ADHD Stimulant Abuse in College Students

8/18/2019 ADHD Stimulant Abuse in College Students

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Taylor Lott

Joel Williams

Health 2400 001

April 22, 2014

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorer !tim"lant Dr"# A$"se in %olle#e !t"ents

%olle#e& This term has iverse notions attache to it& T'o polar ieas associate

'ith (colle#e) are the e*citement of f"n an the an*iety of stress & +eca"se partyin# an

hi#h stress levels are ever-present on a colle#e camp"s, r"# "se an a$"se is an iss"e

that is o$serve& Dr"# a$"se is 'hen an inivi"al has a ha$it of tain# aictive or

ille#al r"#s& ne partic"lar type of r"# that seems to $e reaily a$"se is stim"lant

prescriptions an non-prescriptions for attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer, also

no'n as ADHD& ADHD is a $ehavioral isorer that is very common& .nicators of

this isorer are the inivi"als havin# tro"$le foc"sin#, hyperactivity, an actin#

'itho"t thinin# a$o"t the action o$inson, !mith, !e#al, amsey, 2014& While

these characteristics may not seem "norinary from normal chilhoo $ehavior, ADHD

may $e the res"lt if these types of iss"es occ"r over a lon# perio of time& 3rescriptions

for this attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer help the inivi"al 'ith the isorer

(improve concentration an foc"s, plan ahea, control certain imp"lses, an follo'

thro"#h 'ith tass) o$inson et al&, 2014& What tens to ra' colle#e st"ents into

a$"sin# these types of stim"lant r"#s is the notion that these meications help st"ents

to stay "p for e*tene perios of time to either st"y or 'or on assi#nments that are

"e in a limite amo"nt of time reyann"s& Also, a$"se of these partic"lar types of

r"#s can $e to #et a type of e"phoric hi#h or lose 'ei#ht reyann"s&

The mis"se of ADHD stim"lants has not al'ays $een a concern in society& This

pro$lem is $ecomin# more an more evient in the c"lt"re of toay5s society& While this pro$lem can $e seen in cross sections of n"mero"s ifferent pop"lations an a#e #ro"ps,

the area scientists are most foc"se on are colle#e st"ents&


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Prevalence and Rate Data for Target Population

The tar#et pop"lation for this type of "nhealthy $ehavior is colle#e st"ents&

+eca"se colle#e st"ents are thr"st into a hi#hly stressf"l environment an are not

monitore as closely, stim"lant r"# a$"se in colle#e-a#e inivi"als is more evient& ne st"y one on stim"lant "se in colle#e st"ents sho's $oth lifetime prevalence an

past-year prevalence rates, these n"m$ers $ein# 6&78 an 9&:8 Teter, ;c%a$e,

Laran#e, %ranfor, +oy, 200


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$reathin# iffic"lties, an moo isorers ;c%arthy, 2010& @ven more an#ero"s sie

effects, 'hich are the ris 'ith hi#h levels or repeate "se of the r"#s, incl"e stroe,

conf"sion, el"sions, paranoia, an hall"cinations ;c%arthy, 2010& isier $ehavior of

the stim"lant-a$"sin# inivi"al can res"lt, 'hich can lea to accients or even criminal

$ehavior & ne st"y in 2010 fo"n that for all stim"lant-relate emer#ency visits, 908

'ere "e to nonmeical "se of the r"#s !"$stance A$"se an ;ental Health !ervices

Aministration, %enter for +ehavioral Health !tatistics an "ality, 2017&

With these e*treme sie effects of prescription stim"lants co"ple 'ith the

increase in n"m$ers of colle#e st"ents 'ho a$"se stim"lants, scientists an researchers

have set o"t to try an ri this pro$lem& ne partic"lar 'ay scientists are a$le to create a

'ay to trac the pro#ress $ein# mae in this area is from the o$Bectives liste in Healthy

3eople 2020&

Healthy People 2020 Objective

Healthy 3eople 2020 is a list of o$Bectives an #oals for a 10-year time perio to

improve the health of the >nite !tates pop"lation 'hile promotin# health an isease

prevention& ne o$Bective for Healthy 3eople 2020 relatin# to ADHD r"# a$"se is !A-

1:&7, 'hich is to (re"ce the past-year nonmeical "se of stim"lants) Health3eopleov,

2017& The reason this o$Bective is relevant to attention-eficit-hyperactivity isorer is

$eca"se pharmace"ticals "se to treat this common $ehavioral isorer are stim"lants

an 'iely a$"se $y the colle#e-a#e pop"lation as 'ell as other #ro"ps of the #eneral

pop"lation& The nonmeical "se of stim"lants has increase in the past years an

contin"es to remain an iss"e in o"r society& The Healthy 3eople 2020 o$Bective can $e

tar#ete s"ch that stim"lant r"# a$"se can ecline an this ne#ative health $ehavior can

vastly improve the health of o"r nation&

After researchers esta$lish #oals they 'ish to meet for the "pcomin# ecae in thearea of stim"lant a$"se, these researchers m"st evelop st"ies to iscover the "nerlyin#

or intrapersonal factors for the a$"se& .f researchers are $etter a$le to "nerstan the

reasons 'hy colle#e st"ents a$"se stim"lants prescri$e for attention-

eficit/hyperactivity isorer, then prevention pro#rams an interventions can $e

evelope to ai in eliminatin# the pro$lem&


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Beliefs !alues "ttitudes #no$ledge

