Adjustment for Guessing

Negative Marking…- Elimination strategy reduces odds of

wrong answer penalty- subtracting a percentage of the number of wrong answer obtained from the final grade- give a grade of 4 a correct answer and a score of – 1 for a wrong on a 4 choice

question

Negative Marking…

- A score of less than zero is possible-students hate negative marking-negative marking is not practised in descriptive examinations- A poor substitute for a test that is too short with too few answer options

Measurement defined• Process of quantifiying individual’s achievement,

personality, attitudes, habits and skills• Quantification appraisal of observable

phenomena • Process of assigning symbols to dimensions of

phenomena• An operation peformed on the physical world by

an observer• Process by which information about the

attributes or characteristics of things are determined differentiated

Evaluation defined • Qualitative aspect of determining the outcomes of learning.• Process of ranking with respect to attributes or trait • Appraising the extent of learning • Judging effectiveness of educ. Experience• Interpreting and analyzing changes in behavior• Describing accurately quantity and quality of thing• Summing up results of measurement or tests giving meaning based

on value judgments• Systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional

objectives are achieved• Considering evidence in the light of value standard and in terms of

particular situations and goals which the group of individuals are striving to attain

• TESTING- a technique of obtaining information needed for evolution purposes

– Test, Quizzes, measuring, instruments- are devices used to obtain such information

FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENTS

1. INSTRUCTIONAL a)principal (basic purpose) -to determine what knowledge, skills,

abilities, habits and attitudes have been acquired

-to determine what progress or extent of learning attained -to determine strengths, weaknesses, difficults and needs of students

Function of Evaluation

1. Evaluation assesses or make appraisal of -Educational objectives, programs, curricula, instructional materials, facilities- teacher- Learner-Public relations of the school- achievement scores of the learner

2. Evaluation conducts research

Principles of Evaluation

• Evaluation should be1.Based on clearly stated objectives2.Comprehensive 3.Cooperative4.Used Judiciously5.Continuous and integral part of the teaching-

learning process

Types of Evaluation used in classroom instruction

1. Diagnostic Evaluation-detects pupil’s learning difficulties which somehow are not revealed by formative tests. It is more comprehensive and specific

2. Formative Evaluation- it provides feedback regarding the student’s performance in attaining instructional objectives. It identifies learning errors that needed to be corrected and it provides information to make instruction more effective

3.Placement evaluation- it defines student’s entry behaviors. It determines knowledge and skills he possesses which are necessary at the beginning of instruction4. Summative Evaluation-it determines the extent to which objectives of instruction have been attained and is used for assigning grades/marks and to provides feedback to students.

Qualities of a Good Measuring Instrument

1. VALIDILITY content, concurrent, predictive, construct2. RELIABILITY adequacy, objectivity, testing condition, test

administration procedures3. USABILITY (practicality) ease in administration, scoring,

interpretation and application, low cost, proper mechanical make-up

VALIDITY

Content validity- face validity or logically validity used in evaluating achievement test

Concurrent validity- test agrees with or correlates with a criterion (ex. Entrance examination)

predictive validity-degree of accuracy of how activity which it intends to foretell

Construct validity-agreement of the test with a theoretical construct or trait (ex.IQ)

RELIABILITY• Methods of estimating reliability1. Test –retest Method (uses spearmen rank correlation

coefficient)2. Parallel forms/alternate forms (paired observations are

correlated)3. Split-half method (odd-even halves and computed

using spearmen brown formula)4. Internal-consistency method (kuder - Richardson

formula 20)5. Scorer reliability method(two examiners

independently score a set of test papers then correlate their scores)

Classification of Measuring Instrument

1. Standard Testsa) psychological test-intelligence test, Aptitude test, Personality (rating scale) test, vocational and professional interest inventoryb) Educational Test

2. Teacher-made test planning, Preparing, Reproducing,

Administering , Scoring, Evaluating, Interpreting

Criterion and Norm Reference Tests

Norm-Reference Tests It compares a student’s performance of other students in

the classIt uses the normal curve in distributing grades of students

by placing them either above or below the mean.The teacher’s main concern is the variability of the score.The more variable the score is the better because it can

determine how individual differs from the other.Uses percentiles and standard scoresIt tends to be of average difficulty.

• Measures of central Tendency

Mean, Median, Mode• Measures of Variability

Range, Quartile Deviation, Standard Deviation

Measures of Central TendencyMODE-the crude of inspectional average measure.

It is most frequently occurring score. It is the poorest measure of central tendency.

Advantage: Mode is always a real value since it does not fall on zero. It is simple to approximate by

observation for small cases. It does not necessitates arrangement of values.Disadvantage: it is not rigidly defined and is inapplicable to irregular distributionWhat is the mode of these scores?

75,60,78,75 76 75 88 75 81 75

Measures of Central TendencyMEDIAN-the scores that divides the distribution into halves. It is sometimes called the counting average.Advantage : it is the best measure when the distribution is irregular or skewed. It can be located in an open – ended distribution or when the data is incomplete (ex. 80% of the cases is reported)Disadvantage: It necessitates arranging of items according to size before it can be computedWhat is the medium?75,60,78,75 76 75 88 75 81 75

Measures of Central Tendency

MEAN-The most widely used and familiar average. The most reliable and the most stable of all measures of central tendencyAdvantage: It is the best measure for regular distribution.Disadvantage: It is affected by extreme values What is the mean?75,60,78,75 76 75 88 75 81 75

STANDARD DEVIATION

• It is the most important and the best measure of variability of test scores.

