Noun Clauses: Introduction

(a)    I   know     his address.                        (noun phrase). (b)   I know     where  he lives.                        (noun clause)                         

Verbs are often followed by objects. The object is usually a noun phrase.Some verbs can be followed by noun clauses.In (b): where he lives is a noun clause;          where he lives is the object of the verb know.

(c) I   know     where  my book is.                           (noun clause)

A noun clause can begin with a question word.

(d) I don't know    if Ed is married.                               (noun clause)

A noun clause can begin with if or whether.

(e) I know that the world is round. A noun clause can begin with that

Noun Clauses That Begin with A question word

Information Question             Noun Clause

(a) Where does he live?(c) When did they leave?(e) What did she stay?(g) Why is Tom absent?

(b) I don't know where he lives.(d) Do you know when they left?(f) Please tell me what she said?(h) I wonder why Tom is absent.

Notice: in the example:Usual question word order is NOT used in a noun clause.Incorrect: I know where does he live.

(i) Who came to class?(k) What happened?

(j) I don't know who came to class.(I) Tell me what happed.

In (i) and (j): Question word order and noun clause word order are the same when the question word is used as a subject.

Noun Clauses with Who, What, Whose + Be

   Question     Noun Claus

(a) Who is that boy?(c) Whose pen is this?

(b) Tell me who that boy is.(d) Tell me whose pen this is.

A noun or pronoun that follows main verb be in a question comes in front of be in noun clause, as in (b) and (d).

(e) Who is in the office?(g) Whose pen is on the desk?

(f) Tell me who is in the office.(h) Tell me whose pen is on the desk.

A prepositional phrase ( in the office) does not come in front of be in a noun clause.

Noun Clauses That Begin with If or Whether

   Yes/No Question        Noun Clause

(a) Is Eric at home?(c) Does the bus stop here?(e) Did Alice go to Chicago?

(b) I don't know if Eric is at home.(d) Do you know if the bus stop here?(f) I wonder if Alice went to Chicago.

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, if is usually used to introduce the

clause.

(g) I don't know if Eric is at home or not.(h) I don't know whether Eric is at home (or not)

When if introduces a noun clause, the expression or not sometimes comes at the end of the clause, as in (g)In (h): whether has the same meaning as if.

Noun Clauses That Begin with That

(a) I think (that Mr. Jones is good teacher.)(b)I hope (that you can come to game.)(c) Mary realizes (that she should study harder.)(d) I dreamed (that I was on the top of a mountain.

A noun clause can be introduced by the word that.In (a): that Mr. Jones is a good teacher is a noun clause. It is the object of the verb think.That-clauses are frequently used as the objects of verbs that express mental activity.

(e) I think that Mr. Jones is good teacher.(f) I think Ø Mr. Jones is good teacher.

The word that is often committed, especially in speaking.(e) and (f) have the same meaning.

(a) I'm sure that the bus stops here.(b) I'm glad that you're feeling better today.(c) I'm sorry that I missed class yesterday.(d) I was disappointed that the peace conference failed.

That-clause can follow certain expressions with be + adjective or be + past participleThe word that can be omitted with no change in meaning:I'm sure Ø the bus stops here.

(e) It is true that the world is round.(f) It is a fact that the world is round.

Two common expressions followed by that-clauses are:It is true (that)...It is a fact (that)...

Substituting So for A That-Clause in Conversational Responses

(a) A: Is Anna from Peru?      B: I think so. (so =that Ana is form Peru)(b) A: Does Judy live in Dallas?      B: I believe so(c): A: Did you pass the test?      B: I hope so.(d) A: Do you want to come with us?      B: I don't know. I guess so.

Think, believe, and hope are frequently followed by so in conversational English in response to a yes/no question. They are alternative to yes, no, or I don't know.So replaces a that - clause.Other common conversational responses:I guess not.I suppose so. I suppose not.

Verb Forms In Reported Speech

(a) Quoted: Joe said, "I feel good."(b) Reported: Joe said he felt good.(c) Quoted: Sue said, "I am happy."(d) Reported: Sue said she was happy.

In formal English, if the reporting verb (said) is in the past, the verb in the noun clause is often also in a past form, as in (b) and (d).

    --- Ann said, "I am hungry."(e)  A: What did Ann just say? I didn't hear her.      B: She said she is hungry.(f)  A: What did Ann say when she got home last night?      B: She said she was hungry.

In informal English, often the verb in the noun clause is not changed to a past form, especially when words are reported soon after they are said, said, as in (e).In later reporting, however, or in formal English, a past verb is commonly used, as in (f).

(g) Ann says (that) she is hungry.If the reporting verb is present tense, no change is made in the noun clause verb.

Adjective Clauses: Introduction

            Adjective          Adjective Clauses

An adjective modifies a noun, "Modify" means to change a little. An adjective describes or gives information about the noun.

An adjective clause modifies a noun. It describes or gives information about a noun.

An adjective usually comes in front of a noun. An adjective clause follows a noun.

                    adjective                 noun(a) I met a        kind                      man

                   noun           adjective clause(b) I met a    man    who is kind to everybody.(c) I met a     man    who lives in Chicago.

1.I met a man = an independent clause; it is a complete sentence.2. who livesin Chicago = a dependent clause; it is NOT a complete sentence.

A clause is structure that has a subject and a verb.A independent clause is a main clause and can stand alone as a sentence.A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence; it must be connected to a independent clause.

Using Who and Whom in Adjective Clauses

(a) The man is friendly. He lives next to me.(b) The man who lives next to me is friendly.

In (a): He is a subject pronoun. He refers to "the man." To make an adjective clause, change he to who.Who is a subject pronoun. Who refers to "the man."

In (b): An adjective clause immediately follows the noun it modifies.Incorrect: The man is friendly who lives next to me.

(c) The man was friendly. I met him.(d) The man whom I met was friendly.

In (c): him is an object pronoun. Him refers to" the man." To make an adjective clause, change him to whom.Whom is an object pronoun.Whom refers to "the man."Whom comes at the beginning of an adjective clause.

In (d): An adjective clause immediately follows the noun it modifies.Incorrect: The man was friendly whom I met.

Using Who, Who(M), and That in Adjective

(a) The man is friendly. He lives next to me.(b) The man who ives next to me is friendly.

In addition to who, that can be used as the subject of an adjective clause.

(c) The man that lives next to me is friendly.

(b) and (c) have the same meaning.

A subject pronoun cannot be omitted Incorrect: The man lives next to me is friendly. Correct: The man who/that lives next to me is friendly.

(d) The man was friendly. I met him.(e) The man who(m) I met was friendly.      The man    that   I met  was  friendly.     The man   ø       I met   was  friendly.

In addition to who(m), that can be used as the object in an adjective clause'(e) and (f) have the same meaning.

An object pronoun can be omitted from an adjective clause. (e), (f) and (g) have the same meaning.In (g) The symbol ø means "nothing goes here."

Using Which and That in Adjective Clauses

(a) The river is pollute. It flows through the town.(b) The river which flows through the town is polluted.(c) The river that flows through the town is polluted.

Who and whom refer to people. Which refers to things. That can refer to either people or things.

In (a): To make an adjective clause, changes it to which or that. It, which, and that all refer to a thing (the river).(b) and (c) have the same meaning,

When which and that are used as used as the subject of an adjective clause, they CANNOT be omitted. Incorrect: The river flows through the town is polluted.

(d) The books were expensive. I bought them.(e) The books which I bought were expensive. The books that I bought were expensive. The books ø I bought were expensive.

Which or that can be used as object in an adjective clause, as in (e) and (f).

An object pronoun can be omitted from an adjective clause, as in (g). (e), (f), and (g) have the same meaning.

Singular and Plural Verbs in Adjective Clauses

(a) I know the man who is sitting over there. (b) I know the people who are sitting over there.

Using Prepositions in Adjective Clauses

(a) The man was helpful. I talked to him.(b) The man whom I talked to was helpful. .(c) The man that I talked to was helpful.(b) The man  ø I talked to was helpful.(e) The man to whom I talked was helpful.

Whom, which, and that can be used as the object of a preposition in an adjective clause. Reminder: An object pronoun can be omitted from an adjective clause, as in (d) and (i).

In very formal English, a preposition comes at the beginning of an adjective clause, as in (e) and (j). The preposition is followed by either whom or which (not that or who), and the pronoun cannot be omitted.

Using Whose in Adjective Clauses

(a) The man called the police. His car was stolen.(b) The man whose car was stolen called the police.

Whose shows possession.In (a): His car can changed to whose car to make an adjective clause.

(c) I know a girl. Her brother is a movie star.

whose brother(d) I know a girl. whose brother is a movie star.

