ADDEY Unknowable Names in Theurgic Ritual

8/18/2019 ADDEY Unknowable Names in Theurgic Ritual

1/16

CHAPTER

FOURTEEN

ASSUMING

THE

MANTTE

OF

THE

GODS:

.UNKNOWABLE

NAMES'

AND INVOCATIONS

IN

LATE

ANTIQUE

THEURGIC

RITUAL

Cnvsr¡,r

Aor¡v

I

am the

hearing

that

is attainable

to everything;

I am

the

speech

that cannot be grasped.

Thunder Perfect Mindl

The

use

of

'unknowable'or

so

called'meaningless'names

and strings of

vowels

(voces

magicae) is well

attested

within

ritual invocations

found

in religious,

magical, and theurgic late

antique texts. For

example,

many

such

names

and

vowel-strings

are

found

in

the magical handbooks dis-

covered in Egypt and now

known

under the name

of the

Greek

Magi-

cal Papyri.2 The

vowel-strings are a written record

of

a

sound

sequence,

while

the

names

are strange

words which do not

have

any

obvious mean-

ing.

These names

were

often referred

to as onomatabarbara,'non-Greek

names/wordsl

Both were spoken

or

uttered

within

ritual

contexts,

as

well as being inscribed upon

cult statues

and

other

ritual paraphernalia.3

1

Robinson GSZZ)

ZZ.I

wish

to

thank

all

speakers

and

participants

at the Eighth

Biennial Conference on Orality and Literacy in the Ancient

World: Orality, Literacy

and

Religion,

held

at the University of Nijimegen, z-6

luly

2oo8, at

which this

paper

was

originally presented,

for

their

valuable feedback

and discussion. I also wish

to thank

the organizers of the conference, André Lardinois,

fosine

Blok

and Marc van

der

Poel,

for their warm

and

generous hospitality

and for

providing

such pleasant

and congenial

surroundings for the conference. I

wish

to

express my warmest thanks and gratitude

to

my supervisor,

Gillian Clark

for reading

and commenting on drafts of this

chapter.

I

also

wish

to thank all

participants

at the seminar

on'famblichos:

His

Sources and Influence,'

held at the Irish Institute

of

Hellenic

Studies, Athens, at which a

draft of this

paper

was

presented.

2 Cf

.

for

example,

PGM

lY.glo;

96o-965

Xlll.76z-772;

XIII.88o-886;

ed. Preisen-

danz

(t928-t93r).

All

quotations

from the PGM are from this edition,

unless otherwise

stated.

3

Forexample,theEphesiagrammata,aparficularsetofmysticlettersorunknowable

names,

were allegedly incised

on

the

famous

cult

statue of

Artemis

of Ephesus and were

often used in

apotropaic

rituals,

both verbally and as parts

of

inscribed texts.

A

story


2/16


3/16

.UNKNOWABLE

NAMES'IN

LATE ANTIQUE

THEURGIC

RITUAL

28I

the

third century

cr.8

However,

it must

be noted

that,

as

a Neoplaton-

ist philosopher, Iamblichus

was

situated

within

a

very

specific

tradition

of

philosophical

thought

and

so is

clearly not

immediately

representative

of

a

wider,

popular

view

of late

antique

ritual

in

a

more general

sense.

I

will use

lamblichus'

discussion

in

order to explore

the

subtle interplay

between language

and

oral performance

which is reflected

in the

use

of

'unknowable'

names

within

theurgy.

I

will also

briefly

discuss

some

par-

allels with

the

use

of

'unknowabld

names

within

some

wider

ritual

con-

texts

(chiefly

attested

within

the

PGM)

within

the religious

and

cultural

milieu

of late antiquitF.e

The'UnknowableNames':

Secret Names

of the

Gods

The

use

of

'unknowable

names'within

the ritual practices

oflate

antiquity

has

often been overlooked

by scholars; those

scholars

who

have

examined

them have generally

treated such ritual

uses

of language

not

only as

nonsensical,

but as compulsive, mechanical

and

egotistic in

that

it

is

generally viewed

as

presuming

to summon, and

sometimes

even to

compel by force,

divine

presence

into

the human

world.rO

I

will

argue

that the

use

of the

names

was

not always

considered

coercive,

and

was

not'a

misguided

attempt to define the undefinablel

Within

a

theurgic

context, Iamblichus'broadly

Platonic explanation

of this ritual language

delineates

the

names

as

verbal

forms

of

communication

with the

divine,

given

by the

gods.

Porphyry

had raised the

obvious objection

to this:

these strings

of

sound

are

meaningless

(cíor¡po).

They

are

not

language,

because

they do

not signifr,

they

are

literally

aséma;

they do

not

name

anything

and

they

8

Cf. Shaw

(rg9)

47-z4z

on

Iamblichus'

development of theurgic

Platonism. The

later Neoplatonist philosopher

Proclus

(c.4ro-c.485

cr) was the other major proponent

of theurgy

within

the

Neoplatonic tradition

whose

writings are extant. His

work is not

discussed in this chapter

due

to

space limitations.

e

ThischapterseekstodeveloptheresearchofCoxMiller(rq86)+8r-lo5.Acaveat

must

be mentioned here: I

do

not

wish to suggest that Iamblichus

would

necessarily have

approved

of or endorsed the

practices

attested within the PGM.