• A small standard deviation means that the group has small variability or relatively homogeneous.

• It is used with mean.

Letter grade Criterion-Referenced

Norm-referenced Self-referenced

B Very Good or Proficient; complete knowledge of most content, skills ; mastery of most objectives

Very Good; performs above the average of the class

Very Good; some improvement on most or all the objectives

C Acceptable or basic; command of only the basic content skills; mastery of some objectives

Average; performs at the class average

Acceptable; some improvement on some of the objectives

Letter Grade Criterion-referenced

Norm-referenced Self-Referenced

D Lacking ; little knowledge of most content; master of only a few objectives

Poor ; below the class average

Lacking ; minimal progress on most objectives

F Unsatisfactory; lacks knowledge of content; no mastery of objectives

Unsatisfactory; far below the class average; among the worst in the class

Unsatisfactory; no improvement on any objectives.

Grading and Framing Questions(frisbie & Waltman,1992):

- What meaning should each grade symbol carry?- What should “failure” mean?- What elements or performances should be

incorporated?- How should the grades in a class be distributed?- What should the components be like that go into a

final grade?- What method should be used to assign grades?- Should borderline cases be reviewed?- What other factors can influence the philosophy of

grading?

Essential Terminology• Grade: A symbol that represents the degree to

which students have met a set of well-defined instructional objectives.

• Absolute Grading: Absolute grading, or criterion-referenced grading, consists of comparisons between a student’s performance and some previously defined criteria. Thus, student’s are not compared to other students. When using absolute grading, one must be careful in designing the criteria that will be used determine the student’s grades.

Essential Terminology• Relative Grading:

-relative grading, or norm-referenced grading-consists of comparisons between a student and others in the same class, the norm group.- those that perform better than most other students that will be assigned certain grades. . If using the normal curve in relative grading then 3.6% of the students should be assigned As, 23.8%Bs, 45.2%Cs, 23.8%Ds, and 3.6% Fs.-emphasizes competition among group members and does not accurately reflect any objective level of achievement.

Essential Terminology

• Growth Grading : (self-referenced grading)-consists of comparisons between a student’s performance and their perceived ability/capability.. Overachievers would be assign highed grades, while underachievers would be assigned lower grades.-Growth grading, while de-emphasizing competition, tends to produce invalid grades relative to achievement levels.

Letter Grades

• Advantages– easy to use– Easy to interpret(theoretically)– Concise

• Disadvantages – Meaning of a grade may very widely– Does not address strengths & weaknesses– K-2 student’s may feel threatened by them

Number of Percentage Grades1,2,3 or 98%, 80%, 60%

Advantages-Easy to use.-Easy to interpret (theoretically)-Concise -More continuous than Letter Grades-May be combined with Letter Grades Disadvantage-Meaning of grade may vary widely-Does not address strengths & weaknesses.-K-2 students may feel threatened by them-Meaning may need to be explained/interpreted.

Two-Category Gradespass- fail, Acceptable- unacceptable , s/u• Advantages

- less emotional for younger students.-can encourage risk taking for students that may not want to take the course for a grade

• Disadvantages - Less reliable than a continuous measure- Does not contain much information relative to a

student’s achievement.

Checklists and Rating Scales:objective evaluated by checks or numerical ratings.

• Advantages - results in a detailed list of student achievements.- may be combined with other measures.

• Disadvantages- may become too detailed to easily

comprehend.-Difficult for record keeping

Student-Teacher ConferenceDiscussion with no grade

• Advantages- Involves a personal discussion of achievement.- May be used as a formative, ongoing measure

• Disadvantages- Teachers needs to be skilled in discussion and

offering+ and-feedback.- Time consuming.-Some students may feel threatened.- Difficult for record keeping.

Parent-teacher conference:discussion with no grade

• Advantages - Involves personal discussion of achievement and may alleviate misunderstanding.-Teacher can show samples of work and rational for

assessment.-May improve relations with parents.

• Disadvantages - teachers need to be skilled in discussion and

offering=and- feedback-time consuming-may provoke parent-teacher anxiety-may be inconvenient for parents-Difficult for record keeping

Letter of parents:explanation with no grade

• Advantages- most useful as an addition form of communication

• Disadvantages - short letters may not adequately

communicate a student’s achievement.- require good writing skills-time consuming.

Guidelines for Effective and Fair Grading (Gronlund,1998 )

• Discuss with students ( and parents when approprite0 the basis of all grading, and all grading procedures, at the beginning of the course/school year

• Grades should reflect, and be based on, student’s level of achievement, using only those assessments that validly measure achievement

• Grade should reflect, and be based on, a composite of several valid assessments.

Guidelines for Effective and Fair Grading

• When combining several valid assessments, each assessment should be appropriately weighted

• An appropriate type of grading framework should be adopted, given the ultimate use of the grade.

• All borderline grades should be re-evaluated based on a careful examination of all achievement evidence