesty to remove religious doubt; other again seek his advice for settling a worldly matter; other want medicines for their cure. Like these many other requests were made. The salaries of large no. of men from Iran, Turkey, Europe, Hindustan and Kashmir are fixed in a manner described below, and the men themselves are taken before His Majesty by the paymasters. Formerly it had been custom for man to come with horses and accoutrements; but now only men appointed to the post of Ahadi were allowed to bring horses. The salary is proposed by the officer who bring them, which is then increased or decreased, though it is generally increased;


for the market of His Majesty is never dull. The number of men brought before His Majesty depends on number of men available. Every Monday all such horsemen are mustered as were left from the preceding week. With the view of increasing army and zeal of officers, His Majesty gives to each who brings horsemen, a present of two dams for each horsemen.5

Regulation regarding education(Ain 25 Book 2):

His Majesty orders that every school boy must learn to write the letters of the alphabet first and then learn to trace their several forms. he ought to learn the shape and name of each letter, which may be done on two days, after which the boy should proceed to write joined letter. They may be practised for a week after which boy should learn some prose and poetry by heart, and then commit to memory some verses to the praise of God, or moral sentences, each written separately. Care is to be taken that he learns everything by himself but the teacher must assist him a little.6

5 https://archive.org/details/AbuAl-fazlsAin-iAkbariInPersianVol1Part1of26 https://archive.org/details/AbuAl-fazlsAin-iAkbariInPersianVol1Part2of2


JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The Mughal Judicial System was robust and operated effectively. The emperor was supreme in all matters of justice. At the imperial level was the emperor’s court – the court of final appeal. It tried both civil and criminal cases, and had appellate and revisional powers.

The Mughal judicial system was based on the principle of the Arab jurisprudence. Defending upon their nature, the cases were heard at different levels. The Qazi-ul-quzftt, the chief judicial officer, was assisted by Mufti, who would be a scholar of the Arab jurisprudence. In the Mughal period, judicial cases were classified into the following four categories: (i) religious cases, (ii) diwani cases, (iii) fauzdari, and (iv) goods-related cases. Religious cases were dealt with by the office of the qazi and were related with the interpretation of Shariat. Diwani cases were also neard by the qazi. Criminal cases were dealt with by the subahdar, fauzdar and shiqdar. These officials had their own courts. Cases related to goods were heard in the courts of amil. It is clear that the qazi heard only diwani and religious cases.

Akbar introduced various reforms in the administration of justice. Before him almost all the cases were decided according to the Islamic law. But now, for the first time, Hindu law was administered in deciding the cases where the parties Hindus, but Islamic law continued to function where the parties involved were Muslims. The king was the highest court of appeal. Capital punishment was given only in extreme cases and that too by the emperor alone.


CONCLUSION

Akbar's administration outlived his horribly inefficient successors, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangazeb, who seemingly tried to destroy the system their brilliant forefather created. Jahangir and Shah Jahan allowed personal greed to overwhelm their rule and, by the end of the latter's reign, the imperial coffers were almost empty. Aurangazeb was the worst ruler who most damaged Akbar’s system because he attempted to return the rule of Hindustan back to that of a fundamentalist Muslim vision, where the empire was run by the mullahs' judgment. His vehement, yet futile, attempts to secure the status of Hindus as inferior people were no match for the legitimacy Akbar had created one hundred years earlier. Akbar was so successful at creating an efficient method for rule in Hindustan that even after the Mughal Empire's collapse, Mughal rule was still legitimate in the eyes of the peasants.

During the War of 1857, after which the British government formally took control over the Indian subcontinent, a British officer killed off the sons of the last Mughal and exiled the current ruler to Burma, despite the fact that these Mughals possessed little to no actual power. By the late nineteenth century, the British began to realize the magnitude of Akbar's achievement insofar as his rule appealed to both Hindu and Muslim, but by then it was too late. They had gone too far down the road of rule by force and fear, leaving the rule by divide to become the order of that day. As a result, the British found that their rule never acquired what Akbar had made central to Mughal society and without which no empire can long survive: legitimacy.7

From the above account it is quite clear that Akbar was a great administrator and the administrative machinery that he set up continued to function throughout the Mughal period.

7 Akbar and the Mughal State: The Quest for Legitimization in Hindustan byChristopher P. Holland


BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) Abu ‘L-Fazl. Akbarnama. Trans. H. Beveridge. Vol. I, II, III. Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1989.

2) Abu ‘L-Fazl. The AIn-I Akbari. Trans. H. Blochman. Ed. S.L. Goomer. Delhi: Naresh. C. Jain, 1871.

3) Socio-Cultural and Economic History of Medieval India by Dr. Ganeswar Nayak, Textbook for M.A. History, SKCG College Paralakhemundi.

4) Akbar and the Mughal State: The Quest for Legitimization in Hindustan by Christopher P. Holland, May 2005.

WEBLIOGRAPHY

1) http://www.importantindia.com/ 2) http://en.wikipedia.org/ 3) https://www.academia.edu 4) http://www.preservearticles.com/ 5) http://hssthistory.blogspot.in/ 6) http://www.cssforum.com.pk/ 7) http://www.indianetzone.com/


http://www.indianetzone.com/

http://www.cssforum.com.pk/

http://hssthistory.blogspot.in/

http://www.preservearticles.com/

https://www.academia.edu/

http://en.wikipedia.org/

http://www.importantindia.com/

Administrative Policies of Akbar

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