In fact, within

the De

mysteriís,Iamblichus frequently condemns the

use

of antagonistic magical

practices

by

the

goés,

the

magician:

see,

for

example, MysL

3,4 Q3t.4-t3z.z).

r0

Nock

(ry29)

1.176-194, who

describes the magical

practitioner

using

the spells in

the

Greek

Magical

Papyri as

'bften

as a

lien

on

a

god

rather

than as a means

of approach

to

him'

(r9o);

Festugiére(ry++)

283-3o9; Behm

(1964)

722-723;

Dilon

(rq8t)

2o4;2r4i

(zoo7)

4o.


4/16

282 CRYSTAL

ADDEY

do

not communicate.ll Iamblichus

replies

that they are

not'meaninglessl

but unknowable

to human beings, although they can become

known by

certain humans who

have the

potential

to receive

their explanations

from

the

gods.l2

He

continues, setting

forth

his

view

of the'names':

...

roi5

péwor,

üeoig

ndvro

oqpcvtlxá éotlv oú

xotd

Qqtóv

tgóruov,

oóó'oíóg éorr,v

é 6Lo róv

povtaolóv nog'dvrlqóno6

or¡pcvtlxóg

re xal

prlvutr,xóg,

&1.),' iiror,

voegóg

[zorc

tóv

r]eiov

cúróv

d,vr]póner,ov

voúv]

il

xcrl áqr}éproE xai,

xqewróvog

xcri á,nl"ouotÉgo4

[xai]

xotcr voúv toiE

rleoig ouvr¡vor¡révog'

dqotqeiv

pév

oüv

1gi¡

ruáocrE

énlvoiag xai,

l,oyr,xaE

ór.eEó6oug

á,¡ó róv üeíov óvo¡"rtittrw,

á,qa,r,geiv Eé

xai.

tdE

oupcpuo¡révog

r{E

grovflg

ngóE ta év

rfr

qúoer

nqcy¡.tcto

quor.t+aE

ánerxctoicg.

. ..

but

to

the

gods they are all significant,

not

according

to an efable mode,

nor in

such

as

way that

is significant and

indicative

to

the

imaginations

of human

beings,

but

united

to

the

gods

either intellectually

or

rather

ineffably, and

in

a

manner superior and

more simple than

in

accordance

with intellect. It

is

essential, therefore,

to

remove all considerations oflogic

from

the

names

ofthe

gods, and to set

aside the natural

representations

of

the spoken

word

to the physical things

that

exist in nature.l3

Here

we

see that within a

theurgic

context the

'unknowable

names'were

considered to

be

the

secret

names

of the

gods.

That

is,

they do name the

gods

but

not in

the way that ordinary

words

name

things.

This accords

with the fact that where

scholars

have been able to decipher

extant

ono-

matabarbarain

ancient

texts,

they

seem

to

be

names of

divinities in

Near

Eastern or Egyptian

languages.la

Iamblichus'explanation draws on

Pla-

tonic

philosophy:

the Neoplatonists

posited

a hierarchical,

metaphysical

structure of the

cosmos,

with the

gods

placed

near the summit of this

hierarchy and

successive

levels of

reality

consisting

of Intellect

(voúg)

and

Soul.rs

Each ontological level

of

reality is inherent

in

the

preced-

ing levels because it is caused by them.16

The'unknowable'

names

oper-

ate

on a high level of this hierarchical schema-they

are

united

with

the

gods

in

the

divine

realm

and

are

superior to

all

human knowledge.

How-

ever, rather than being irrational

they

were thought by Iamblichus to be

rr

Iambl. IWst.

z.+

(254.1-n).

12

Iambl. Myst.7.4(25+.tz-zls.t); r.rS

(+8.+-8).

Cf. Shaw(r.995) r8o.

13

Iambl. Ivtyst.

Z.+

QSS.I-Z).

ra

Cf.

Graf(r99r)

r9u

Shaw

(rqgs)

r8z; Struck

(zoo4)

zo6-2o7,

t5

Cf.

Dillon

(1985)

zro;

Struck

(zoo4)

2o7-2o9.

16

For

the clearest elucidation of this

principle in

Neoplatonic metaphysics see Procl.

Elements

of

Theology,

Proposition r8;

Proposition

7, ed.

Dodds

(rgf¡).

Cf.

also

Iambl.

lvlyst.

3.zo

(

r+8.+-S);

5.zo

(zz7.r

3

*

zz8.z).


5/16

.UNKNOWABLE

NAMES'IN

LATE

ANTIQUE

THEURGIC

RITUAL

283

supra-

rational,

placed above

the

rational;

transcending

logic

rather

than

lacking

it. Iamblichus

explains

this

supra-rational

basis

for'unknowabld

names:

"Ooneg

Eé

éotr.

voegóg

xcrl

Seiog

tilg

rgeictg épolótr¡rog..

ou¡pohxóg

1*go*i4q,

roúrov

ú¡orgerÉov

év

roig

óvópcrolv.

Kci

6rl

x&v

ciyvtrlotoE

tlU¡n

,i"¿qxn,

aútó

toútó

éotlv

oú¡oÚ

tó

oe¡rvótatov'

xgeírtov

1óg

éotr.v

fi

óote

6nqelorlor,

eiE

yvÓolv.

Thus,

the symbolic

character

of

divine

similitude,

which

is

intellectual

and

divine,

has

to

be assumed

in the

names.