(e) The people were friendly. We bought their house.(f) The people whose house we bought were friendly.

Adverb Clauses: Introduction

(a)When we were in New York, we saw several plays.(b) We saw several plays when we were in New York.(c) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.(d) He went to bed because he was sleepy.

The sentence with underline is adverb clause. Punctuation: When an adverb clause precedes on independent clause, as in (a), a comma used to separate the clause. When the adverb clause follows, as in (b), usually no comma is used. Like when, because introduce an adverb clause.

Incorrect:(e) When we were in New York. We say several plays.(f) He went to bed. Because he was sleepy.

Adverb clauses are dependent clause. They can not stand alone as a sentence in writing English. They must be connect to an independent clause.

Adverb Clauses: Using adverb clauses to show cause and effect

Because:(a) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.(b) He went to bed because he was sleepy.

An adverb clause may precede or follow the independent clause. Notice the punctuation in (a) and (d).

Now that:(c) Now that the semester is over, I'm going to rest a few days and then take a trip.(d) Jack lost his job. Now that he's unemployed, he can't pay his bills.

Now that means "because now." In (c): Now that the semester is over. Now that is used for present cause of present or future situations.

Since: (e) Since Monday is a holiday, we don't have to go to work. (f) Since you are good cook and I'm not, you should cook the dinner.

When since is used to mean "because", it expresses a known cause; it means "because it is a fact that" or "given that it is true that." Cause and effect sentences with since say, "Given the fact that X is true, Y is a result." as in (e).Note: Since has two meanings. One is "because". It is also used in time clause: Since I came here, I have met many people.

Expressing Contrast (unexpected Result): Using Even Though

(a) Because the weather was cold, I didn't go swimming. (b) Even though the weather was cold, I went swimming.(c) Because I wasn't tired, I didn't go to bed. (d) Even though I wasn't tired, I went to bed.

Because is used to express expected results.Even though is used to express unexpected results.Note: Like because, even though introduces on adverb clause.

Showing direct contrast: while and whereas

(a) Mary is rich, while John is poor.(b) John is poor, while Mary is rich.(c) Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.(d) Whereas Mary is rich, the phone rang. Compare(e) While I was studying, the phone rang.

While and whereas are used to show direct contrast: "this" is exactly the opposite of "that". While and whereas may be used with the idea of either clause with no difference in meaning. Whereas mostly occurs in formal written English. Note: A comma is usually used even if the adverb clause comes second.

While is also used in time clauses and means "during the time that," as in (e).

Expressing Conditions In Adverb Clauses

(a) If it rains, the streets get wet.

If-clauses (also called "adverb clauses of condition") present possible conditions. The main clause expresses results. In (a): Possible condition = it rains Result =the street get wet.

(b) If it rains tomorrow, I will take my umbrella. A present tense, not a future tense, is used in an if-clause even though the verb in the if-clause may refer to a future event or situation, as (b).

Adverb Clauses of Condition

Using Whether or Not and Even if (a) I'm going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not it is cold.(or whether or it is cold or not)

whether or not express the idea that neither this condition nor that condition matters; the result will be the same. In (a): "If it is cold, I'm going swimming. If it is not cold, I'm going swimming. I don't care about the temperature. It doesn't matter."

Even if:(b) I have decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold, I'm going to go swimming.

Sentence with even if are close in meaning to those with whether or not. Even if gives the idea that a particular condition does not matter. The result will not change.

Adverb clause of Condition: Using in case and in the event that

(a) I'll be at my uncle's house in case you (should) need to reach me.(b) In the event that you (should) need to reach me, I'll be at my uncle's house.

In case and in the event that express the idea that something probably won't happen, but it might. In case/ in the event that means "if by chance this should happen." Notes: In the event that is more formal than in case. The use of should in the adverb clause emphasizes the speaker's uncertainty that something will happen.

Adverb clauses of condition: Using unless

(a) I'll go swimming tomorrow unless it's cold.(b) I'll go swimming tomorrow if it isn't cold.

Unless = if...not In (a): unless it's cold means "if it isn't cold."(a) and (b) have the same meaning.

Adverb clause of condition: Using only if

(a) The picnic will be canceled only if it rains. If it's windy, we'll go on the picnic. If it's cold, we'll go on the picnic. If it's damp and foggy, we'll go on the picnic/ If it's unbearable hot, we'll go on the picnic.

Only if expresses the idea that there is only one condition that will cause a particular result.

(b) Only if it rains will the picnic be canceled. When only if begin a sentence, the subject and verb of the main clause are inverted, as in (b). No commas are used.

Other subordinating conjunction and prepositional phrases fronted by only at the beginning of a sentence require subject-verb inversion in the main clause:(1) Only when the teacher dismisses us can we stand and leave the room.(2) Only after the phone rang did I realize that I had fallen asleep in my chair.(3) Only in my hometown do I feel at ease.

Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Adverbial Phrases: Introduction

(a) Adverb Clause: While I was walking to class, I ran into an old friend.(b) Modifying Phrase: While walking to class, I ran into an old friend. (c) Adverb Clause: Before I felt for work, I ate breakfast. (d) Modifying Phrase: Before leaving for work, I ate breakfast.

Some adverb clauses may also be changed to modifying phrases, and the ways in which the change are made are the same:1. Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb , as in (b). Or 2. If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to -ing, as in (d).

Change Possible:(e) While I was sitting in class, I fell asleep. While sitting in class, I fell asleep. (f) While Ann was sitting in class, she fell asleep. While sitting in class, Ann feel asleep.

An adverb clause can be change to a modifying phrase. Only when the subject of the adverb clause and the subject of the main clause are the same. A modifying adverbial phrases that is reduction of an adverb clause modifies the subject of the main clause.

No Change Possible:(g) While the teacher was lecturing to the class, I feel asleep. (h) While we were walking home, a frog hopped across the road in front of us.

No reduction is possible if the subjects of the adverb clause and the main clause are different, as in (g) and (h).

Incorrect: (i) While walking home, a frog hopped across the road in front of us. (j) While watching TV last night, the phone rang.

In (i): "While walking home is called a "dangling modifier" or a "dangling participle" a modifier that is incorrectly "hanging alone" without an appropriate noun or pronoun subject to modify.

Changing Time Clauses to Modifying Adverbial Phrases

Adverbial Phrases:(a) Clause: Since Maria came to this country, she has made many friends. (b) Phrase: Since coming to this country, Maria has made many friends.

Adverb clause beginning with after, before, while, and since can be changed to modifying adverbial phrases.

(c) Clause: After he (had) finished his homework, Peter went to bed.(d) Phrase: After finishing his homework, Peter went to bed.(e) After having finished his homework, Peter went to bed.

In (c): There is no difference in meaning between After he finished and After he had finished. In (d) and (e): There is no difference in meaning between After finishing and After having finished.

Expressing the Idea of "During the Same Time" in Modifying Adverbial Phrases

(a) While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friend.(b) While walking down the street, I ran into an old friend.(c) Walking down the street, I ran into an old friend.(d) Hiking through the woods yesterday, we saw a bear.(e) Pointing to the sentence on the board, the teacher explained the meaning of modifying phrases.

Sometimes while is omitted but the -ing phrases at the beginning of the sentence gives the same meaning (during the same time)(a), (b), and (e) have the same weaning.

Expressing cause and Effect in modifying adverbial phrases

(a) Because she needed some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.(b) Needing some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.

Often an -ing phrases at the beginning of a sentence gives the meaning of "because". (a) and (b) have the dame meaning. Because is not included in a modifying phrase. It is

(c) Because he lacked the necessary qualifications, he was not considered for the job.(d) Lacking the necessary qualifications, he was not considered for the job.

omitted, but the resulting phrase expresses a cause and effect relationship, as in (b) and (d)

(e) Having seen that movie before, I don't want to go again.

Having + past participle gives the meaning not only of "because" but also of "before".

(f) Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. (g) Being unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. (h) Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.

A form of be in the adverb clause may be changed to being. The used of being makes the cause and effect relationship clear. (f), (g), and (h) have the same meaning.

Using Upon + ing in Modifying adverb

(a) Upon reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance.(b) When I reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance.

Modifying adverbial phrases beginning with upon + ing usually have the same meaning as adverb clauses introduced by when.(a) an (b) have the same meaning.

(c) On reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance.

Upon can be shortened to on. (a), (b), and (c) all have the same meaning.

Coordinating Conjunctions: Parallel Structure

One used of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This used of conjunctions called "parallel structure." The conjunctions used in this pattern are and, but, or, nor. These words are called "coordinating conjunctions."

(a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner.(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers.(c) He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us.(d) These shoes are old but comfortable. (e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music.