A$"se of stim"lant r"#s "se for attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer is an

ever-#ro'in# iss"e for o"r nation, partic"larly for colle#e st"ents& Altho"#h the

environment on a colle#e camp"s is a potential reason for a$"se of stim"lant r"#s, there

are other intrapersonal factors involve 'hen eciin# to participate in this type of

$ehavior& Aerall, a prescription r"# for ADHD, is one of the most a$"se stim"lants

$y the colle#e-a#e pop"lation& This r"# is cate#ori?e $y the feeral #overnment as a

sche"le .. r"#, 'hich means it has the hi#hest potential for a$"se "e to its

aictiveness %ooper, 2011& The #eneral pop"lation has an a'areness that it is ille#al

to tae r"#s 'hich are not prescri$e to them, ho'ever, this no'le#e is not eno"#h to

stop colle#e st"ents from a$"sin# these sim"lant r"#s& ;any colle#e st"ents have the

$elief that stim"lant pharmace"ticals 'ill help them to foc"s more so they are a$le to

finish an assi#nment in a short amo"nt of time& ne st"ent intervie'e for a %CC

article $elieves the stim"lant r"#, Aerall, helps him to mae hi#h #raes an ace

e*ams& 5.Em B"st in a really #oo moo ri#ht no',5 he says, leavin# a "niversity $"ilin#&

F. B"st i #reat on the test5) %ooper, 2011& A st"y con"cte to fin lins $et'een

certain attit"es an reasons 'hy colle#e st"ents mis"se ADHD stim"lants inicates

the $elief that acaemic achievement 'as the o"tcome 'hen "sin# stim"lants ille#ally

Hall, .r'in, +o'man, Granen$er#er, Je'ett, 2009& The attit"e of colle#e st"ents

to'ars stim"lants is positive Aiction Treatment .n Dr"# A$"se, 2017& +eca"se of

the positive test res"lts receive $y many colle#e st"ents 'ho have "se ADHD

stim"lants, the intrapersonal factors to eter inivi"als from the r"# "se are over

looe& ;any times st"ents rely on the $elief the stim"lants 'ill help improve test

scores, 'hen in reality this is not tr"e& A st"y one on hi#h school an mile school

st"ents sho'e that there 'as little to no correlation $et'een acaemic $enefits an "se

of prescription stim"lants Hall et al&, 2009& ;any people lac the no'le#e that

stim"lants can ca"se harmf"l effects on the pop"lation 'ho are not ia#nose 'ith

attention-eficit hyperactivity isorer& +eca"se others notice the increase

concentration for st"ents 'ith the isorer, st"ents lacin# ADHD thin the meication

'ill ca"se the same res"lt for them& They also feel as tho"#h the meication is safe to


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tae $eca"se a octor for an ADHD patient prescri$e it& The pree*istence of a positive

attit"e to'ar ADHD pharmace"ticals allo's st"ents to not see ho' etrimental it is to

one5s health 'hen tain# these types of r"#s& !t"ents loo past the potential harmf"l

an ne#ative effects of these stim"lants an $elieve there is nothin# 'ron# 'ith a little

($oost) from these pharmace"ticals&

Cot only are the intrapersonal factors e*tremely pertinent to the "nerstanin# of

the 'hy a$"sin# ADHD stim"lants have increase in the colle#e pop"lation, it is also

very important to loo at c"lt"ral an environmental factors as 'ell& Aitional factors

incl"e 'here someone lives an 'hat social or economic stat"s an tier these

inivi"als sociali?e 'ithin&

Demographics and %ocioeconomic %tatus

While attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer meications are a$"se thro"#ho"t

the entire pop"lation, the tren of stim"lant a$"se of colle#e st"ents is more ca"se for

concern& %olle#e camp"ses are very iverse 'ith st"ents from many ifferent races,

ethnicities, lan#"a#es, $ac#ro"ns, an c"lt"res& A st"y one nationally for the 2010-

2011 school year fo"n that ro"#hly half of the B"niors an seniors on colle#e camp"ses

"se Aerall or italin ille#ally& This st"y also fo"n a$o"t 60 percent of B"niors an

seniors 'ho $elon#e to either a fraternity or sorority "se the same stim"lant r"#s

'itho"t prescriptions ;orris, 2017& Another st"y sho'e stim"lant a$"sers 'ere

more liely to $e (male, White, a mem$er of a fraternity or sorority, have a lo'er 3A,

an have m"ltiple se* partners) Arria, %aleira, 5ray, incent, Johnson, Wish,

2006& Within this st"y, ata 'as o$taine on 1297 st"ents on a colle#e camp"s& The

representation of this colle#e camp"s ha ro"#hly half of the participants $ein# female

an a little over I0 percent 'ere White 'ith (I7&9 8 inicate their mother ha attaine a

4-year colle#e e#ree or more) as representation of socioeconomic stat"s Arria et al&,

2006a&

Another area that can $e very iffic"lt to reveal finin#s is the characteristics of a

person& This can $e personality traits or an inivi"al5s $rain chemistry& The psycholo#y

of inivi"als can help scientists learn more a$o"t 'hy certain re#ions of the pop"lation

are more at ris for mis"sin# prescription stim"lants&


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Psychological or Personality &haracteristics