And

indeed

if it

is unknowable

to

us,

this

very

fact

is

its

most sacred

aspect:

for it

is too

excellent

to

be

divided

into

knowledge. [mY italics]17

Thus,

Iamblichus

argues

that

the

names

do

signify

and

communicate,

but

in a way

that

is

appropriate

for

the

gods.

supra-rational

vision

was

thought

to

represent

complete

vision

of

reality,

on

the

ontological

level

(hyfostasis)

of

Intellect

(voÚg),

before

it

is divided

into

logical

statemenis.ls

This

divine

language

is non-discursive,

paradoxical

and

enigmatic;

it cannot

be

reduced

to

logical

propositions

or statements.

ThJ

paradoxical

character

of

the

names

has been

shown

by

Patricia

Cox

ivtiller, who

has suggested

that the

voces

magicae

were

intended to

transcend

not

only

writing

but

speech

itself'le

In

the

statement

above,

Iamblichus

maintains

that

the

divine

names

have

a symbolic

character.

The

word

symbolon,

which

is the

origin

of

orr,

-oá"r'

term

'symboll

was

used

by

Neoplatonist

philosophers

in

a

very

different

way

than

the

modern

term,

which

has connotations

of

metaphor

and

superficial

likeness.2O

For

the

Neoplatonists,

symbola

ate

.urr"d

by

and

linked

ontologically

with

the

divine

realm:

according

to

them,

thlre

are chains

of

qualities

and

properties

which

extend

from

the

gods

through

each

ontological

grade

of

reality

right

down

into

the

phyical

worldl

Symbola

are

the

visible

imprints

of

such

chains

as

they

ur"

""pr.rr"d

in

ihe

manifested

cosmos.

So,

specific

hgrb¡,

stones

and

plants,

for

example,

were

thought

to

be

symbola

of

specific

deities,

linked

17

lambl.

Iúst'

l.+

@ss.l

-n)'

18

In

other'woiar,

r,rprá-."tional

vision

is

vision

on

the

level

(hypostasis)

of

No¡¿s

(lnteliect).

Struck

(zoo4f

zo8,

describes

Nor¡s:

"The

divine

mind

[voúg]

thinks

without

need

for limits

or

categories

or

sequential strings

of

logic.

It

remains

perfectly still;

it

thinks

and

knows

evir¡hing

all at

oncel'

For a

similar

view

of

ritual

language

as

."."piiri"g;"tterances

filled

witf,

power'

rathe-r-than

discursive

language

which

uses

logic

and

argum"entation,cf.

Corpus

Hérmeticum

XVI'z;

ed'

Scott

(1993)'

re

Cox

Miller

(rq86)

+go.

20

Cf.

Struck

(zoo4)

zo4.


6/16

284 CRYSTAL

ADDEY

to their divine

cause

and thus

used

within

ritual to invoke the divinity

through sympathetic

similarity

(

ou

¡rnórler,a).

"

The'unknowable

names'

were also

considered

tobe

symbola

which

manifest divinity in

the physi-

cal cosmos:

we hear from

other Neoplatonists

that theywere

either

writ-

ten

down

(r)éor,E)

or

uttered

(Éxcpóvr¡or.g)

within

theurgic

ritual.22 These

words had to be correctly

pronounced within the

ritual:

some

evidence

seems

to indicate that the correct

manner

of uttering them

was

a

pro-

fessional

secret

which

was

orally

transmitted.23

Thus,

it

seems

that the

'names'

were located

within

an oral

tradition.24

However, we

know

of

these'names'because

theywere written

down,

in

Greekletters,

within the

Greek

Magical

Papyri.It

may well

have been

considered

safe

to write the

names down,

because

to someone

without

the requisite

level

of under-

standing and

ritual purity,

they

would

seem

meaningless

(cor¡pcr)

and

the

correct methods of pronunciation

and utterance

would

remain

obscure

and

unknown.

Debating

Categories

of Language:

Natural, Conventional

or Divine?

Iamblichus

denies that the

'unknowable'

names

are

either

natural, in

the

sense

of

representing

physical

or

natural objects,

or

conventional,

in

the

sense

of being

invented

by man

and

agreed

upon

among

human

participants of

society.25

Porphyry

had asked Iamblichus,

'But

a

listener

looks to the

meaning,

so surely

all that

matters is that the conception

remains the

same,

whatever the

kind of

words used'

(Al.l.

é &xoÚolv

2r

Cf. Shaw(r995)

úz-zz8;

Struck(zoo4)

2ro-2r3.

22

Procl.InTi.2.247.25;

ed.

Diehl

(r9o3-r9oó);

Porph. apud

Atgast

De civ.

D.

ro.rr;

ed. Greene

(196o);

cf.

Dodds

(

r95r) z9z-293;3o5n.74;lato-voitz(zooz)

59;

Struck

(zoo4)

zz5-226.

23

Mari:llts,Life

of

Proclus, z8; ed. Saffrey and

Segonds

(zoot);

Suida

s.v.

Xal.6otxoiE

énLr¡6eú¡rcor,; ed.

Adler

(r93r).

Cf.

Psellus, Eplsf.

r87, in Dodds

(r95r)

3o5

n.

75,

where

we

learn

that certain

formulae

are

inoperative

ei

¡rq

trE

tcrútcr

Égei

únorfré?tkp

{

ylóoo¡

il

érépoE óE r] réXvr¡

brsróttercr.

2a

It is

noticeable that Iamblichus does

not record the'unknowable names'

(onomata

barbara) themselves in

writing anyr,vhere

within

the De mysteriis, despite

his lengthy

discussion of

their

meaning, significance and operation wiüin

ritual

contexts. To the

best of my knowledge, no other Neoplatonist

records the

'unknowable

names'

in writing

either, even

during sustained discussions of

their

operation and functions. Cf. Shaw

(1995)

r83.