In (a): noun + and + nounIn (b): verb + and + verbIn (c): verb + and +verb (The second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the same as the first auxiliary usually.In (d): adjective + but + adjective In (e): infinitive + or + infinitive (The second to is omitted)

(f) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner.(g) Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and asked a question.(h) The colors in that fabric are red, gold, black, and green.

A Parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series, commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional; also correct:Steve, Joe and Alice are coming to dinner.

(i) Incorrect: Steve, and Joe are coming to dinner.Note: No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure.

Paired conjunctions: Both...And; Not Only...But Also; Either...Or; Neither...Nor

(a) Both my mother and my sister are here.(b) Not only my mother but also my sister is here.(c) Not only my sister but also my parents are here.(d) Neither my mother nor my sister is here.(e) Neither my sister nor my parents are here.

Two subjects connected by both...and take a plural verb, as in (a).When two subjects are connected by not only...but also, either... or, neither...nor, the subject that is closer to the verb determines, whether the verb is singular or plural.

(f) The research project will take both time and money.(g) Yesterday it not only rained but (also) snowed.(h) I'll take either chemistry or physics next quarter. (j) That book is neither interesting nor accurate.

Notice: the parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical from should follow each part of the paired conjunctions. In (f): both + noun + and noun.In (g): not only + verb + but also + verb.In (h): either + noun + or + noun.In (i): neither + adjective + nor + adjective.

Combining Independent Clauses with Coordinating Conjunctions

(a) It was raining hard. There was a strong wind. (b) Incorrect punctuation:It was raining hard, there was a strong wind.

Example (a) contains two independent clauses (two complete sentences).Notice: the punctuation. A period, not a comma, is used to separate two independent clauses. The punctuation in (b) is not correct, the error in (b) is called "a run-on sentence."

(c) It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind.

(d) It was raining hard and there was a strong wind. (e) It was raining hard. And there was a strong wind.

A conjunction may be used to connect two independent clauses. Punctuation: Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction, as in (c).In short sentences the comma is sometimes omitted, as in (d). In informal writing a conjunction sometimes begins a sentence, as in (e).

(f) He was tired, so he went to bed.(g) The child hid behind his mother's skirt, for he was afraid of the dog. (h) She did not study, yet she passed the exam.

In addition to and, but, or, and nor, other conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses: So (meaning "therefore, as a result")for (meaning because)yet (meaning but, nevertheless)A comma always precedes so, for, and yet when they are used as coordinating conjunctions.

Adverb Clauses

An adverb may be a single word such as quickly, here or yesterday (see the page Adverbs), or a phrase such as the day before yesterday or to see my mother (see the page Adverb Phrases). However, adverbs can also be clauses, containing a subject and a full verb. This page will explain the basic types of adverb clauses (sometimes called "adverbial clauses") and how to recognize them.

Adverbs, adverb phrases, and adverb clauses

Look at these sentences:

I saw the movie yesterday.

I saw the movie on Friday.

I saw the movie before I left for Calgary.

In the first sentence, “yesterday” is a one-word adverb, “on Friday” is an adverb phrase, and “before I left for Calgary” is an adverb clause. All of them answer the question “When?”, but the adverb clause has a subject (“I”) and a full verb (“left”). It is introduced by “before”, so it is a dependent clause. This means that it cannot stand alone: “Before I left for Calgary” would not be a full sentence. It needs a main clause (“I saw the movie”). An adverb clause, then, is a dependent clause that does the same job as an adverb or an adverb phrase.

Types of adverb clause

There are many types of adverb clauses. Here are some examples of the most common types:

Type Question answered Example

Place Where? Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft software.

Time When? After the fruit is harvested, it is sold at the market.

Cause Why? (What caused this?) I didn't call her because I'm shy.

Purpose Why? (What was the reason for doing this?)

She took a computer course so that she could get a better job.

Concession Why is this unexpected? Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store clerk.

Condition Under what conditions? If you save your money, you will be able to go to college.

As you can see from the examples above, most adverb clauses can be recognized because they are introduced by a particular word or phrase (such as "when" and "so that"). These words and phrases are called subordinating conjunctions, and there are many of them, including these:

a f te r , be fo re , un t i l , wh i le , because , s ince , as , so tha t , i n o rder tha t , i f , un less , whe ther , though , a l though , even though , where

Adjective Clauses

Here is a brief review of adjective clauses and relative pronouns.

An adjective clause is used to describe a noun:

The car , which was red , be longed to Young-Hee.

A relative pronoun is usually used to introduce an adjective clause:

Young-Hee, who i s a Korean s tuden t , l i ves in V ic to r ia .

The main relative pronouns are:

Pronoun Use Example

Who used for humans in subject positionHans, who is an architect, lives in Berlin.

Whom used for humans in object positionMarike, whom Hans knows well, is an interior decorator.

Whichused for things and animals in subject or object position

Marike has a dog which follows her everywhere.

Thatused for humans, animals and things, in subject or object position (but see below)

Marike is decorating a house that Hans designed.

There are two main kinds of adjective clause:

1. Non-defining clauses

Non-defining clauses give extra information about the noun, but they are not essential:

The desk in the corner , which is covered in books , i s m ine .

Explanation: We don't need this information in order to understand the sentence. “The desk in the corner is mine” is a good sentence on its own — we still know which desk is referred to. Note that non-defining clauses are usually separated by commas, and “that” is not usually used in this kind of context.

Kinds of adverbial clauses

kind of clause common conjunctions function example

time clauses

when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,till, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.

These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.

Her goldfish died when she was young.

conditional if, unless, lest These clauses are used to talk If they lose weight during

clausesabout a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences.

an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.

purpose clauses

in order to, so that, in order thatThese clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.

They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.

reason clauses

because, since, as, givenThese clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.

I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much.

result clauses so...thatThese clauses are used to indicate the result of something.

My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed.

concession clauses

although, though, while

These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.

I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now.

place clauses

where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "where?")

These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something.

He said he was happy where he was.

Clause of Comparison

asAdverb as is a clause which states comparison.

Johan can speak English as fluently as his teacher.

clauses of manner

as, like, the wayThese clauses are used to talk about someone's behavior or the way something is done.

I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to do them.

2. Defining clauses

Defining clauses give essential information about the noun:

The package that ar r ived th is morning i s on the desk .

Explanation: We need this information in order to understand the sentence. Without the relative clause, we don't know which package is being referred to. Note that “that” is often used in defining relative clauses, and they are not separated by commas.

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains a subject (explicit or implied) and a predicate, and it modifies a verb.

I saw Joe when I went to the store. (explicit subject I)

He sat quietly in order to appear polite. (implied subject he)

According to Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk, adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In these functions they are like adverbial phrases, but due to their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like prepositional phrases (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990):

We left after the speeches ended. (adverbial clause) We left after the end of the speeches. (adverbial prepositional phrase)

Contrast adverbial clauses with adverbial phrases, which do not contain a clause.

I like to fly kites for fun.

Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. For example:

Hardly had I reached the station when the train started to leave the platform.

The adverbial clause in this sentence is "when the train started to leave the platform" because it is a subordinate clause and because it has the trigger word (subordinate conjunction) "when".

The Subjunctive in Adverbial Clauses I. Adverbs indicate such things as why, where, when, and how. Typical adverbs in English are words

like “soon”, “here” and “quickly”; adverbial phrases are groups of words used in the same way, such as “on Sunday” or “with compassion”. Likewise, an entire clause —remember that a clause has a subject and predicate— may have an adverbial function:

John is working so that she will notice him.  [why]John works wherever we want. [where]Joan works after school is out. [when]Joan works as rapidly as she can. [how]

Adverbial clauses are introduced by conjunctions, such as para que (so that), antes de que (before), and hasta que (until). The indicative or subjunctive mood may be required in the adverbial clause in Spanish, or an adverbial phrase (preposition plus infinitive) may be used, depending on:

1.-Whether there is a change of subject. If no change of subject is involved and a preposition exists which corresponds to the conjunction, that preposition plus an infinitive is normally used, e.g.: He's saving his money so he can buy a car, Ahorra su dinero para poder comprar un coche. [A list of the corresponding prepositions is given below.]

2.-The type situation or time in the adverbial clause. In general, if the situation in the adverbial clause is viewed as something hypothetical or anticipated —rather than completed, habitual, or factual— then the subjunctive is required. Iin contrast, if the adverbial expression deals with something that is viewed as completed, habitual, or factual, the indicative is used. Some adverbial conjunctions by their very nature deal with something hypothetical or anticipated and thus are always followed by the subjunctive; others may take either the subjunctive or the indicative.

II. Adverbial conjunctions which are ALWAYS followed by the subjunctive (because they always indicate a pending/hypothetical action or state):

III.