3ersonality traits are hi#hly inicative of 'hat types of $ehaviors people ten to

participate in& ne personality characteristic that is prevalent in n"mero"s cases is the

iea of ris-tain# or sensation seein#& ne st"y fo"n that those 'ho score hi#her

on a sensation seein# scale 'ere more liely to a$"se ADHD meications Jarin,

Loo$y, @arley'ine, 2011& After a lin 'as fo"n $et'een the iea of ris-tain# an

a$"se of stim"lant pharmace"ticals for ADHD, other st"ies 'ere one to see if a similar

lin e*iste amon# a$"se of psychostim"lants an psychiatric isorers& A recent

research st"y fo"n that (one very important psychiatric isorer that may si#nificantly

elevate the ris for psychostim"lant mis"se is an act"al ia#nosis of ADHD) Jarin et

al&, 2011& Also, those 'ho ten to mis"se stim"lant meications are more liely to

participate in the "se of mariB"ana, alcohol, an nicotine& Those 'ho 'ere ia#nose as

attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer at a yo"n# a#e sho'e a hi#her ris for a$"sin#

har r"#s at a yo"n#er a#e Jarin et al&, 2011& 3sycholo#ical istress symptoms 'ere

evient in many of the st"ents 'ho too nonprescription stim"lants 'ho i not have

ADHD& Ho'ever, those st"ents 'ho 'ere ia#nose 'ith ADHD an "sin# their

prescri$e stim"lants 'ere less liely to e*perience psycholo#ical istress symptoms

ras#reen, 2011& Altho"#h there are many spec"lations as to 'hat the ifferent

personality an psycholo#ical characteristics are for colle#e st"ents 'ho mis"se

stim"lant r"#s, refine o$servations an (har evience) have not $een rampantly

fo"n& This is "e to the nat"re of colle#e st"ents5 $"sy sche"les an not $ein# a$le to

re#"larly $e eval"ate $y health professionals in the 3sycholo#y fiel ras#reen, 2011&

While intrapersonal factors can $e very tellin# for one5s character an motives,

the interactions an relationships st"ent5s have 'ith others can $e very infl"ential& The

s"pport of family an friens, 'hether the infl"ences are positive or ne#ative, can have a

#reat impact on 'hy the colle#e pop"lation has seen s"ch a si#nificant increase in a$"se

of stim"lants&

%ocial %upport and 'nteractions

Gor colle#e st"ents, $ein# a'ay from home is a ne' e*perience& Co lon#er o

they have parents constantly 'atchin# their every move an they are a$le to o anythin#

they 'ant, o"tsie of $reain# the la'& >nfort"nately, "e to this ne'fo"n freeom,


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many colle#e st"ents are e*pose to ille#al actions one of these ille#al actions is the

a$"se of attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer stim"lant pharmace"ticals& This r"#

a$"se has $ecome an ever-#ro'in# pro$lem for colle#e-a#e st"ents an scientists are

'orin# to "nerstan the motivations an $ehaviors for 'hy colle#e-a#e st"ents are so

easily s"scepti$le to ADHD stim"lants& ne area that co"l potentially $rin# ans'ers

lies in the area of social s"pport& !ocial s"pport, at its core, is the perception an the

act"ality that a person is taen care of physically an emotionally& A st"y one in 200:

name t'o main areas 'here colle#e st"ents receive social s"pportK (parents an on-

camp"s peers) Anerson, +"#ayev, aet?, "#lielmina, =ire#aar, si*th a"thor,

200:& ;ost parents of colle#e st"ents have s"pporte their chilren thro"#ho"t their

life, 'hich may $e one of the reasons the st"ents are in colle#e& Altho"#h parents may

not $e 'ith their chilren at colle#e, social s"pport is still o$serve via payment of the

e"cation, phone calls, an visits& While many parents may $e "na'are of their chilren

participatin# in the mis"se of stim"lants, some parents may have some no'le#e of the

$ehavior an either loo the other 'ay or ena$le the a$"se Arria D"pont, 2010&

3arents co"l also inavertently $e s"pportin# the mis"se of ADHD meications $y

p"shin# their chilren to mae #oo #raes so they can one ay have a s"ita$le Bo$& To

try an achieve the acaemic s"ccess that parents 'ant for their chilren, stim"lants can

$e "se to achieve the esire #raes& esearchers s"##est parents e"cate themselves

on this $ehavior to $etter e"ip themselves to eter their chilren from either $e#innin#

mis"se of stim"lant r"#s or contin"in# the r"# a$"se Arria et al&, 2010&

!ocial s"pport in colle#e st"ents can also come from peers& r#ani?ations an

cl"$s are 'here a lot of infl"ence an s"pport for colle#e st"ents can $e fo"n& These

are the areas 'here st"ents $e#in to (fit in) an fin people that have thin#s in common