25

The

debate as

to whether words

(and

language

in general) were natural or conven-

tional originated

in

Plato's

Cratylus and

was

developed by Stoic

philosophers, who

influ-

enced the later

Neoplatonic

approach.

Cf.

Dillon

Q98)

zo7-2o8.


7/16

.UNKNowABLE

NAMES,

IN

LATE

ANTIQUE THEURGIC

RITUAL

285

...

fiQóE

rc

oq¡rcr,vópevo

ógogf,,

óore

oúrógxr¡g rl

oútq

¡révouoo

éwolcl,

xciv é¡rorovoüv

únog1¡

roüvo¡ro).26

This implies

several ideas

about

language: words

are

established by convention and

are

therefore

translatable; different

words

can

preserve

the

same

meaning irrespective

of the

language

that

they are

spoken

in.27

Iamblichus replies

that words

are

not merely

established

by

convention

but

are idiomatic:28

oú6é

ydg

núwog ri¡v

crúri¡v

8laoófel

8rávorov

perSeq¡rr¡veuó¡reva

to,

óvópata, d1.1,' éoorlvcr xsü'

Ézootov érlvog i6r,ó¡.lota,

d8úvata eiE dl.l.o

éüvog Ela

qt,tvqs

or¡¡roíveorgcn'

é¡erto

x&v

ei

oióv re

aúta

peüeqpr¡veú-

er.v, &irtra

m¡v

ye

búvcrplv oúzétr,

qutrame

r, d¡v

crútrjv'

é1er.6d xai

tc

pág-

paqa

óvó¡rcrta

rotrtri¡v

¡rév

épqaorv

ruo),}.i¡v

6é

ouwopíav,

&ppr.po)'.ícg

re é}"ówovoE

¡leréo14xe

xcri

nor.xr,l.íaE

xal roú

ruIr¡üouE tóv

l,éEeolv'

6r.a

¡rúvra

Ei¡ oóv

tc,itcr

ouvc,g¡ró[et

roiE xgeíttootv.

For the

names

do

not exactly

preserve

the same

meaning

when

they

are translated;

rather, there are

certain idioms

in

every

nation

that

are

impossible to express in the

language

of

another. Moreover,

even if one

were to translate

them, this would

not

preserve

their same

power. For

the

barbarian

names possess weightiness and

great

precision, participating

in

less ambiguity,

variability

and

multiplicity of

expression.

For

all

these

reasons,

then, they

are

adapted

to

the

superior

beings.2e

According to lamblichus,

the idiomatic

nature of

language is

based

on

its relationship

to

'real

beingl

The

languages

of some

peoples

are

better

formulated

so as to express and

describe

truth.

This

explains

Iamblichus'

claim that the

barbarian

names

are

more accurate and

precise in their

expression

of

reality.30

If

they

were translated,

'this

would

not preserve

26

Iambl. NUst.Z.SQ57.rz).Struck(zoo4)zo6notesthatthispointseemstorelyon

the

vision

oflanguage

that Aristotle

articulates

in

the De interpretatíone,

which

posits

that words are

conventional

signs ofaffections

ofthe soul, which

are impressions on the

soul

made by things out

in the world. Languages

differ

from one race to another, but

the

affections

themselves

are

the

same,

just

as the

reality that produces them

is

the

same

for

all races.

27

lambl.

AtIyst.

z.s Q57.r-z).

Porphyry's

view

here matches his argument

in

the

De

Abstinentia,where

he views language as

an agreed

set

ofrepresentative

noises

(based

on

convention),

arguing that we

might

even

understand

animals if we could

learn and trans-

late their language

Abst.,3.L5.2i

j.j.3-5i

ed.

Patillon and Segonds

(tgtZ-tgg).

Cf.

Clark

(tggg)

ttg-tz6;

Clarke,

Dillon and

Hershbell

(zooi

zgg, n.

389;

Struck

(

zoo4) zo6.

28

Iambl. IrÍyst.

z.s

Qsz.l-6).

2e

lambl.

Iúst.

z.s @s2.8-t+).

30

For

similar

claims of the accuracyand

precision

of the'unknowable

names' and the

ritual

language of the Egyptians and Chaldaeans

and for injunctions against translating

the

names

into other

languages, cf. Corpus

Hermeticum XVI.rb-z; Chaldaean Oracles

fr. r5o; ed.

Majercik

(r98g);

Dillon

(rg85)

zol;

2toi

2rr-212i Shaw

(1995)

r8o-r8r;

Struck

(zoo¿)

eo6.


8/16

286

CRYSTAL

ADDEY

their

same

power'

(rr]v

ye

EÚva¡.u,v

oúxftr,

pufuútrer,

ri¡v

crltr]v).3l

The

power

of

th"

names

lies

in their

distinctive

images,

sounds

and

in the

shape

ofthe

letters

or characters.

Iamblichus

has

just

endorsed

the

wisdom

of sacred

peoples,

such

as

the

Egyptians and

the

Assyrians, and

the

suitability

of

their

dialect

for

ritual-invocations.32

Iamblichus'

position

concurs

with

what

we

know

of

the

use

of

writing

in Egyptian

ieligious

practices.