Conjunction Translation Corresponding preposition

a fin de que so that a fin de

a condición de que on the condition that

a menos que unless

a no ser que lest, unless

antes (de) que before antes de

con tal (de) que provided that con tal de

en caso de que in case en caso de

no sea que / no fuera que lest, so that ... not (= para no)

para que so that para

sin que without sin

Notes: 1) Where de is given in parentheses above, it is optional; that is, the conjunction before may be expressed as antes que or antes de que; 2) some students remember the more frequent of these conjunctions using the mnemonic device ESCAPA.

Examples:

No voy a menos que venga ella.   I'm not going unless she comes.Salgo a la una con tal que se termine todo. I leave at 1:00 provided everything is done.Trabaja mucho para que vivan bien. She works hard so they (can) live well.No hago nada sin que lo sepan. I don't do anything without their knowing it.

Normally a preposition is used when no change of subject is involved; it is followed by an infinitive, not the subjunctive or indicative. Examples:

Mi hijo vive para tocar la guitarra.  My son lives to play the guitar.Ganaré antes de salir. I'll win before I leave [before leaving.]

IV. Adverbial conjunctions of time: The following adverbial conjunctions deal with time, and are followed by the subjunctive when they introduce an anticipated situation. If they introduce one which is viewed as completed or habitual, they are followed by the indicative. Of course, if there is no change of subject involved and a preposition is available, typically the preposition is used with an infinitive.

Conjunction Translation Preposition

a medida que as, according as

cuando when (al = upon)

dado que granted that, in case that

después (de) que after después de

en cuanto as soon as

hasta que until hasta

luego que as soon as

mientras while

nada más que as soon as

por más ... que no matter how much, however much

por mucho que no matter how much, however much

siempre que whenever, every time that

tan pronto como as soon as

Examples:

Por lo general lo hago cuando nos levantamos.

  I usually do it when we get up.   [Indicative]

Lo haré cuando nos levantemos. I'll do it when we get up. [Subjunctive] Siempre me lavo los dientes después que comemos.

I always brush my teeth after we eat. [Indicative]

Me lavaré los dientes después de que comamos.

I'll brush my teeth after we eat. [Subjunctive]

 Los alumnos lo repiten hasta que el profesor está satisfecho.

The students repeat it until the professor is satisfied.

[Indicative]

Los alumnos lo repetirán hasta que él esté satisfecho.

The students will repeat it until he is satisfied.

[Subjunctive]

 Trabajamos mientras ellos descansan. We work while they rest. [Indicative]Trabajaremos mientras ellos descansen. We will work while they rest. [Subjunctive]

V. Other adverbial conjunctions: Aunque (although, even though, even if). The indicative is used if a fact is involved or the outcome is known; otherwise the subjunctive is used:

Lo haré aunque no le gusta.

  I'll do it, even though she doesn't like it.

  [Indicative It is a fact that she doesn't like it.]

Lo haré aunque no le guste.

I'll do it, even though she may not like it.

[Subjunctive]

De modo que, de manera que (so that; in such a way that). These two expressions are identical. If used similarly to para que (in order that, indicating the purpose of an action), they require the subjunctive; they are used with the indicative if they mean “in such a way that” [followed by the actual result or outcome]:

Escribe de modo que todos la entienden.

  She writes in such a way [i.e., so clearly] that everyone understands her.

  [Indicative]

Escribe de modo que todos la entiendan.

She writes so that everyone will [might be able to] understand her.

[Subjunctive]

Como is followed by the subjunctive if it used to mean “if”, by the indicative if it means “because” [at the beginning of a sentence], and by either the indicative or the subjunctive (depending on hypothetical/future aspect) if it means “how(ever)”:

Como vayas conmigo, te pago la entrada.

  If you go with me, I'll pay for your ticket.   [Subjunctive]

Como no estás listo, me voy sin ti. Since you're not ready, I'll go without you.

[Indicative]

Lo hago como dijiste. I'll do it like you said. [Indicative]Lo haré como digas. I'll do it however you (might) say. [Subjunctive]

Una Noun Clause (también llamada Nominal Clause) es una cláusula quefunciona como un sustantivo o una frase nominal dentro de una oración y,como tú bien dices, puede ocupar el lugar de sujeto, objeto, complementosujeto, complemento de una preposición o de un adjetivo.

Para reconocer una “noun clause” podemos hacernos las preguntas What? Who (m)?+ Verbo. Por ejemplo: What you did made me laugh.What made me laugh? What you did.

Veamos ejemplos de “noun clauses” cumpliendo diferentes funciones en laoración:

1. Subject (sujeto)

- What Tommy said surprised his teacher - Lo que Tommy dijo sorprendió a su maestro.

- Where you came from is not relevant.- De dónde viniste no es relevante.

2. Object (objeto)

- Anna's parents didn't know that she had missed school.- Los padres de Anna no sabían que ella había faltado a la escuela.

- It doesn't matter where it came from.- No importa de dónde vino.

3. Subject complement (complemento sujeto)

- The reason for my delay was that I fell asleep.- La razón de mi retraso fue que me quedé dormido.

- Julia's mistake was that she didn't ask for help.- El error de Julia fue que no pidió ayuda.

4. Prepositional complement (complemento de una preposición)

- Peter is proud of what he did.- Pedro está orgulloso de lo que hizo.

- She is a little worried about who will replace the president.- Está un poco preocupada sobre quién reemplazará al presidente.

5. Adjective complement (complemento de un adjetivo)

- We are happy that you have finally accepted the proposal.- Estamos felices de que finalmente hayas aceptado la propuesta.

- I'm sure that they will arrive soon. - Estoy seguro de que llegarán pronto.

Ahora vamos a analizar el ejemplo que planteas: “Whatever happens during theday comes out in my music.”

Aquí la” noun clause” es “Whatever happens during the day” y, en este caso,funciona como el sujeto de la oración.

El predicado es “comes out in my music” donde “comes out” es el verbo, que es seguido por la frase preposicional “in my music”. En esta frase, el núcleo (palabra más importante, que define el tipo de frase) es la preposición “in” y “my music” es el complemento de la preposición. En esta frase, “my” es un adjetivo posesivo que se refiere a la persona o individuo que expresa esta afirmación. No debemos confundir al sujeto (persona o individuo que expresa un hecho, idea o pensamiento a través de una oración) con el sujeto como parte de la oración.

Adverbial clauses of cause and reason

Las denominadas “Adverbial clauses of cause and reason” son un tipo de oraciones subordinadas adverbiales (impropias, ya que no pueden sustituirse por un adverbio, al contrario de lo que sucede con las de tiempo, lugar y modo) que nos servirán para explicar la causa, el motivo o la razón de lo descrito en la oración principal. Es algo tan sencillo como:

El partido se canceló a causa de la lluvia, dónde la oración subordinada (a causa de la lluvia) nos explica la razón por la cuál “el partido se canceló” (oración principal).

Tal y como sucede en español, en inglés existe una amplia variedad de “linkers” (o enlaces) que pueden introducir este tipo de oraciones subordinadas. Los más comunes son los siguientes: Because: I went to bed at 9.00 p.m. because I was very tired. - Me fui a la cama a las 9 porque estaba muy cansado. Como podemos ver, “because” va seguido de una oración (clause) y no de una frase nominal, como sucederá con otros “linkers”.

As: As I was very tired, I went to bed at 9:00 p.m. - Como estaba muy cansado, me fui a la cama a las 9. Como en el caso anterior, “as” irá seguido de una oración.

Since: su utilización y traducción son similares a las de “as”. Since I was very tired, I went to bed at 9:00 p.m. - Como (ya que / puesto que) estaba muy cansado, me fui a la cama a las 9. Tanto “since” como “as” suelen aparecer con mayor frecuencia al principio la oración, aunque tampoco sería incorrecto decir: I went to bed at 9:00 p.m. since I was very tired - Me fui a la cama a las 9, ya que estaba muy cansado. Sin embargo, no es tan frecuente utilizar “as” a continuación de la oración principal.

Because of: significa “por causa de”, “a causa de”, “debido a”, “por culpa de, “por”… “Al contrario de lo que sucede con los enlaces que hemos visto hasta este momento, “because of” irá seguido únicamente de una frase nominal: I was twenty minutes late because of her/ the traffic… - Llegué veinte minutos tarde por su culpa / por culpa del tráfico.

Owing to / Due to / On account of: Son equivalentes más formales de “because of”, con lo que tendrán traducciones similares. Irán seguidos de una frase nominal. Veamos ejemplos:

There is a scarcity of fruit owing to the rain – Hay escasez de fruta debido a / a causa de la lluvia.