'ith them& !tatistics amon# colle#e st"ents 'ho a$"se ADHD pharmace"ticals sho'

that st"ents that $elon# to either a fraternity or sorority have a hi#her ris of stim"lant

mis"se Aria et al&, 2006a& +eca"se ree life is a h"#e part of many st"ents5 colle#e

e*periences, this can $e a stron# infl"ential factor on 'hether st"ents ecie to partae

in the a$"se of stim"lant pharmace"ticals& Altho"#h some st"ents amit "sin# ADHD

stim"lants for increase concentration an foc"s, stayin# a'ae an "se as a party r"# is

another reason 'hy colle#e st"ents a$"se ADHD meications Arria et al&, 2006c&


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!ocial interactions 'ith ree life, or#ani?ations, or cl"$s can ca"se st"ents to have a

esire to a$"se the r"#s& 3arties an other social #atherin#s are opport"nities for colle#e

st"ents 'ho "se ADHD stim"lants to #et a hi#h an stay a'ae for the events& These

types of social interactions are only one aspect of the a$"se of stim"lants& %olle#e an

>niversity aministrators/staff are responsi$le for the camp"ses an the st"ents& The

aministration has a lar#e scope of responsi$ility an sometimes, r"# "se or tryin# to

eliminate r"# "se #ets overlooe or i#nore Arria et al&, 2010& .f these aministrators

'ere a$le to esi#nate more attention to the area of ADHD r"# a$"se, this $ehavior

co"l potentially $e eterre&

+eca"se the tar#et pop"lation for many st"ies ealin# 'ith stim"lant mis"se is

colle#e st"ents, infl"ential or#ani?ations an social instit"tions m"st $e investi#ate

thoro"#hly $eca"se of the s"$stantial impact on st"ents& !t"ents spen a lar#e maBority

of their time 'ith these or#ani?ations/instit"tions an are easily s'aye $y the ecisions&

.f scientists can evelop strate#ies to implement 'ithin these instit"tions an

or#ani?ations, they 'ill liely $e a$le to positively impact the n"m$er of colle#e st"ents

'ho a$"se prescription stim"lants&

Organi(ations and %ocial 'nstitutions

Attention eficient/hyperactivity isorer r"# a$"se is an ever-#ro'in# pro$lem

in o"r nation ho'ever, there is one tar#et pop"lation that sho's alarmin# statistics&

!tim"lant a$"se affects a lar#e proportion of colle#e st"ents& A s"rvey of 7:0 st"ents

sho'e that 20&6 percent of st"ents 'ere mis"sin# ADHD meications ras#reen,

2011& %olle#e instit"tions, $ein# concerne 'ith other iss"es pertainin# to r"nnin# a

"niversity, are "na$le to eter an monitor the stim"lant a$"se Arria et al&, 2010& While

these instit"tions report a hi#h percenta#e of ADHD r"# mis"se in their st"ent $oy,

there are st"ent or#ani?ations that are more liely to a$"se these pharmace"ticals as

oppose to other or#ani?ations& An or#ani?ation is $asically a #ro"p of people 'ho have

similar interests 'ho share a partic"lar p"rpose& ree affiliation is a hi#h preictor of

the mis"se of stim"lant a$"se Desantis, Anthony, %ohen, 2017& This sho"l $e no

s"rprise that sororities an fraternities sho' a hi#her level of r"# mis"se $eca"se not

only o these #ro"ps have similar interests, they also traitionally involve themselves in

the party atmosphere 'here this type of $ehavior is apt to $e more rampant& Also, those


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st"ents 'ho a$"se these types of pharmace"ticals are more liely to $e 'hite males 'ho

ten to have lo'er #raes ras#reen, 2011&

While the act"al or#ani?ations an instit"tions can provie sta$ility for st"ents, it

is those relationships forme 'ithin these comm"nities that ca"se the most infl"ence&

>nerstanin# the $on forme 'ithin cl"$s an social #ro"ps 'ill $e #oo insi#ht for

researchers to evise plans on ho' to attac the #ro'in# iss"e&

Relationships Bet$een Organi(ations and &ommunities

+eca"se certain or#ani?ations, lie fraternities or sororities, are more liely to

mis"se stim"lants, the s"rro"nin# comm"nities may also feel the effect of this r"#

mis"se& ne portion of the impacte comm"nity 'o"l $e the family of colle#e-a#e

chilren& ne aspect scientists $elieve colle#e stim"lant mis"se involves is the parent or

comm"nity5s lac of no'le#e on the s"$Bect Arria et al&, 2010& .f the comm"nity 'as

$etter informe on ho' salient the iss"e of r"# mis"se for colle#e st"ents 'as, they

may $e more liely to help o somethin# a$o"t it& ;any or#ani?ations are incl"e in a

comm"nity an can $e shape $y the ieolo#ies of a comm"nity& Health centers in a

comm"nity can serve as a reso"rce for preventin# the stim"lant mis"se $y or#ani?ations

reyan"s&

%olle#e st"ents rely heavily on their peers an s"rro"nin# comm"nity to help

them to mae ecisions for them in the present an the f"t"re& Ho'ever, 'hile

or#ani?ations an cl"$s can $e ifferent for n"mero"s st"ents the physical environment

in colle#e is similar for the maBority& This physical environment can $e the reason the

a$"se has $een a$le to contin"e&

Physical )nvironment

There are n"mero"s reasons as to 'hy colle#e st"ents mis"se stim"lants

prescri$e for ADHD one is stress& !tress that st"ents "ner#o is intense an affects

every part of their life& This stress ca"ses st"ents to feel as if they nee to tae

somethin# to enhance their concentration an #ive them the a$ility to $e a$le to stay "p

thro"#h the ni#ht th"s allo'in# more time to st"y& When st"ents are "ner the press"re

to o 'ell an are stresse, they may t"rn to st"y ais s"ch as Aerall or some other

pop"lar (st"y r"#&) ne st"y sho'e that a little over I0 percent of st"ents "se

ADHD stim"lants to foc"s on school'or Arria et al&, 2006a& The physical


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environment of a colle#e camp"s also involves partyin# an stayin# o"t late 'ith friens&