As

Fran6urter

has

noted,

hieroglyphic

writing

represented

cultic,

priestly

speech¿nd

activ-

ities

since

its

Language

was

discontinuous

with

popularly

spoken

Egyp-

tian:

this

must

háve

endowed

hieroglyphic

script

with

a sacred

and

rit-

ualistic

qualrry

Furthermore,

the

pictographic

nature

of

hieroglyphic

writing

made'it

distinct

from

the

Greek

alphabet

of

phonetic

charac-

ters,

alihough

phonetic

writing

with

hieroglyphs

developed

from

the

pic-

tographic

iáages.3,

Consequentl¡

as

Frankfurter maintains, the hiero-

gfipfrt.

charac-ter

signified

the

word,

or

an entire

idea

or cosmic

fotce'34

il"r"for"

hieroglyphic

script

represented

the

ideal

medium

for

sympa-

theia,

since

each

hieroglyphic

character

conveyed

numerous'

concrete

meanings

which

were

all

expressions

of

a

cosmic

force.

That

is

to say'

hieroglfohic

writing

must

have

seemed

to

Neoplatonist

philosophers

to

be

a

more

accurate

reflection

of

higher

grades

of

reality.

The

earlier

Neo-

platonist

philosopher

Plotinus

states:

Aoxoúou

6é

por,

xcri.

oi

Aiyururic¡v

oocpoí

. .

.

neqi

óv

éBoÚl,ovro

6r,tr

ooqí,-

og

6rrxnúno,,,

¡rq

tÚnor,g

yqap¡r,órov

ómfio6eÚouot

l'óyoug

xai'

ngotúoetE

pr¡Oé

¡rr¡ro,

pévotg,p


9/16

.UNKNowABLE

NAMES'IN LATE

ANTIQUE THEURGIC

RITUAL

287

The wise men of

Egypt

... when

they wished to signify something

wisel¡

did

not

use the

forms of letters

which follow

the order of words and

propo-

sitions and

imitate

sounds and the

enunciations

of

philosophical

state-

ments,

but

by drawing

images

and inscribing in their temples

one

particu-

lar image of each

particular

thing, they

manifested

the

non-discursiveness

of the

intelligible world,

that

is,

that

every image is a kind

of

knowledge

and

wisdom

and

is

a

subject of

statements,

all

together in one, and

not

discourse or deliberation.3s

Hieroglyphs are

non-discursive

images,

reflecting

the

unity

of the

intelli-

gible

world: they

are

supra-rational

and show wisdom before

it

is

divided

into

discursive

thought.

Having

discussed

the metaphysics

ofthe

cosmos,

including

the

order

of the gods and

the

role

of

theurgy, Iamblichus

states:

'Yqr¡yr¡ocro

6É xal tcrútqv

rr¡v é6óv

'ESpiS'

flgprjveuoe 6é

Bítug

nqo-

qrjtqE A¡rporvr

pcror,l.ei

év dóútorg

eógóv

ávayeyqappévr¡v 3v [egoy].u-

grxoig

yqáp¡,raol

xata

)ór,v

tt¡v

év Ai.¡úntrp' tó te toú üeoú

óvopa

ncrqé-

óolze tó 6{xov 6t'6},ou

toú

xóopou'

Hermes also has

set out this

path;

and

the prophet

Bitys has

given an

interpretation of

it

to

King

Ammon, having

discovered

it inscribed

in

hieroglyphic characters

in

a sanctuary

in Sais in Egypt.

He has handed

down

the name of god,

which

extends

throughout

the

whole

cosmos

. .

.

36

The

idea

that

the name of

god

can

extend

throughout

the entire cosmos

is

only

possible when the name

is recorded

in

non-discursive

language

which

captures

the

supra-rational,

cosmic

force of the deity.

Ritual

Inv

o

cations:

Compulsiv

e, Mechanical

Commands

or Pious

Displays

of

Divine Power?

As noted

above, scholars have

generally treated

the'unknowable

names'

and

similar

ritual

uses

of

language as

compulsive,

mechanical and coer-

cive,

aiming

to summon,

and sometimes

to compel

by

force,

divine

pres-

ence

into

the human

world.37

t1r'e Greek

Magical Papyri rituals contain-

ing unknowable

names

are

often

accompanied

by

addresses to

gods to

tome ''guard ''save 'and

sometimes

include words such as

now now

quick quick '

Such

methods of

invocation could be

seen

as

pleas

or

requests.

However, they

have been

interpreted by

scholars

as

imperative

commands,

demonstrating

an

element

of

mechanical

compulsion.3s

This

3s

Plotinus, E¿n.5.8.6.r-9, ed. and

trs. Armstrong

(1984).

36

Iambl. Myst.8.5

Q67.tr-2683).

37

Cf. above

n.

9.

38

Struck

(zoo

4)

ztz-2r3.


10/16

288

CRYSTAL ADDEY

apparent

compulsion

is

often

assessed

negatively

by scholars.

Patricia

Cox

Miller has

offered

a re-assessment

of this compulsion

as

an expres-

sion

of iconoclastic

piety

and as

a

positive

form

of

the compulsive,

soul-

transforming,

enchanting

nature

of

language, originating

in

the archaic

shamanistic

tradition of

ancient

Greece

where words were

thought

to

charm,

enchant

and

persuade.3e

Iamblichus' explanation

of the

operation

of the

names

within

theurgic

ritual

suggests that

they were r¡of

considered

coercive,

at

least within

a

theurgic

context.

Indeed

Porphyry

had raised

just

this

issue with

Iambli-

chus,

who

responds:

oú

pi¡v

étr

ye

6í6opev ó

oÜ rugooéqqr,rf

ag

óE

épol"oyoÚptvov'

órl Er,'

f¡pÓv

éIxópevog

á,vdyxcrq

tctig

r{E

x},t¡oerog

taúta

é¡lte}''ei.