Ranchers reported death of many animals due to the lack of water - Los rancheros informaron de la muerte de muchos animales debido a / a causa de la falta de agua..

The teacher was particularly pleased with him on account of his ability to converse in Spanish - el profesor estaba especialmente contento con él debido a su capacidad para conversar en español. Sin embargo, “owing to”, “due to”, “on account of” y “because of” podrán ir seguidos de una oración si añadimos la frase “the fact that” inmediatamente después de ellos (frase que puede traducirse como “que” o “el hecho de que” ):

There is a scarcity of fruit owing to the fact that it didn’t rain last year – Hay escasez de fruta debido a que (debido al hecho de que) / a causa de que (a causa del hecho de que) no llovió el año pasado.

The teacher was particularly pleased with him on account of the fact that he could speak Spanish - el profesor estaba especialmente contento con él debido a que (al hecho de que) sabía hablar español.

In case / just in case: seguidos de una oración en presente simple, se utilizan para hablar de una posibilidad en el futuro: Take a book (just) in case you have to wait for him - Llévate un libro por si tienes / en caso de que tengas que esperar por él (en el futuro).

También pueden aparecer seguidos de una oración en pasado simple, para indicar la razón por la que hemos hecho algo: I took a book (just) in case I had to wait for him - Me llevé un libro por si tenía que esperar por él (en el pasado).

Inasmuch as / insofar as: su significado es similar al de “since”, si bien su utilización queda restringida al leguaje escrito en registros muy formales. Puede traducirse como “dado que”, “puesto que”, “en tanto que”, “en la medida en que”, “en tanto en cuanto”… Ejemplo:

Inasmuch as the President has not divulged the name of the members involved, it was unanimously decided by the committee that the President be ... - En la medida en que el Presidente no ha divulgado el nombre de ninguno de los miembros implicados, el Comité ha decidido de forma unánime que el Presidente sea…”

In the light of (the fact that) / In view of (the fact that): “A la luz de”, “en vista de”. Ejemplo:

In view of the results,… - El vista de los resultados, …

For: similar a “because”, pero utilizado en registros formales o literarios. Significará “pues”, “porque”, “ya que”… Forgive me Father for I have sinned - Perdóname Padre porque (pues) he pecado.

Seeing that: Similar a “since”, pero utilizado en contextos informales: Seeing that you are here, you may help - Ya que (puesto que, etc.) estás aquí, puedes ayudar.

Nota: Como hemos visto en los ejemplos, si la subordinada adverbial va al comienzo de la oración, será necesario poner una coma para separarla de la principal. En caso contrario, no será necesaria.

Definition

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment." A review of the different kinds of phrases might be helpful.

Words We Use to Talk about Clauses

Learning the various terms used to define and classify clauses can be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This digital handout categorizes clauses into independent and dependent clauses. This simply means that some clauses can stand by themselves, as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term for dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the clause is subordinate to another element (the independent clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The subordinate clause is created by a subordinating conjunction or dependent word. An independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which could be its own sentence), can be turned into a dependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words begins with a dependent word (or a subordinating conjunction in this case): "Because she is older than her brother, she tells him what to do."Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes used and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive, respectively. British grammarians will make this same distinction by referring to clauses with the terms defining and non-defining.) A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are often set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in the middle of a sentence).

Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President, can type 132 words a minute..

Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. Review the section on Comma Usage for additional help in determining whether relative clauses are restrictive or nonrestrictive (parenthetical or not) and whether commas should be used to set them off from the rest of the sentence. In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to) something preceding the clause.

Giuseppe said that the plantar wart, which had been bothering him for years, had to be removed.

(In this sentence, the clause in this color is a restrictive [essential] clause [a noun clause — see below] and will not be set off by a comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "wart"] is nonrestrictive [nonessential — it can be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is set off by commas.)

Some relative clauses will refer to more than a single word in the preceding text; they can modify an entire clause or even a series of clauses.

Charlie didn't get the job in administration, which really surprised his friends.Charlie didn't get the job in administration, and he didn't even apply for the Dean's position, which really surprised his friends.

A relative clause that refers to or modifies entire clauses in this manner is called a sentential clause. Sometimes the "which" of a sentential clause will get tucked into the clause as the determiner of a noun:

Charlie might very well take a job as headmaster, in which case the school might as well close down .

Independent Clauses

Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves, separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is essential to correct writing and is especially helpful in avoiding sentence fragments and run-on sentences.. Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine independent clauses into larger units of thought. In the following sentence, for example,

Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.

we have two independent clauses — "Bob didn't mean to do it" and "he did it anyway" — connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction ("but"). If the word "but" is missing from this sentence, the sentence would be called a comma splice: two independent clauses would be incorrectly connected, smooshed together, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar structure and length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what is called "Dick and Jane" or primer language (after the kind of prose that we find in first grade textbooks or "primers").

Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination, subordination, and by means of a semicolon. Coordination involves joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes* so. Clauses thus connected are usually nicely balanced in length and import.

Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but she never talked to her friends about it.

Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause; it is called

a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends on something else (the independent clause) for its meaning. There are other ways of combining ideas — by turning independent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases. Again, see the section on Avoiding Primer Language.

Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends about it.

Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir, because she was afraid they would make fun of her.

Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the choir no matter what her friends said. Joining these with the use of a relative clause:Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the choir. . . .

Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or without the help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when the two independent clauses involved are closely related and nicely balanced in terms of length and import.

Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to sing at their wedding. Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, she clearly enjoys using it.

Dependent Clauses

Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make good sense. They must be combined with an independent clause so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself. Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are, dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds of dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a dependent clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.

Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When the movie is over, we'll go downtown." or "John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject." Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me." or "The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace." A special kind of adjective clause begins with a relative adverb (where, when, and why) but nonetheless functions as adjectivally. Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you know what he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he has done this year [object of the preposition "about"]?"

What they did with the treasure remains a mystery.Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me.That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us.

Juan finally revealed what he had done with the money.Her husband spent whatever she had saved over the years.I don't know what I should do next.

In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the years.We are interested in what he does for a living.

The trouble was that they had never been there before.The biggest disappointment of last season was that the women's team didn't make it to the final four.

My brother, who now teaches math in a small college, never liked math in high school.The dealership that sold more cars ended up actually losing money.The Federated Bank, which was founded nearly two centuries ago, folded during the state's economic crisis.

The team had fallen behind by ten points before they were able to figure out the opponent's defense.Since he started working nights, he doesn't see much of his kids.While Josie sat inside watching television, Gladys shoveled the driveway.

Combinations of Clauses

Review the section on Sentence Variety for help in understanding the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind the way that clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that make them up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section that will test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses that make up a sentence.

Elliptical Clauses

Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sense that they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent word) that normally introduces such a clause or something from the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The missing parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and most readers are not aware that anything is missing. In fact, elliptical clauses are regarded as both useful and correct, even in formal prose, because they are often elegant, efficient means of expression. (The omitted words are noted in brackets below).

Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that] she had coached in recent years.

Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her recruits proved to be hard workers. Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better than they [could play].

Noun clauses

Like phrases, subordinate clauses can perform the function of the various parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. A subordinate clause which functions as a noun is called a noun clause and can serve as a:

Examples of a noun clause functioning as subject .

Thomas made her angry.

"Thomas" is a proper noun, functioning as the subject of this sentence.

That he had even asked her made her angry.

The clause "that he had even asked her" is the subject of this sentence.

Example of a noun clause functioning as a direct object .

We discovered his arrogance.

"Arrogance" is the object of "discovered."

We discovered what he had asked her.

The clause "what he had asked her" is the object of the verb "discovered" in this sentence.

Example of a noun clause functioning as an indirect object .

We showed the professor the error.

"The professor" in this sentence is the indirect object, and "the error" is the direct object.

She gave every little error her full attention.

The noun clause "every little error" is the indirect object, and "her full attention" is the direct object. Remember that the direct object should answer the question, "What did she give?" while the indirect object answers, "To whom (or what) did she give it?"

Example of a noun clause functioning as a predicate noun . (Remember that a predicate noun is a subject complement that renames the subject.)

The insult was his audacity.

"Audacity" is an abstract noun which is the subject complement (predicate noun) of the subject "insult."

The insult was that he had even asked her.

The clause "that he had even asked her" is the predicate noun (subject complement) of this sentence.

Example of a noun clause functioning as an object of a preposition .

She found fault in his question.

"Question" is the object of the preposition

"in."

She found fault in what he had asked her.

The clause "what he had asked her" is the object of the preposition "in" in this sentence.

Example of a noun clause functioning as an object complement .

You can call him a scoundrel.

The word "scoundrel" is an object complement that describes the direct object "him."

You can call him what you wish.

The clause "what you wish" can take the place of "scoundrel" as object complement.