%olle#e-a#e st"ents are a'ay from the s"pervision of their parents an are c"rio"s

a$o"t ifferent ille#al pro"cts that may #ive them a ris-tain# (r"sh) or hi#h& Almost

1< percent of r"# "sers from the same st"y reporte "sin# stim"lant meications for

recreation Arria et al&, 2006a& Also, $eca"se the eman is so hi#h for these (st"y

r"#s,) these stim"lants are $ecomin# more reaily availa$le an st"ents are finin#

these r"#s easy to ac"ire ras#reen, 2011&

La's an policies are mae to help eep the p"$lic safe ho'ever, colle#e

st"ents have al'ays vie'e themselves as some'hat ($"lletproof) an mi#ht $e

escri$e as thinin# they are a$ove the la' or the la' oes not apply& The iea the la'

is not fair an maes no sense also can $e a e*planation for 'hy colle#e st"ents $ypass

the la' an contin"e 'ith the ille#al activity&

Public Policy *a$ and Regulations

There are n"mero"s meications that are prescri$e to ai ADHD, an these

meications are cate#ori?e as %-.. meications& This means that these partic"lar

s"$stances (have a hi#h potential for a$"se 'ith severe psycholo#ical or physical

epenence) >niversity of Corth %arolina, 2012& Geeral la' manates that a octor

m"st prescri$e ADHD meications an no refills are permitte& 3rescriptions last "p to

:0 ays an a ate to receive another s"pply of the meication can $e o$serve on the

la$el >niversity of Corth %arolina, 2012& Also, other personal information a$o"t the

patient an prescription are provie& Aerall is one stim"lant that is commonly

prescri$e for attention eficit/hyperactivity isorer& The res"lt of possessin# even a

small amo"nt of this meication 'itho"t a prescription can res"lt in penalties or even Bail

time& .f ca"#ht sellin# s"ch r"#s, one can $e char#e 'ith a felony an #oes a#ainst

policies set $y "niversities Johnson, 2011&

The factors as to 'hy colle#e st"ents a$"se ADHD stim"lants an ho' they are

a$le to #ain access to these prescription r"#s are e*tremely tellin#& .f researchers are

a$le to tar#et ho' st"ents are #ettin# the meications an 'hat the $enefits are of tain#

the pharmace"ticals, the iss"e 'ith attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer prescriptions

$ein# mis"se co"l $e improve&


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Predisposing )nabling and Reinforcing +actors

Dr"# a$"se, partic"larly in the colle#e-a#e pop"lation, is a complicate s"$Bect

'ith n"mero"s aspects& !pecifically, there are three istinct types of factors that

infl"ence this type of r"# $ehaviorK preisposin# factors, ena$lin# factors, an

reinforcin# factors& 3reisposin# factors precee the act"al $ehavior, 'hich can $e any

e*tent of no'le#e, attit"es, $eliefs, or motivation& Altho"#h these factors can iffer

from inivi"al to inivi"al, there are a fe' specific preisposin# factors or motivations

that seem to overlap& ne st"y that ranomly sample ro"#hly :,000 colle#e st"ents

fo"n there 'ere a$o"t fo"r reasons 'hy colle#e st"ents a$"se ADHD stim"lants& ne

of the reasons, 'hich has $een seen as a stron# eterminant of stim"lant a$"se, 'as that

the attention eficit/hyperactivity isorer meication helpe st"ents to concentrate& A

secon reason provie $y the sample "ner#ra"ates 'as that st"ents 'ere a$le to $e

more alert& T'o aitional reasons that 'ere provie from the st"y 'ere that the

stim"lants 'o"l co"nteract other r"#s an st"ents 'ere also a$le to o$tain a hi#h

Teter, ;c%a$e, %ranfor, +oy, "thrie, 2009& @na$lin# factors, in the most $asic

form, are the accessi$ility to facilitate the act"al $ehavior& +et'een fo"r an ten percent

of hi#h school a#e to colle#e a#e st"ents are ia#nose 'ith attention

eficit/hyperactivity isorer reyan"s& Access to ADHD stim"lants can come from

st"ents 'ith prescriptions, s"ch as the fo"r to ten percent state earlier, 'ho sell their

pills for e*tra money& Also, one article state, (;any st"ents amit to act"ally seein#

octors an p"rposef"lly e*a##eratin# symptoms of ADHD to ac"ire meication)

Jenins, 200I& einforcin# factors, 'hich provie a partic"lar type of fee$ac s"ch as

a re'ar, 'ere fo"n to $e st"yin# or receivin# a partic"lar acaemic #rae an

acceptance $y a social #ro"p at a party or some other social interaction Teter et al&,

2009& These three types of factors contri$"te to the "nerstanin# of 'hy st"ents tae

the ris of a$"sin# ADHD stim"lants& The preisposin# factors s"ch as 'antin# to stay

alert an have increase concentration lea st"ents to ac"ire the ADHD meications,

'hich are cate#ori?e as an ena$lin# factor& The ris is seen as ('orth it) to st"ents