...

we do

not

accept

what you

toss

in

as

though

agreed

upon,

that

'it

is

through being

drawn down

to

us

by the

necessities

of

our invocation

that

the superior

being

accomplishes

these

things.'4o

In a

highly

Platonic

fashion, Iamblichus

refutes

this

claim

by appeal-

ing to the Neoplatonic

hierarchical

scheme

of

the

cosmos.

He

maintains

that

names and

rites do not work

through

compulsion,

since the

gods

are

superior to

necessity.al

Gods

are eternal

and

immortal, and

so can-

not

be

'moved'

or changed

from

one

state

to another.a2

Thus,

it would

be impossible

for

humans

to

comPel

the

gods. Rather,

he

claims,

the

invocations

and

names

ascend

to the

gods

through

assimilation.a3

Since

Iamblichus endorses

theurgy as

the

primary means

of spiritual,

divine

ascent, it seems

sensible

to begin

with

his explanation

of

theurgic

ritual:

3e

Cox

Miller

(rqS6)

+86-+q5,

states:'Running

through all

of these traditions

that

connect the word with

the charm

is an emphasis

on the

power or

forcefulness

of words.

Compulsion,

from their

perspective,

was

built

into the nature of

language

. .

.

from

the

perspective

ofthe

therapeutic, soul-transforming

word

that

we

have

just

discussed, the

compulsive

nature ofmagical nonsense

words

is not arrogant but

pious.

Such

language

is

both

the medium and the

message of stark reality.

It recognises

precisely the

diüne

power

ofwords,

and it uses language

in

accordance

with

languaged own

qualities.

Speaking

to the

gods

in

the

gods'

own

language,

the

alphabetical words

of the magical

papyri

expose the

inner forcefulness of human language

. .

.'

Qs+-+g).

This ancient tradition

connecting the word and the charm

as enchanting,

soul-transforming and

persuasive has

been named by the scholar

Lain Entralgo

(r97o)

as

the

'therapy

ofthe

wordi

ao

Iambl. Ir4yst.3.t8

(t+5.+-6).

ar

Iambl. ItÍyst.3.t8

(r+s.6-8;

r45.ro-r3);

z.tt

(g6.tl-gZ.ü.

a2

lambl.

tufyst. t.tt

$7t3-ú);

r.n

(4o.t5-4r.3);

r.r4

QS.+-6);

r.r5

(48.2-ro).

a3

Cf.

Iambl.

AÍyst.,

t.rr

(¡8.8-ro);

ttz

(4t.t3-42.4i 42.7-8); r.r3

(+¡.6-9);

r.r5

Qztt-+8.).


11/16

.UNKNOWABLE

NAMES'IN

LATE

ANTIQUE

THEURGIC

RITUAL

289

. . . tó

pév

óg ncrg'

dvügóntov

ngoooyó¡^levov,

6nep

6t¡

tr¡gei

xci

rttn

ttrt-

régav

rólw

óg

é1er.

gúoeog

év

tQ ¡qvrí,

ró

6é

xgotuvópevov

toiE üeiolE

ouvür¡paor,

xqi

dvol petéoqov 6t'

qótóv

roig xgeirroot

ouvcntó¡.tevov,

negr,ayópevóv

re éppel,óE éni

rr¡v éxeivo¡v

6r,oxóopt¡or,v, 6 ói¡

0úvctcn

ei-

xórory

xai

tó

tóv üeóv

o1fl¡rcr neglrirleoüct.

Kctc

ri¡v toLaútr¡v oúv

6lo-

goqnv eixóto4 xai

óE xqeírrovog

xcl,ei

toE á¡ó toú ncwó-E 6uvcrpeq,

xcrüóoov

éoriv

é

xatróv

d,vügrrlnog,

xcti

inwarrct

oútc1E

aóülg,

éner.Et¡

negfóIirercí

nog

6r,cr tóv &rogqritttrv

ou¡rBól'olv tó

iegau,xóv

tóv

rleóv

rgóo1r¡¡"rc.

... on

the

one hand,

it is performed

by

men, and as such observes

our

natural

rank

in

the

universe;

but

on the

other,

it

controls

divine symbols,

and

in

virtue

of

them is

raised

up

to

union

with

the

higher

powers'

and

directs

itself harmoniously

in accordance

with

their dispensation,

which

enables

it

quite properly

to assume

the

mantle

of

ihe gods.

It is

in virtue of

this distinction,

then,

that

the art both

naturally

invokes

the

powers

from

the

universe

as superiors,

inasmuch

as the

invoker

is

a

man,

and

yet on the other

hand

gives

them

orders, since

it

invests

itsell by

ürtue of

the ineffable

symbols,

with

the hieratic

role of the

gods.aa

Thus, ritual

acts

have

an

inherent

doublenessi

according

to

Iamblichus:

from

one

perspective,

they

are

performed

by humans.

Yet,

according

to

Iamblichus,

all

humans

have

a

divine

element

in

their

soul'as

Theurgic

ritual, by using'unknowable,

ineffable

symbola'

such

as the unknowable

names, activates

this

divine

element

of

the

human soul

allowing

the soul

to

'assume

the

mantle of

the gods'

(ró

tóv

rleóv o1fr¡"lo

negwirleorlcrr,).

The

ritual utterance

operates

as

a

powerful

speech-act:

enabling

the

human

to

assume

a

divine

role

by

ascending,

through

similarity,

to

the

divine.a6

Expression

and existence

are united

in such

a

conception:

word is

action.aT

Yet this

process

is

only

possible

because

of the

gods'

providential

and

beneficent

nature:

they

constantly

shed

their

divine

light

on

those

who

attain

insight

into

them.as

Iamblichus

specifies

that

the

human

soul

contains'images

of

the

gods':

aa

lambl.

IvIyst.4.z

(r84.2-ro).

as

Iambl. IvUst.

t.tz

(+r.g-r¡);

tts

(46.9-tz;47.6-gi

48.24).

a6

Shaw(1995)186-188;struck(zoo+)zrr,describestheverbalsymbolinlamblichus

as

follows:

'Like

the password of the

mysteries,

it

verifies

a

mortalt

fitness

to inhabit

a

higher

plane

ofreality

and

to receive the

divinel

17

Austin's

notions

of

performative utterances

and

'speech-acts'

seem

particularly

relevant

here. Cf.

Austin

Gg6z) 4-n.

as

Iambl.

IuIyst.

t.tz

(+r.:-s);

cf. also

r.rz

(4o.r4-4t".2;42.s-z);

r.r4

(44.8-rr);

r.r5

Qg.z-).


12/16

290 CRYSTAL

ADDEY

Kcri ém

&rlgócv rr¡v

pluotlxr1v

xal

&nóqqr¡rov eixóvcr

tóv

üeóv év

tfr

r¡ru1ff ór,crgul,urro¡rev,

xcl u¡v

Uuxrlv

6r,' aútóv

á,vó1opev

énl

toÜg

üeoúE,

xcl &va1üe[oav xata ró óuvotóv

toig

üeolg ouvúnto¡.lev.

And,

moreover, we

preserve

in

their

entirety the mystical and

hidden

images of the

gods

in our soul; and

we raise

our

soul up

through

these

towards the

gods and,

as

far

as

is possible,

when

it

has

been elevated,

we

experience union

with

the

gods.ae

It

seems then, that

the

'unknowable

names' are a

manifestation

of the

'hidden

images

of

the gods

in our

soul'

(&nógqr¡tov

eixóvc

tóv

üeóv

üv t{

{u1ff).

A

text

in

the Greek

Magical Papyri

uses

almost

identical

terminology,

referring to the

names

as'images

of

god'

(eíóol"c

üeóv);s0

the

same

text

invokes

a deity as

he

'whose

is the

hidden

and unspeak-

able

name

...

lwhich]

cannot be uttered

by

human

mouth'

(oé

éottv

tó

xqunróv

óvopc

xai

clggr¡tov

(Év

&vlrlqónou

otó¡rctr.

l.cl.r¡r9frvcrr,

oú 6úvatar)).s1

Rather

than

human ordering

divine, the'unknowable

names'

used

in ritual involve

a

process

whereby

the divine

communi-

cates with the

divine.52 Subject and

object

are dissolved

to

some

extent

in

Iamblichus'explanation.

However,

the

diüne still

maintains

its

transcen-

dence and

its causal superiority: in

Iamblichean metaphysics,

the

gods

are both

transcendent and immanent

simultaneously.53

This paradoxi-

cal conception of

the divine

is

reflected

in

the

paradoxical nature of the

'names'themselves. This

ascent

is

conceptualized

as

enabling the

human

to

participate

in

divine

power,

as

Iamblichus

states:

ae

Iambl. I@st.

t.+ Q55.t 3-256.2).

s0

PGM XIII.88o-886; Monas or the Eighth

Book of

Moses,trs.Morton Smith in Dieter

Betz

(1986).

st

PGMXlll.T6z-772, trs. Morton Smith in

Dieter

Betz

(1986).

52

lambl.

IvIyst. r.r5

Ql.l-ü

'So

then,

it

is

neither

through

faculties

nor through

organs that the gods receive into themselves our

prayers,

but

rather

üey embrace

within

themselves

the realizations of

the

words of good men, and

in particular

of

those

which, by virtue of the

sacred

liturg¡

are

established within the gods and united to

them;

for

in

that

case

the divine is literally united

with

itself,

and

it is

not

in the way

of one person addressing another that it participates in the thought expressed by the

prayers.'Cf.

E.C. Clarke,

J.M.

Dillon and

J.P.

Hershbell

(zoo¡),

Sg,

n.

86:

'These

would

presumably include the various kinds

of

yoces

magicae recognized in

theurgic

ritual. This

is in

accord with the view that Iamblichus

expresses

elsewhere that theurgic formulae

have a

special

power

deriving from the fact that

they

are

in

some way

divine

language,

immediately comprehensible

to

gods,

though

not to

us.

It is therefore

as

if the

diüne

in

us

is

communicating directly with the

divine

in the universel

s3

For Iamblichus'

view of the immanence and

presence

of the

gods

throughout the

cosmos,

including

the

physical

world:

cf.

lambL

lvtyst.

t8

(27.7-29.7);

r.9 (29.r3-3o.2);

Struck

(zoo¿)

zeo.