Example of a noun clause as an appositive to the subject .

We adults understand life better than children.

"Adults" is an appositive that defines the subject "we."

We that are older understand life better that children.

The clause "that are older" replaces the Word "adults" and becomes the appositive to the subject.

Example of a noun clause acting as an appositive to the object.

I hate those brats. I hate those that oppose me.

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses (or relative clauses) are a type of subordinate clause that act as adjectives.

The whole clause does the job of an adjective. I'll show you what I mean with some examples below.

Quick Refresher: Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Clauses are groups of words with a subject and a verb, and subordinate clauses cannot stand alone.

Take a look at this sentence:The happy woman danced across the street.

Happy is an adjective modifying the noun woman.It is telling us which woman.Do you remember that which one is one of the adjective questions?Which woman? The happy woman.Now, look at this sentence.

The woman who looks happy danced across the street.This time, a whole clause is modifying the noun woman!The clause is still telling us which woman.Which woman? The woman who looks happy.

This clause is an adjective clause. It is a group of words with a subject and a verb, and it is acting as one part of speech - an adjective.

Relative Pronouns Can Introduce Them

Most of the time, relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns.There are only five relative pronouns.

who, whom, whose, that, whichHere are examples using these relative pronouns:

The person who made the mess needs to clean it. (modifying person) The girl whom you teach is my sister. (modifying girl) People whose cats shed need to vacuum often. (modifying people) This is the house that Jack built. (modifying house) The book which I had not read fell on my head. (modifying book)

Relative pronouns link the clause with the word that the clause is modifying.Did you notice that the noun that comes directly before the clause is the noun that the clause is modifying?Good. I'm glad that you saw that. :)The cool thing about relative pronouns is that they also act as the subject, object, or some kind of modifier within the adjective clause.

Let's use this sentence as an example.This is the house that Jack built.

The independent clause is This is the house. The relative clause is that Jack built. Notice that both clauses have a subject and a verb.That is introducing the realtive clause. It is linking the word house with the whole clause.That is also acting as the direct object within the clause.

Jack = subject built = verb that = direct objectLook at the sentence diagram, and it will help you see what I mean.

No Relative Pronoun?

Sometimes the relative pronoun is missing from the relative clause.Don't fret!You can still have an adjective clause without the relative pronoun.Here is an example of a sentence with the relative pronoun that.

The instrument that I love is the piano.

The adjective clause is that I love.Can you think of how you could express that same idea without the relative pronoun?

The instrument I love is the piano.

Now the adjective clause is just the words I love, but the word that is implied. It's as if the sentence says:

The instrument (that) I love is the piano.

Whenever words are implied in a sentence, it is called an elliptical.The technical name for a missing relative pronoun is an elliptical relative pronoun.

If you want to diagram the sentence, diagram the implied relative pronoun in parenthesis.

Relative Adverbs

While most of the time relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns, sometimes they are introduced by relative adverbs (where, when, why).Here are some examples. Notice that the clause is still modifying a noun.

This is the park where we played . Tuesday is the day when we have pizza for dinner. Our teacher told us the reason why we study grammar.

Noun clauses are clauses that function as nouns. Remember that clauses can be either dependent or independent. Noun clauses, like nouns, can be used as either subjects or objects. Noun clauses are therefore dependent clauses as as subject or object can not stand alone as a sentence.Nouns are subjects or objects:Baseball is an interesting sport. Noun: Baseball = subject Tom would like to buy that book. Noun: Book = objectNoun clauses are subjects or objects:I like what he said. Noun clause: ... what he said = objectWhat he bought was awful: Noun clause: What he bought ... = subjectNoun clauses can also be an object of a preposition:I'm not looking for what he likes. Noun clause: ... what he likes = object of preposition 'for'We decided to look into how much it costs. Noun clause: ... how much it costs = objects of preposition 'into'

Noun Clauses as Compliments

Noun clauses can play the role of a subject compliment. Subject compliments provide a further description, or clarification of a subject. Harry's problem was that he couldn't make a decision. Noun clause: ... that he couldn't make a decision. = subject compliment of 'problem' describing what the problem wasThe uncertainty is whether he will attend or not. Noun clause: ... whether he will attend or not. = subject compliment of 'uncertainty' describing what is uncertainNoun clauses can play the role of an adjective complement. Adjective compliments often provide a reason why someone or something is a certain way. In other words, adjective compliments provide additional clarification to an adjective.I was upset that she couldn't come. Noun clause: ... that she couldn't come = adjective compliment explaining why I was upsetJennifer seemed angry that he refused to help her. Noun clause: ... that he refused to help her. = adjective compliment explaining why Jennifer seemed angry

Noun Clause Markers

Markers are what introduce noun clauses. These markers include:that if, whether (for yes / no questions) Question words (how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why) Ever words beginning with 'wh'(however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever)Examples:I didn't know that he was coming to the party. Could you tell me whether she can help us. The question is how to finish on time. I'm sure I will enjoy whatever you cook for dinner.

Noun Clauses Used with Common Phrases

Noun clauses beginning with question words or if/whether are often used with common phrases such as:I don't know ... I can't remember ... Please tell me ... Do you know ...This use of noun clauses is also known as indirect questions. In indirect questions, we use a phrase to introduce a question with a short phrase and turn the question into a noun clause in statement order. When will he return? Noun clause / indirect question: I don't know when he will return.Where are we going? Noun clause / indirect question: I can't remember where we are going.What time is it? Noun clause / indirect question: Please tell me what time it is.When does the plan arrive? Noun clause / indirect question: Do you know when the plane arrives?Yes / No QuestionsYes / no questions can be expressed as noun clauses using if / whether:Are you coming to the party? Noun clause / indirect question: I don't know if you are coming to the party.Is it expensive? Noun clause / indirect question: Please tell me whether it is expensive.Have they lived there long? Noun clause / indirect question: I'm not sure if they have lived there long.

Special Case of 'That'The noun marker 'that' which introduces noun clauses is the only marker that can be dropped. This is only true if 'that' is used to introduce a noun clause in the middle or at the end of the sentence.Tim didn't know that she was available. OR Tim didn't know she was available.

Noun ClausesA reader asks for more information about noun clauses.First, a little review.A clause is a group of words that contains a main verb. Examples:I dance the polka.What people likethat ruined the eveningClauses are of two kinds:main or independentsubordinate or dependentClauses function as parts of speech:He bumped into the wall when the lights went out. (Adverb clause modifying the verb “bumped.”)There’s the man who saved the kitten. (Adjective clause qualifying the noun “man.”)He knows what consumers like. (Noun clause, object of the verb “knows.”)A noun clause functions as a noun in another clause. The noun clause may be the subject or object of a verb, or the object of a preposition:What he is doing smacks of corruption. (Noun clause, subject of the verb “smacks.”)We can only hope that the wind will die down soon. (Noun clause, object of the verb “can hope.”)I’ll give this computer to whoever wants it. (Noun clause, object of the preposition “to.”) And yes, it should be “whoever” and not “whomever” because “whoever” is the subject of the verb “wants.”Some words that may introduce a noun clause:whowhom-whose-which-that-if-whether-what-when-where-how-whywhoever-whenever-whatever-whereverSometimes the introductory word may be left out, as inI wish I knew the reason. (i.e,, “I wish that I knew the reason.”)But that’s another post.

Noun Clause

Many people are fairly comfortable with the idea of nouns, but they might not feel so confident when it comes to the idea of a noun clause. Noun clauses come in a variety of forms; therefore, breaking down the study into its basic components is essnetial to the proper learning of the form.

Noun Clauses

As aforementioned, noun clauses can be used in a number of ways, and they serve different purposes. First and foremost, please recognize that these clauses are dependent clauses. A dependent clause is one that cannot stand by itself. If a dependent clause is placed alone, it forms a fragment, not a sentence. An independent clause can act as a sentence by itself, but dependent clauses cannot.

Subject of a Verb

A noun clause can act as a subject of a verb, and we will break down what that means after a couple of examples. This clause is acting as the subject of a verb is present in:

What Alicia said made her friends cry. What Megan wrote surprised her family. What the man did was not very polite.

When there's a verb in the sentence, you must find the subject. Therefore, in the first we can ask "What made?" and the answer is "What Alicia said." Therefore, "What Alicia said" is the subject of that verb. In the next case, we can ask "What surprised?" and the answer is "What Megan wrote." Do you now see how a noun clause can act as a subject of a verb?

Object of a Verb

In the same vein, noun clauses can also act as the object of a verb:

She didn't know that the directions were wrong. He didn't realize that the stove was off. They now understand that you should not cheat on a test.