$eca"se of the reinforcin# factors s"ch as receivin# hi#h acaemic mars from their

"niversity& The conse"ence of the reinforcin# factors allo's st"ents to contin"e 'ith


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the cycle $eca"se st"ents receive #oo #raes from tain# ADHD meications, s"ch as

Aerall, st"ents 'ant to o it a#ain an still have the access to the prescriptions&

The social ecolo#ical moel provies a vis"al as to the ifferent areas an

infl"ences that colle#e st"ents are $ein# affecte $y& While moels are e*tremely

helpf"l in $ein# a$le to act"ally see the factors in "estion, theories are a$le to e*plain

reasons or sho' correlations $et'een colle#e st"ents an the mis"se of ADHD

meication&

Theory of Reasoned "ction and Theory of Planned Behavior

esearchers an scientists to fin a specific correlation $et'een a person5s

attit"e an that person5s $ehavior "se the Theory of easone Action an Theory of


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3lanne +ehavior& The moel for these cohesive theories is e*tensive an provies many

constr"cts that m"st $e st"ie& The "se of ADHD stim"lants as st"y ais is a pro$lem

in the colle#e pop"lation an scientists are t"rnin# to these partic"lar theories to

"nerstan the conscio"s an "nconscio"s reasons for 'hy st"ents t"rn to these

partic"lar r"#s& ne st"y one on a sample of colle#e st"ents foc"se on sensation-

seein# characteristics an a partic"lar constr"ct of the TA/T3+K perceive

harmf"lness& The researchers 'ho con"cte this st"y 'ante to fin a correlation

$et'een characteristics "$$e sensation-seein# an 'hether these partic"lar traits

infl"ence perception an also $eca"se there has not $een another st"y one to reveal a

correlation of this nat"re Arria, %aleira, incent, 5ray, Wish, 2006& The iea

that inivi"als 'ho see an#ero"s activities are less liely to see r"# a$"se as a

serio"s iss"e $"t a potential thrill-seein# event& "estions "sin# ;TG s"rveys 'ere

"se to etermine the level of perceive harmf"lness hi#h or lo' of a$"sin#

nonprescription stim"lants Arria et al&, 2006$& @*planations an efinitions 'ere also

provie to help the participants have a clear "nerstanin# of 'hat 'as $ein# ase

Arria et al&, 2006$& To meas"re perceive harmf"lness, participants of the s"rvey 'ere

ase, (Ho' m"ch o yo" thin people ris harmin# themselves physically or in other

'ays if they tae Mr"#N occasionally nonmeicallyO) Arria et al, 2006$& The res"lts

in the st"y sho'e that


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$etter on school'or in a short amo"nt of time 'itho"t harm is e*presse& Also, (losin#

'ei#ht 'as another motivation ientifie $y "ner#ra"ate st"ents) 'ho mis"se

meications s"ch as ADHD stim"lants all"cci, 2011& .t 'as also fo"n that st"ents

'ho amit to a$"sin# these meications ha the no'le#e of this mis"se $ein# ille#al

$"t 'ere not so foc"se on this or the possi$le conse"ences of their health in relation to

stim"lant "se all"cci, 2011& "estions in this st"y aresse (11 items assessin#

attit"es, 10 assessin# s"$Bective norms, an < items relate to perceive $ehavioral

control) an a ran#e from -7 to P7 'as "se as meas"rement all"cci, 2011& verall,

the theories of easone Action an 3lanne +ehavior help researchers "nerstan the

"nerlyin# reasons as to 'hy colle#e st"ents a$"se attention-eficit/hyperactive isorer

meications&

Theory of easone Action an Theory of 3lanne +ehavior

Theory of Triadic 'nfluence

The theory of triaic infl"ence is characteri?e as a meta-theory this means it is

compose of constr"cts from n"mero"s other theories& These theories incl"e the theory

of planne $ehavior, e*pectancy-val"e theory, an social co#nitive theory +avarian,

Glay, =etcham, !mit, =oama, ;artin, !alt?, 2014& The frame'or for this theory is

compose of infl"ences on self-efficacy, $ehavioral norms, an attit"es to'ar certain

$ehaviors +avarian et al&, 2014& The p"rpose of this st"y 'as to preict the mis"se of

ADHD stim"lants in colle#e st"ents an test the theory of triaic infl"ence in relation to

this r"# mis"se +avarian et al&, 2014& To st"y this theory, scientists emaile ro"#hly


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190 "ner#ra"ate classes at a p"$lic "niversity in %alifornia +avarian et al&, 2014& A

"estionnaire incl"e items relate to $oth infl"ence an ca"sation 'ith respect to the

theory of triaic infl"ence +avarian et al&, 2014& To st"y intrapersonal factors,

researchers ase "estions associate 'ith sensation-seein#, ADHD, st"y ha$its,

acaemic concerns, an avoiance of self-efficacy +avarian et al&, 2014& The c"lt"re

an environment 'as "estione $y st"yin# if st"ents 'ere associate 'ith reli#ion

an 'hat the r"# c"lt"re 'as on camp"s +avarian et al&, 2014& .ntentions an irect

r"# $ehavior 'ere also "estione in the s"rvey to etermine the infl"ences on stim"lant

mis"se in colle#e st"ents& ;eas"rements of the st"y 'ere one $y 'ay of a 1 to 9

scales, 'hereas 1 meant the inivi"al stron#ly isa#ree 'ith the statement& The res"lts

of the st"y reveale that (appro*imately 168 of st"ents reporte en#a#in# in .>3!