13/16

.UNKNOWABLE

NAMES, IN LATE

ANTIQUE

THEURGIC

RITUAL

2gT

Al,l"' oüE'

cri nqooxl.r¡oer.E

ór,o

nóüoug

ouvúrurouot

toiS

rleoiS toÜg ieqé-

og' órd

6é

{E

üeicrg

gr,},íog

tfrE ouveloúor¡5

rc,

ncrwo

zor,vorvícv nogÉ-

1ouor,

r{E

ó6r.a},úrou oupn}.oxflg'

oril

óE

toÜvopcr,

óE

^¡e

o{irol

6ólcrr.,

aó¡órlev

é¡,lcpaive6

tóv

voúv

tóv

rleóv

ngooxl"í.vouocr,

toíg

&v8'pónotE,

&l.l.cr xat'arltó

tó

&l.r¡rldE

óg

Boúl.etot

d,vs8r,6óoxer"v,

d¡v

pópr¡v

tóv

d,vrlgónorv

énltt¡óeícrv

áneqyo[ó¡revc,r

nqóg tó

¡.teré1eLv

tóv üeóv,

xal

&vó1ouoct.

aóti¡v

ngóg toÜg

üeoÜg

nal 6la

nenloúE é¡rpel"oúg

ouvogpó-

(ouocr.'Orlev

6t¡

xal

óvó¡rata

üeóv

leqongenfi

xal

tül,la

rleio

ouvüÍ¡-

¡-la,tcr

&,vcrytoya

óvtq,

nqóg toÜg

üeoÜg ouvúnretv

oútag 6úvatol.

But not even

in the

case ofthe

invocations

is

it through the experiencing

of

passion

that they

link

üe

priests

[i.e.

theurgists]

to the

godq

it

is rather

in

virtue

of

the divine

love

which

holds together

all things that

they

proüde

a union

of

indissoluble

involvement-not

...

inclining

the

mind

of

the

gods to

humans, but

rather,

as

the

truth

of things

itself desires

to

teach

us,

áisposing

the

human

mind

to

participation

in the

gods,

leading it up

to the

gods and

bringing

it into accord

with

themthrotghharmonious

persuasion-

Ánd

it is for this

reason,

indeed,

that

the

sacred

names of

the gods and

other

types

of divine

symbol

that

have

the

capacity

of

raising

us

up to

the

gods

are

enabled

to

link

us

to them

[my

italics].s4

Thus,

the

correct

usage

of the

'unknowable

names'

in the

appropriate

context

was

considered by Iamblichus to

be

a

pious

and

divine

display

of

ritual

power and

creativity.

Several

scholars

have

questioned

the

coercion

apparently

involved

in

ritual invocations.

Fritz Graf

has

argued

that

one

of the

functions

of

the

names

is to

act

as

another

name of

the deity

invoked,

thus

forming

an

important

part of the

invocation,

'By

using

it

the

magician

makes certain

that

the

god

would

listen,

since

he

embraced

the

widest

possible

sphere

of the

godt activities

and

characteristics-a

strategywell

known

from

religious

prayerl5s

Thus,

the

names serve

as an

ample

display

of

knowledge.56

lamblichus'

explanation

takes

this

idea

to

its extremity:

the

secret

names

are a

display

of

knowledge and insight

sa

Iambl.

trIyst.

t.tz

(+z.s-z;8-t).

ss

Graf

(rggr)

r.9r.

ItshouldnotedthatGraf

doesnotdenytheelementofcoercionin

magical

ritual

completel¡

but argues

that

it is not

omnipresent

in a

manner that

would

justifr

taking

it as

the

defining

difference

between

magic and

rel_igio¡r

(arguing.

against

ihe

Fiareriañ

dichotomy

betwéen

magic

and religion,

still

an

implicitly

powerful theory

among

Classicists).

He also shows

that the

idea

of

a

coercive

spellis

often used

as

a

'last

resoriby

magicians,

in circumstances

where

the

invoked divinity

does

not arrive

quickly

enough,'when the praxis after

several

repetitions brings

no

result and when

the

deity

appea-rs

threatening

and dangerous.

He

also

argues that

coercion

is

most

frequently used

agáinst

daemons

and

angels

rather than

gods

(r94-r95).

-

56

Graf

(r99r)

r9z.

Inthis

respect, Graf

likens

the magician

to the

initiate

of a

mystery

cult,

since

both claimed

a special

relationship

with

their

respective

gods, based

on

revealedknowledge.

Cf.

also

Johnston

(zoo4)

r44.


14/16

292

CRYSTAL

ADDEY

which

serve

to bring the theurgist

into

sympathetic

alignment

with

the

power of the

god

invoked,

thus enabling

them to actively

participate in

that divine

power.

Such a

process represented the

divinization

of the

human being.

Conclusion

In conclusion,

Iamblichus' discussion

of

the unknowable

names de-

scribes

them as the

secret, hidden

names

of the

gods. Rather

than being

meaningless,"the

names do signify

and

communicate,

but in a

way

that

is appropriate

for

the

gods,

which

is why

they

cannot

be

translated.

These names were thought

to

transcend

speech,

discourse

and logic:

their

non-discursive

nature

was

said

to

evoke

the

paradoxical

nature

of

the

gods. Iamblichus

argues

that they

are

not

coercive:

by intoning

the

names

correctly

in the appropriate time,

place

and

context, the

theurgist

connects

and activates these

symbola of

the gods with

the

hidden

images

of the

gods in their soul.

This

comprises

a

powerful

speech-act

which

allows

the

theurgist

to

participate in divine

power.

The

oral

component

of

the

names

is important, since

methods of

intonation and utterance

were

transmitted secretly through

an

oral

tradition. This

may have

contributed

to the'names'being

recorded

in writing

since an

indiüdual without

the

requisite level of

understanding

and

purity

would

regard

these

words

as

'meaninglessi

not knowing the correct

methods of

intonation

and the

appropriate

contexts in which to use

them.

Thus, the

'unknowable

names'

reflect

a

subtle interplay between

language and oral

performance

in

the

theurgic

ritual

praxis of late antiquity.

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