Once again, we can use the method of questioning to demonstrate how the noun clause is being used. What didn't she know? What didn't he realize? And what do they now understand? The answer in all three cases is the noun clause!

Subject Complement

Let's pick up the pace a little bit, and let's see if you can figure out how these noun clauses are actually answers to questions within the sentence.

Carlie's problem was that she didn't do the wash. Harry's crowning achievement was his 4.0 GPA. Darla's television was a 60 inch screen.

Once again, do you see what questions these noun clauses answer and how they relate to the subject? What was Carlie's problem? What was Harry's crowning achievement? What was Darla's television? Without these clauses, the sentences would not be complete thoughts grammaticaly, nor would they sound complete at all.

Object of a Preposition

Noun clauses also act as objects of a preposition.

Harry is not the provider of what Margie needs. Josephine is not resposible for what Alex decided to do. Allie is the owner of that blue car.

Once again, Harry is not the provider of what? Josephine is not responsible for what? Allie is the owner of what?

Adjective Complement

Last but not least, a noun clause can also act as an adjective complement.

The group is happy that Meg returned home. The child is sad that his stomach hurts. The family is excited that they bought a new house.

One more time with feeling: Why is the group happy? Why is the child sad? Why is the family excited?

Considerations

Using noun clauses in everyday speech is a fairly common practice, as noun clauses add often crucial information to sentences. However, learning to differentiate between the various types can be difficult. If you're in a position where you have to decide which form the noun clause is taking, consider the options carefully, and consult a grammar guide if you need additional assistance.

Prepositions are small words that create a relationship between other words in a sentence by linking phrases to the rest of the sentence.The nouns that follow them are objects of the preposition.[In the following examples, the preposition is bold and the object of the preposition is underlined.]

From the beginning of the storm, Dorothy was sure she would make it home. BEGINNING is the object of the preposition FROM, and STORM is the object of the preposition OF.For many in the class, math proved to be the most challenging subject. o You can find the object of the preposition by asking the question WHAT? about the preposition.

e.g. For what? MANY. In what? CLASS.Until sunrise, the SWAT team will hide in the marsh. o The preposition UNTIL serves to connect its object (SUNRISE) with the main clause. The

preposition IN connects its object MARSH to the verb, making the whole phrase part of the complete predicate.

The fuzzy, red cat on the fence wanders among the houses. o FENCE acts as the object of the preposition ON. The whole phrase acts as part of the complete

subject. HOUSES is the object of the preposition AMONG. The whole phrase acts as part of the complete predicate.

When a pronoun acts as an object of the preposition, it must take the objective case.

[In the following examples, the preposition is bold and the object of the preposition is underlined.]

o Bill was more than a little irritated when the water balloon fell on him. o HIM acts as the object of the preposition ON. It is incorrect to write fell on HE.

o Theo gave a dollar to Stephen and me to go to the store. o Both STEPHEN and ME act as the object of the preposition TO. It would be incorrect to write TO

STEPHEN AND I.o It seems like a waste of time for you and me to drive to Portland for the game.

o Both YOU and ME act as the object of the first preposition FOR. GAME is the object of the second preposition FOR

The Adjective Clause

Recognize an adjective clause when you see one.

An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements:

First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb

[when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which

one?

The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns:

R E L A T I V E P R O N O U N O R A D V E R B + S U B J E C T + V E R B

R E L A T I V E P R O N O U N A S S U B J E C T + V E R B

Here are some examples:

Whose b ig , b rown eyes p leaded fo r ano ther cook ie

Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb.

Why Fred canno t s tand s i t t i ng ac ross f rom h is s i s te r Me lan ie

Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].

Tha t bounced ac ross the k i t chen f loo r

That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; bounced = verb.

Who h iccupped fo r seven hours a f te rward

Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; hiccupped = verb.

Avoid writing a sentence fragment.

An adjective clause does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To avoid writing a fragment, you must connect each adjective clause to a main clause. Read the examples below. Notice that the adjective clause follows the word that it describes.

D iane fe l t man ipu la ted by her beag le San tana , whose b ig , brown eyes p leaded for another cookie .Chewing w i th her mouth open i s one reason why Fred cannot s tand s i t t ing across f rom h is s is ter Melan ie .Grow l ing fe roc ious ly , Oreo and Skee te r , Mad ison 's two dogs , competed fo r the hardbo i led egg that bounced across the k i tchen f loor .Laugh te r e rup ted f rom Annamar ie , who h iccupped for seven hours a f terward .

Punctuate an adjective clause correctly.

Punctuating adjective clauses can be tricky. For each sentence, you will have to decide if the adjective clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly.Essential clauses do not require commas. An adjective clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example:

The vege tab les that people leave uneaten a re o f ten the mos t nu t r i t i ous .

Vegetables is nonspecific. To know which ones we are talking about, we must have the information in the adjective clause. Thus, the adjective clause is essential and requires no commas.If, however, we eliminate vegetables and choose a more specific noun instead, the adjective clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision:

Brocco l i , which people o f ten leave uneaten , i s ve ry nu t r i t i ous .

The Adverb Clause

Recognize an adverb clause when you see one.

An adverb clause will meet three requirements:

First, it will contain a subject and verb. You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete

thought. Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or

Why?

Read these examples:

Tommy sc rubbed the ba th room t i l e un t i l h i s a rms ached .

How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.

Joseph ine 's th ree ca ts bo l ted f rom the d r i veway once they saw her ca r tu rn the corner .

When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.

A f te r her appo in tment a t the o r thodon t i s t , Dan ie l le cooked eggs fo r d inner because she cou ld eas i l y chew an omele t .

Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.

The Object of the Preposition

Recognize an object of the preposition when you see one.

Prepositions often begin prepositional phrases. To complete the phrase, the preposition usually teams up with a noun, pronoun, or gerund, or the object of the preposition. Here are some examples:

A t noon

At = preposition; noon = noun or the object of the preposition.

Beh ind them

Behind = preposition; them = pronoun or the object of the preposition.

Withou t sneez ing

Without = preposition; sneezing = gerund or the object of the preposition.The object of the preposition will often have modifiers that add description:

A t the k i t chen coun te r

At = preposition; the, kitchen = modifiers; counter = noun or the object of the preposition.

Be tween us on ly

Between = preposition; us = pronoun or the object of the preposition; only = modifier.

Wi thou t comple te ly f i n i sh ing

Without = preposition; completely = modifier; finishing = gerund or the object of the preposition.Infrequently, a clause will be the object of the preposition, as in this example:

In c lass today , we ta lked abou t what Mr . Duncan expects in our next research essay .

About = preposition; what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay = noun clause or the object of the preposition.

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs

If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as in the following example:

IndependentThe Prime Minister is in Ottawa

Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating conjunction "because" added to the beginning:

Dependentwhen the Prime Minister is in Ottawa

In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation for something else. Since this dependent clause answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following examples:

adverbThe committee will meet tomorrow.

adverb clauseThe committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.

Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for adjectives.

Noun Clauses

A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the following examples:

nounI know Latin.

noun clauseI know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.

In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb "know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:

nounTheir destination is unknown.

noun clauseWhere they are going is unknown.

The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in word order, becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit -- like the noun "destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."Here are some more examples of noun clauses:

about what you bought at the mall

This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the question "about what?"

Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.

This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers the question "who will have to pay?"

The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.

This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question "what do the fans hope?"

Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind of?" Consider the following examples:

Adjectivethe red coat

Adjective clausethe coat which I bought yesterday

Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns "who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:

informalThe books people read were mainly religious.

formalThe books that people read were mainly religious.

informalSome firefighters never meet the people they save.

formalSome firefighters never meet the people whom they save.

Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:

the meat which they ate was tainted

This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which meat?".

about the movie which made him cry

This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which movie?".

they are searching for the one who borrowed the book

The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which one?".

Did I tell you about the author whom I met?

The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which author?".

Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?", "where?", "why?", "with what goal/result?", and "under what conditions?".Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:

adverbThe premier gave a speech here.

adverb clauseThe premier gave a speech where the workers were striking.

Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever)," "where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause. Note that a dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence:

independent clausethey left the locker room

dependent adverb clauseafter they left the locker room

The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second cannot -- the reader will ask what happened "after they left the locker room". Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

causeHamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered Hamlet's father.

The adverb clause answers the question "why?".

effectHamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would be avenged.

The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result?".

timeAfter Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet wanted to kill him.

The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the change in word order -- an adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part of the sentence.

placeWhere the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.

The adverb clause answers the question "where?".

conditionIf the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary union.

The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?"

1. I know nothing about the matter except  what Alice told me late last night.

  prep. obj. of prep.

=>what Alice told me late last night.

rel.pro. s' p'

2. I know nothing except  that she was found dead.

  prep. obj. of prep.