illicit "se of prescription stim"lants "rin# colle#e, an the istri$"tion for the

fre"ency of "se 'as positively se'e) +avarian et al&, 2014& These statistics inicate

that there is a correlation $et'een stron# infl"ences on the st"ents, $oth intrapersonal

an interpersonal, an the mis"se of prescription stim"lants& Cot only oes this partic"lar

theory foc"s on the infl"ences on a health $ehavior, $"t level of ca"sation is also st"ie

+avarian et al&, 2014& This theory also stresses that (an inepenent varia$le 'ill $e

associate not only 'ith meas"res in its o'n stream, $"t also 'ith meas"res in the t'o

aitional streams cross stream) +avarian et al&, 2014& The st"y fo"n that lo'er

concern 'ith #raes an acaemics 'ere correlate to hi#her sensation-seein# attit"es

in the inivi"al +avarian et al&, 2014& esearchers also iscovere that the social

sit"ation stream 'as #reatly associate 'ith inivi"als 'ho s"ffere from an ADHD-

lie symptomolo#y +avarian et al&, 2014& This st"y reveale helpf"l notions on ho'

to con"ct prevention efforts for the mis"se of prescription stim"lants in the colle#e-a#e

pop"lation& Tar#et areas for preventin# this .>3! in colle#e st"ents are $ehavioral

norms, attit"es to'ar the stim"lant mis"se, an avoiance of self-efficacy +avarian et

al&, 2014&


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Lott 1<

Theory of Triaic .nfl"ence

Theories are very helpf"l in eterminin# relationships $et'een ifferent aspects

of st"ents5 personal lives an the comm"nity that is infl"encin# them& All of the

theories, factors, moels, relationships, an st"ies can $e com$ine to ai in the

evelopment of interventions& With these interventions, scientists 'ill $e a$le to $etter

"nerstan 'hy colle#e st"ents a$"se ADHD meications an they 'ill $e $etter

e"ippe in solvin# the pro$lem&

'ntervention Plan

.n recent years, more an more of the pop"lation is $ein# ia#nose 'ith

attention-eficit/hyperactivity isorer, 'hich res"lts in $ein# prescri$e stim"lants to

help treat the conition& >nfort"nately, 'ith the increase of ADHD ia#noses comes the

increase cases of mis"se an a$"se of these prescription stim"lants& ;ost nota$ly, the

colle#e pop"lation is s"fferin# from this iss"e& !t"ents are "sin# these meications as

(st"y r"#s) 'itho"t necessarily reali?in# the harmf"l effects& The role of scientists an


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Lott 1I

researchers in this nation'ie iss"e is to evise interventions an strate#ies to hiner the

a$"se of ADHD stim"lants& The first step for evelopin# a strate#y to help iminish the

#ro'in# iss"e is to efine the a$"se of the ADHD pharmace"ticals reyan"s& This

a$"se can $e characteri?e $y not havin# a prescription for the partic"lar meication or

"sin# it $eyon 'hat the prescription la$el states& Also, o$servation of prevalence 'ill

help to etermine 'hat type of intervention or on 'hat scale the intervention m"st $e

evelopin#& (Conmeical "se of prescription meications represents the secon most

common form of illicit r"# "se in the colle#e pop"lation) reyan"s& A st"y one in

2002 sho'e similar res"lts, $"t note that males are more liely to mis"se prescription

stim"lants than females reyan"s&

Altho"#h this stim"lant a$"se pro$lem has eviently increase in the pop"lation

more recently, interventions or strate#ies have $een esta$lishe in the past& The theory of

reasone action an theory of planne $ehavior have $oth $een "se to pinpoint a

correlation $et'een the attit"es an $ehavior of a person& These theories also elve into

the perception of prescription stim"lants $y colle#e-a#e st"ents& This is ey in tryin#

to eter colle#e st"ents from t"rnin# to ADHD stim"lants for a (st"y r"#&) +eca"se

scientists have etermine that many st"ents "se ADHD meications ille#ally to st"y

for e*tene amo"nts of time, researchers are $etter e"ippe at taclin# the iss"e of this

partic"lar type of r"# a$"se& The preisposin#, ena$lin#, an reinforcin# factors are

also items scientists loo at to help evelop strate#ies to eliminate the r"# pro$lem

associate 'ith colle#e st"ents& The preisposin# factors or motivations that 'ere

sho'n in colle#e st"ents 'ho a$"se prescription stim"lants 'as to help 'ith

concentration, attain a hi#h, $e more alert, an co"nteraction of other r"#s Teter et al&,

2009& The accessi$ility of r"#s is e*tremely pertinent as 'ell as the reinforcin# factors&

+eca"se ro"#hly fo"r to ten percent of hi#h school a#e an colle#e a#e st"ents are

ia#nose as havin# attention eficit/hyperactivity isorer, st"ents are more capa$le of

ac"irin# the r"#s reyann"s& The reinforcements for this type of $ehavior 'o"l $e

the acaemic #raes res"ltin# from st"ents "sin# the ADHD pharmace"ticals Teter et

al&, 2009&

The constr"ction of a strate#y as an intervention for ADHD stim"lant a$"se in

colle#e st"ents can $e a very complicate process "e to n"mero"s factors amon#st


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Lott 16

ifferin# inivi"als& Ho'ever, it is al'ays #oo to (try a han) at re"cin# the iss"e&

!ome areas of the social ecolo#ical moel that . thin 'o"l $e most helpf"l at tar#etin#

'o"l $e the interpersonal an intrapersonal levels& These re#ions foc"s on the

no'le#e, attit"es, an $eliefs of the inivi"al an they also foc"s on the

relationships these inivi"als have 'ith friens an family& .f colle#e st"ents ne'

'hat act"ally happens to inivi"als 'ho "se prescription stim"lants $"t are not

ia#nose 'ith ADHD, . thin st"ents 'o"l $e less liely to tae the meication& .

thin may$e ain# a section a$o"t the effects of s"ch r"#s on the h"man $oy to the

e"cation classes a$o"t alcohol co"l help #et that information to the st"ents& .f the

iea that tain# prescription stim"lants helps improves #raes si#nificantly 'as no lon#er

reinforcement, colle#e st"ents 'o"l most liely $e incline to cease the "se of ADHD

pharmace"ticals& The com$ination of o"tsie relationships p"ttin# less press"re on

inivi"als a$o"t #raes an create more of a social sti#ma #eare to'ars the mis"se

of stim"lants, . $elieve a ecline co"l $e seen in the research for this #ro'in# pro$lem&

Tar#etin# the preisposin#, ena$lin#, an reinforcin# factors for this type of $ehavior

co"l also ai in the elimination of ADHD stim"lant mis"se an a$"se& The com$ination

of "sin# previo"s theories s"ch as the theory of reasone action an theory of planne

$ehavior, looin# at preisposin#, ena$lin#, an reinforcin# factors, as 'ell as e*aminin#

certain levels of the social ecolo#ical moel 'o"l help to ecrease the ever-#ro'in#

statistics on stim"lant mis"se in colle#e st"ents&


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Lott 1:

Wors %ite

Aiction Treatment in Dr"# A$"se 2017, Covem$er 2:& Deterring college

students from stimulant, study drug abuse& etrieve from

httpK//'''&aictiontreatmentma#a?ine&com/aiction/r"#-a$"se/eterrin#-

colle#e-st"ents-from-stim"lant-st"y-r"#-a$"se/

Anerson, &, +"#ayev, 3&, aet?, &, "#lielmina, %&, =ire#aar, =&, si*th a"thor&

200:, Decem$er 16& Peer and parental support among college students&

etrieve from httpK//'p&stolaf&e"/sociolo#y/peer-an-parental-s"pport-amon#-

colle#e-st"ents/

Arria, A& ;&, %aleira, =& ;&, 5ray, =& @&, incent, =& +&, Johnson, @& 3&, Wish, @&

D& 2006, Ge$r"ary& Conmeical "se of prescription stim"lants amon# colle#e

st"entsK associations 'ith ADHD an polyr"# "se& Pharmacotherapy, 282&

19


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De!antis, A& D&, Anthony, =& @&, %ohen, @& L& 2017, !eptem$er 2:& .lle#al colle#e

ADHD stim"lant istri$"torsK characteristics an potential areas of intervention&

Substance %se & 'isuse, (8niversity of Ala$ama,

Ala$am$a&

ras#reen, A& 2011, A"#"st 1:& *ho misuses prescription drugs& etrieve from

httpK//'''&insiehi#here&com/ne's/2011/06/1:/americanQpsycholo#icalQassoci

ationQpresentationQsho'sQho'QahQinfl"encesQprescriptionQr"#Qa$"se

reyann"s, D& @& !tim"lant mis"seK strate#ies to mana#e a #ro'in# pro$lem& %se

and 'isuse of Stimulants+ etrieve from

httpK//'''&acha&or#/%ontin"in#Q@"cation/ocs/A%HAQ>seQ;is"seQofQ!tim"l

antsQArticle2&pf

Hall, =& ;, .r'in, ;& ;&, +o'man, =& A&, Granen$er#er, W&, Je'ett, D& %& 2009,

Jan"ary 1& .llicit "se of prescri$e stim"lant meication amon# colle#e st"ents&

Journal of merican "ollege $ealth, 34& 1


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Jenins, =& 200I, April 1I& dderall- college students0 best friend/or .orst enemy1

etrieve from httpK//serenip&$rynma'r&e"/e*chan#e/noe/7


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Teter, %& J, ;c%a$e, !& @&, Laran#e, =&, %ranfor, J& A&, +oy, %& J& 200niversity of Corth %arolina 2012, J"ne 2I& DDD$D "/II medications policy &

procedure- %5" internal medicine clinic& etrieve from

httpK//'''oo#le&com/"rlO

saRtrctRBResrcRsso"rceR'e$cR7veR0%D6GBA%"rlRhttp87A

82G82G'''&me&"nc&e"82Gim82Gstaff82Gclinic82Gfiles82Gah-policy-

an-proce"re-0.>-

TTAor"eD4D#+A"s#RAGB%CG4c4'iT#I7QelcT2+rr+'-

%A$vmR$v&

ADHD Stimulant Abuse in College Students

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