=>that she was found dead.

sub.conj. s' p'

3. Men are different from brutes in   that they can think and speak.

  prep. obj. of prep.

=> that they can think and speak.

sub.conj. s' p'

 

Noun ClausesSee The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause. A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.

A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)

There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)

A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:

A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:

What Billy did shocked his friends. A noun clause can be an object of a verb:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

A noun clause can be a subject complement:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:

Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.

A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:

Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:

To change a statement to a noun clause use that:

I know + Billy made a mistake =

I know that Billy made a mistake.

To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:

George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =

George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.

To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:

I don’t know + Where is George? =

I don’t know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun clause markers:

That, if, whether, Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why

Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever

D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.

That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

not correct:

* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:

not correct: * Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)

correct: Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)

not correct: * Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)

correct: Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)

F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:

future if its action/state is later

He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.

He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.

present if its action/state is at the same time

He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.

past if its action/state is earlier

He thinks that George took the exam yesterday. When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:

was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later

He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.

He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.

past if its action/state is at the same time

He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.

past perfect if its action/state is earlier

He thought that George had taken the exam the day before. If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.

The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday. If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.

We learned that English is not easy.

The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:

Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:

That George learned how to swim is a miracle.

Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.

What Mary said confused her parents.

However you learn to spell is OK with me.

Noun clauses as objects of verbs:

We didn’t know that Billy would jump.

We didn’t know Billy would jump.

Can you tell me if Fred is here?

I don’t know where he is.

George eats whatever is on his plate.

Noun clauses as subject complements:

The truth is that Billy was not very smart.

The truth is Billy was not very smart.

The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.

The winner will be whoever runs fastest.

Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:

Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.

He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.

Noun clauses as adjective complements:

He is happy that he is learning English.

We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult. NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb; however, it cannot stand alone as a sentence.

e.g. What you think does not matter.

A noun clause can be used as the subject or the object in the following forms:

e.g. What you think does not matter. In this example, the noun clause is the subject of the sentence.

e.g. I don’t know what she thinks.In this example, the noun clause is the object of the sentence.

Noun clauses can begin with …1. … a question word:

Where he lives What one says

Who the man isHow she survives

2. … “Whether” or “if”Whether she will stayif she will stay

3. … a question word + TO infinitiveWhat to sayWhere to meet

4. … “That”That he is innocentThat she knows three languages

e.g. That she worked hard for the whole term pleased her parents.In this example, the whole that-clause is the subject of the sentence.

Instead of “that” we can also use the belief that, the fact that, the idea that, the evidence that.

e.g. The fact that the economic growth rate is lower than the population growth rate causes problems.

e.g. The idea that the teacher should dominate in the classroom is unacceptable.

However, if the subject is too long, it may be difficult for the reader to understand the sentence. To solve this problem, we use the introductory “it”, which takes the position of the subject in the sentence and signals that a noun clause is to follow.

e.g. Instead of That she worked hard for the whole term pleased her parents.we can writeIt pleased her parents that she worked hard for the whole term.

Note that this pattern can be used only with “that” but not with “the idea that / the fact that”.

B Using subjunctive in noun clauses

A subjunctive verb is the simple form of a verb. Sentences with subjunctive verbs generally stress importance or urgency.e.g. I suggest (that) he see a doctor.

Negative form: not + simple form of the verbe.g. I recommend that she not go to that movie.

Passive form: simple form of BE + past participlee.g. It is essential that children be told the truth.

When the main verb of the sentence is in past form, the verb in the noun clause is also in past form.e.g. I suggested that he saw a doctor.

Common verbs and expressions followed by the subjunctive in a noun clause:

+ that + noun clause

It is + that + noun clause

THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSESAn adjective clause is a group of words –containing a verb– that tells something about a noun. This noun to which the clause refers is called the antecedent: I admire those women... who stand for their rights.antecedent            adjective clause           The subjunctive is used in an adjective clause when the antecedent is someone or something whose existence is unknown, hypothetical or uncertain from the point of view of the speaker:

Necesito un libro que me explique esto.Busco un secretario que sepa francés.(no personal a: it's not a definite person)

I need a (some) book that explains this.I am looking for a secretary who knows French.

advise, ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest

essential, imperative, important, critical, necessary, vital

• If the antecedent is known to exist, the indicative is used:

Necesita el libro que explica esto.Busco al secretario que sabe francés.

She needs the book that explains this.I am looking for the secretary who knows French.

Noncount Nouns

Individual Part = The Whole            (Count Nouns)        (Noncount Nouns)(a) (letters postcards bills..)-------- mail(b) (apples bananas oranges...)--- fruit(c) (rings bracelets necklaces)---- jewelry(d) (chairs tables beds)-------------furniture

Noncount nouns usually refer to a whole group of things that is made up of many individual parts, a whole category made up of different varieties.

Using Several, A Lot Of, Many/Much, and A Few/A Little

     Count Noncount

(a) several chairs       Ø Several is used only with count nouns

(b) a lot of chairs a lot of furniture A lot of is used with both count and noncount nouns.

(c) many chairs much furniture Many is used with count nouns.Much is used with noncount nouns.

(d) a few chairs a little furnitureA few is used with count nouns.A little is used with noncount nouns.

Nouns That Can Be Count or Noncount

Noun     Used As A Noncount Noun Used As A Count Noun

glass (a) Windows are made of glass.(b) I drank a glass of water.(c) Janet wears glasses when she reads.

hair (d) Rita has brown hair. (e) There's a hair on my jacket.

iron (f) Iron is a metal. (g) I pressed my shirt with an iron.

light (h) I opened the curtain to let in some light. (i) Please turn off the lights (lamps).

paper (j) I need some paper to write a letter.(k) I wrote a paper for Professor Lee. (I) I bought a paper (a newspaper).

time (m) How much time do you need to finish your work?

(n) How many times have you been in Mexico?

work (o) I have some work to do tonight. (p) That painting is a work of art.

coffee (q) I had some coffee after dinner. (f) Two coffees, please.

chicken/fish

(s) I ate some chicken/some fish. (t) She drew a picture of a chicken/a fish.

experience(u) I haven't had much experience with computers.(I don't have much knowledge or skill in using computer.)

(v) I had many interesting experiences on my trip. (Many interesting events happened to me on my trip.)

Using The With Names

(a) We met Ø Mr. Wang.      I know Ø Doctor Smith.     Ø President Rice has been in the news.

The is NOT used with titled names. Incorrect: We meet the Mr. Wang.

(b) We lives in Ø Europe.The is NOT used with the name of countries.Incorrect: He lives in the Europe.

(c) He lives in Ø  France.      Ø Brazil is a large country.      Have you ever been in Ø Thailand?(d) He lives in the United States.     The Netherlands is in Europe.     Have you ever been in the Philippines?

The is NOT used with the name of most countries.Incorrect: He lives in the France.The is used in he name of only a few  countries.Others: the Czech Republic, the United Arab Emirates, the Dominican Republic.

(e) He lives in Ø Paris.     Ø New York is the largest city in the United States.    Have you ever been in Ø Istanbul?

The is NOT used with the name of cities.Incorrect: He lives in the Paris.

(f) The Nile River is long.      They crossed the Pacific Ocean.      The Yellow Sea is in Asia.(g) Chicago is on Ø Lake Michigan,      Ø Lake Titicaca lies on the border between Peru and Bolivia.

The is used with the name of rivers, oceans, and seas. The is NOT used with the name of lakes.

(h) WE hiked in the Alps.        The Ands are in South America. (i) He Climbed Ø Mount Everest.       Ø Mount Fuji is in Japan,

The is used with the name of mountain ranges.The is NOT used with the name of individual mountains.

Capitalization

1. The first word of a sentence(a) We saw a movie last night.    It was very good.

2. The names of people (b) I met George Adams yesterday.

3. Titles used with the names of people(c) I saw Doctor (Dr.) Smith.(not a doctor)     Do you know Professor Alston?

4. Months, days, holidays (d) I was born in April.

5. The names of places:    city  state/province  country   continent    ocean  lake  river   mountain  desert    school   business      street  building  park, zoo

(e) He lives in Chicago.    She lives in California.    They crossed the Atlantic Ocean.    I go to the University of Florida.   We have class in Ritter Hall.

6. The name of courses (f) I'm taking Chemistry 101 this term.

7. The titles of books, articles, movies{Capitalize all other words except articles (the, a/an), coordinating conjunctions (and, but ,or), and short prepositions (with, in at)}

(g) Gone with the Wind (Capitalize the fist word of a tile.)  The Old Man and the Sea

8. The names of languages and nationalities(h) She speaks Spanish.    We discussed Japanese customs.

9. The names of religions (i) Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism.