Photo from: “Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation In Ghana”

Adaptive Strategy for Ghana: Food Security and Climate Change

Winter 2014

MICHALAK CEP 302 BY: DAVIN SIMMONS, DANIELLE GILMOUR AND NIMOTALAI AZEEZ

Introduction: Degree of Sensitivity and Vulnerability:

The system of Food Security in Ghana is highly sensitive to the impacts of climate change. Because of its intimate interdependence with the weather and climate of Ghana, there is no separating our system from the impacts climate change is predicted to have on the country. This means that our system is blatantly exposed to climate change. As opposed to other systems which can use infrastructure to escape the effects of climate change, there is no realistic way to shield the entire agricultural system of Ghana from negative impacts. There is also existing stress associated with our system. The impacts of urbanization and land use changes (deforestation) partnered with the decrease in rainfall, have negative impacts on the amount of surface water available to farmers. Surface water is a back-up agricultural source for water when rainfall falters in the north regions of Ghana, and the main source of water for irrigated systems of agriculture in the south regions of Ghana (Gyampoh et. al, 2008). Climate change on its own will not cause the demand of food to exceed its supply in Ghana, but another existing stress on food security is shown through the increasing population growth. This growth in demand has the potential to cause an imbalance when supply cannot keep up. For our analysis we are basing food security on food availability, which in turn means yield sizes. The main limiting factor to agricultural yield in Ghana is water availability. There are several other limiting factors for agriculture that include fertility level and pest management. Water use and pest management can be related directly to climate change. We have not identified am impact threshold for this system, but overall food security in Ghana is highly sensitive to climate change because of its exposure and existing environmental and societal stresses.

Adaptive Capacity:

Technology and resources from food secure nations have seemingly proven to combat the issue of food insecurity. These nations have invested in research around adaptation to climate change to ensure food systems operate at the appropriate capacities to feed their nations. The technology is “out there” but a major issue stunting Ghana’s achievement of food security in the face of climate change is the country’s access to resources. There are barriers to the ability of Ghana’s agricultural system to adapt to climate change because of the sheer amount of institutions and individual actors involved in the system. As previously indicated, Ghana presently has issues of food insecurity. The system is already stressed because of the economic depression in many Ghanaian communities and the lack of infrastructure for many farmer and food producers. It is hard to tell if Ghana’s agricultural system will be able to adapt faster than the projected rate of climate change, because based on a number of participatory research studies, climate change has already started to impact Ghanaian farmers negatively. Luckily, this

research exists because there is investigation and action already underway in Ghana, not only to address the underlying problem of food insecurity, but now with the focus of combating climate change.

Conceptual Model and Incorporation of Adaptation Strategies:

Introduction of Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), integration of indigenous knowledge, and conservation agriculture are three strategies that could be introduced to the Ghanaian agricultural system to adapt to climate change. Each of these strategies fits into the conceptual model above, working to interfere, combat or offer a solution to the negative impacts of climate change upon crop yields. Genetically modified organisms have the potential to create crops that are resistant to drought and certain pests. This means that GMOs would work to eliminate the issues of rising insect populations and low or sporadic annual rainfall as negative actors on crop production. Incorporating indigenous knowledge (IK) into early response systems and weather forecasts and recommendations aims to decrease the negative impacts of increased extreme weather events and sporadic rainfall. IK also poses the possibility of increasing water conservation which would result in less dependence on rainfall and increased surface water flow. The use of conservation agriculture (CA) aims to combat issues with drought, pest control, and soil erosion and fertility issues. CA has the potential to combat rising temperatures and drought, along with pest control issues that will result from climate change.

Adaption Strategy by Davin Simmons Genetically Modified Organisms

The earth’s atmosphere has undergone much change through the influence of various human activities, and has resulted in global climate change. The effects of global climate change are evident, and they are expected to affect both present and future communities. Among the signs of global climate changes are disappearing of the snowpack, changes in seasons, shift of plant and animal ranges, and rise in the sea levels. In our study, we looked at the effect of food shortage, which has resulted as a result of climate change in Africa. The weather patterns have changed with the overall hotter effects, which have affected average plant growth cycles and hence, food shortage (Corner, Glare & Nap, 2003). The agricultural sector is an essential contributor to the Ghanaian economy system. It comprises 30% of Ghana’s GDP and contributes to 50% of jobs for the population. The rate of agricultural growth in Ghana is believed to have growth potentials of 12%, but also face constraints of climate change, which may inhibit agricultural progress in the long run. Ghana’s agricultural sector is highly vulnerable to climate change because of the high dependence on rainfall, rather than diversifying use of other sources of water, especially in the northern part which is semi-arid (Corner, Glare & Nap, 2003).

Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture The effects of climate change on agriculture can be said to have a huge impact. A few leading effects are water and heat stress, outbreak and prevalence of pests and diseases, loss of agriculturally productive land through systems deterioration, and increased post-harvest losses. The consequence of these stresses include reduced crop yields, post-harvest losses, decline in the value of livestock, and shortage of food. According to a research conducted by International Food Policy Research Institute, climate change will impact yields of significant crops by the year 2050. Basically this is an expected decline in the yield of all crops. Similarly, global studies on the yield of crops predict that there is likely to be a decline in the potential yields of crops in Ghana. However, there is a likeliness of gain in the amounts yielded if some strategies are formulated and implemented. These studies indicate that adoption of appropriate strategies will lead to sustained crop yields, or even higher outputs.

Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change These are the sets of actions, policies, processes, and strategies, which are formulated and implemented in response to the effects of climate change on individuals. These strategies seek to reduce the extent of impact on individuals, communities, and economies. Some mechanisms have been formulated and implemented while other strategies adopted are in regard to farming practices and adoption of technologies. There are wide varieties of farming systems and community needs. This requires a strong institutional support and effort (Armah et

al, 2010). Some of these are adaptation strategies are incorporated into the national development policies.

There are various mitigation strategies that have been adopted as approaches to curb food shortage in Ghana. Included are appropriate use of organic and chemical fertilizers, use of improved crop varieties, practicing rotational farming, use of cover crops, and practicing Agroforestry. However, one of the most viable strategies is the adoption of GMOs. This has increased use in various parts of the globe, such as Southern Africa, Ghana, and other developing nations (Zerbe, 2004). The common technological approach in Ghana is the adoption of GMOs. This has been seen as a positive practice towards contributing to increased crop yields.

GMOs as Climate Change Approach Strategy GMOs are plants adopted into the agriculture. They are composed of DNA components which have undergone modification through genetic engineering techniques. They are meant to introduce new traits of crops which aren’t natural in species. These crops are said to be resistant to crop pests, diseases, and environmental conditions. In addition, they are resistant to chemical treatments and subject to little spoilage.

Vulnerability of GMO to Climate Change In Ghana, where reduced crop yields could be claimed to be a result of climate change, adoption of GMO’s would serve as a valuable strategy to approach the issue of climate change. The crops have improved traits such as resistance to pests and diseases, faster maturity, subject to minimal spoilage, and high adaptation to environment and weather (Corner, Glare & Nap, 2003).

Conceptual Model The use Genetically Modified Foods as a strategy to curb food shortage is backed up from the conceptual model by International Food Policy Research Institute. This model suggests that climate change will have a huge impact on the food production in Ghana through a massive decline of average yields. However, if appropriate technologies and approach strategies are adopted, there is likely to be sustained crop yields and increased output.

Risks of Using GMOs The use of GMOs seems to be a good strategy to practice to culminate the effects of climate change. However, this strategy has faced much opposition from government agencies, international research organizations, environmentalists, public interest groups, and religious organizations. All claim this approach is associated with more risks than benefits, and thus should not allowed as a climate change approach strategy. Claims include serious problems associated with GMOs regarding both human health and environmental risks. Despite claims by International research organizations, the public is against these, but many organizations reject the

approach (Ghana Web, 2014). Also, according to the Ghana Export Promotion Authority, the adoption of Genetically Modified Organisms is likely to hurt the country’s efforts to boost the production of non-traditional foods for exports into the European Market. A statement of GEPA says, “In view of the evidence by European Union and other Western Worlds’ attitude to Genetically Modified Foods, it would be detrimental for Ghana to introduce these crops due to products are at a risk of being rejected in the exports market. “This will reduce exports to the EU markets” Says Mr. Quarcoo, the Acting CEO of GEPA (Ghana Web, 2014). As such, the adoption of GMOs has little reception from the perception of health and environmental factors, the effects on the export market.

Conclusion With the constant climate change scenarios, the likely effect is increased temperatures and rainfall variability. Multiple studies have indicated that there is a probability of decline in the yields of rainfed crops unless appropriate adaptations are implemented. As such, Ghana needs to develop resilient agricultural sectors that help curb food shortage. One of the most appropriate, but admittedly highly debated approaches, is adoption of GMOs. The consequences would increase food supply with pest and disease resistance as well as less crop spoilage. However, this may lead to a decline in the amount of exports to the European Markets, which have a negative perception of GMOs.

Adaption Strategy by Danielle Gilmour Incorporation of Indigenous Knowledge into Adaption Policy for Water Resources

Explanation of Strategy It is essential to begin adaptation planning by assessing the resources already available in an area. One of these resources is the way populations are already, and how they have historically, coped with changes in their climate. In Ghana, there is an important wealth of local, traditional or indigenous knowledge (IK) about the climactic systems in the region. This knowledge ranges from how to predict changes in climate to how to respond to changes in climate. The prediction of weather and climactic events is a piece of IK that can be used for planning for climate change, while water conservation can work to lessen the negative effects of climate change. Indigenous knowledge needs to be more extensively collected and researched in order to understand the degree of relevancy to adapting to climate change. Validating and using IK when applicable in scientific modeling will create a healthy relationship between the two fields that will be useful for predicting climactic factors. This is especially imperative in developing countries, like Ghana, whose technology for modelling and prediction of CC is underdeveloped (B.A. Gyampoh, et al., 2009).

Climate change has already been felt throughout the northern regions of Ghana, where a majority of the population practices subsistence farming. The changes in rainfall predictability and volume, and the increasing temperature have accounted for much of the crop failure even within the last decade. Farmers and their families are forced to invest in replanting when their crops fail, which detracts from household saving and food security (B.A. Gyampoh, et al., 2009). These climactic changes in rainfall also impact livelihoods of fishermen and traders in foodstuffs (Gyampoh and Asante, 2011). These populations, integral to the food security of the nation, have not ignored these changes in climate, but have been actively working to cope with the changes using their indigenous knowledge. With deeper study and improvement of these coping strategies, there is potential for effective localized systems of climate change adaption.

The present early warning systems and weather information in Ghana have a lot of space for improvement, and potential for being an effective adaptation strategy. The current forecasts from the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) are produced at too large of a scale to provide useful information to individual communities. This failure to provide useful local information makes the source seem too general and less reputable, so communities do not trust its advice. Alone, these precipitation records and models focus on the amounts of precipitation and their change, while IK takes into about the regularity, intensity, length and timing. The integration of verified IK would make GMet specialized to specific areas; providing the inhabitants with much needed weather information that will influence the success of their livelihoods. This conducive information must be presented in a useful way: simple and non-technical, and in the local language of the audience (Gyampoh and Asante, 2011).

A further use of integrating indigenous knowledge into policy is by promoting water conservation. The common practice in drought susceptible areas of Ghana is to rely on streams, rivers and rainfall for water needs. Historically water was not an issue during the rainy season, and in the dry season streams and rivers were sufficient sources. But rain has become unpredictable and stream flow has weakened. Rainwater harvesting was traditionally practiced in Ghana before wells and boreholes were introduced. With the increasing number of wells going dry, rainwater catchment has the potential to revive and help with issues of water unpredictability and scarcity. Along with water availability issues involving climate change, water is becoming scare in Ghana as the population increases and water source health is diminished by direct human activities. Clearing of riparian vegetation for timber and development has caused increased soil erosion into Ghanaian rivers. This in turn results in reduced river flow. Traditional authorities have worked to combat these interferences with the natural water systems by imposing fines on citizens that clear riparian vegetation or indiscriminately set fire to forests. They have also tried to uphold traditional taboos. For example, forbidding

use of the river on days the river spirit or god needs a day of rest. These efforts toward protecting water bodies have become ignored as the power of the traditional authorities has become less respected in our age of globalization. In order to create more dependable surface and groundwater sources, the Ghanaian government should enforce the conservation efforts traditionally upheld by indigenous people (B.A. Gyampoh, et al., 2009).

Evaluation of Strategy The goals of implementing this adaption strategy is to ensure food security in Ghana despite significant harms resulting from climate change. By incorporating and using indigenous knowledge, people will have more success planning for and growing crops which either directly results in their nourishment or influences income. Food availability and income are the two major limiting factors in insuring food security in a population.

It is projected that economically and non-economically the benefits of IK integration will outweigh its costs. On an economic standpoint, incorporating early warning systems that are effective are integral to the economic success of farmers. There is potential for increased revenue in the Ghanaian agricultural sector. Also, the cost of incorporating rain barrels has a seemingly lower cost than creating pipe infrastructure to bring water in from distant sources to drought stricken areas. Incorporating indigenous knowledge is less expensive than bringing in aid. If food insecurity entraps the population causing a famine, the cost will be very high. Using IK is cheaper and often more effective than importing adaptation strategies from abroad because these strategies require resources to implement the top-down introduction (B.A. Gyampoh, et al., 2009). In a non-economic sense, the preservation and use of indigenous knowledge assures that valuable cultural artifacts of knowledge are not lost. IK is usually passed generation to generation by word of mouth, so the increased rate of urbanization in Ghana poses a threat to the existence of IK. There is also the benefit of community empowerment. By including IK in analysis of weather information indigenous knowledge has been validated as legitimate. Often policy makers and governments overlook the intellectual contributions of indigenous populations in their boundaries (B.A. Gyampoh, et al., 2009). Lastly, there is the overall value of human life loss as a result of food insecurity. This measure, among others, will be actively working to prevent these deaths which intrinsically validates its research and implementation cost.

This adaption strategy is not designed to deal with a defined “amount” of a resource. Other than the infrastructure of the rain catchment barrels, this adaption strategy is very flexible to meeting the problems that climate change will present it with. The weather reporting system will operate according to any changes in frequency, intensity, duration, and extent of the weather events. Protecting surface water sources will continuously be a part of ensuring water availability when rain is not

available. No matter how greenhouse gas emissions and their effects play out in the future, using indigenous knowledge in water adaption policy will react positively. The model for this adaption strategy in inherently flexible because of the constant study and integration of knowledge. If for any reason the policies and resulting infrastructures need to be changed it would not be difficult.

The main weakness of this adaption strategy is the actual implementation of it. The goals and motives have positive benefits, but the variables needed to reach these goals are by nature unpredictable. What indigenous knowledge should be used? How can we be sure we collected all important information? Will this knowledge hold true as climates change more drastically? For example, there are situations where farmers have issues with the occurrence of events which results in inaccurate predictions. If indigenous knowledge depends on the actions of other organisms in an ecosystem, and the organism dies or leaves the area in response to a changing climate, that knowledge is hard to use. With temperatures increasing and rainfall decreasing, many indigenous knowledge indicators are losing the environmental characteristics that signify certain climactic events. There is also an undetermined amount of research time that needs to be permitted for analyzing pieces of IK and determining how to integrate them with scientific technologies.

Overall, this strategy has a large potential for creating effective systems for Ghanaian people (especially farmers) to adapt to climate change to insure food security. Its ambiguity is both a strength and a weakness. There is room for new ideas to emerge and become adopted. The lack of a distinct framework might also lead to disorganization and lack of implementation.

Adaption Strategy by Nimotalai Azeez Conservation Agriculture

As defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), conservation agriculture (CA) is a practice that is meant to save agricultural crop production and do minimal damage to the environment. From the title of this adaptation strategy it can be assumed that there is more than one way of achieving CA. And as defined there are three different CA principles. The first principle is direct planting of crop seeds to have minimal soil disturbance. This method is meant to improve the soil because direct seeding plants the seeds continuously then covers them again with mulch. This reduces the amount of weeds and the amount of soil lost. Even though direct planting is used on various crops, it has had particularly successful results on maize, one of Ghana’s most important crops. Also this method is an alternative to some of the negative effects of soil tillage, such as, loss of fertility, loss of moisture and the soil losing its ability to hold water. Farmers put themselves at an economic advantage by using no-tillage, direct planting methods (FAO, 2014).

The second principle of CA is permanent soil cover. The purpose of soil cover in CA is to keep crops covered at all times from any harmful effects of natural occurrences like rainfall, sunshine, or wind. Overall, this method improves the conditions of the crops and the growth for many reasons. For instance, keeping the moisture in by protecting it from the intensity of the sun, also, feed for the soil is kept within the cover. Other benefits of soil cover are reduced soil erosion since rainfall is not directly influencing the crops, this leads to higher crop yields as well. Cover crops can be done by hand, or with more force by using animals or tractors. The third and final principal of CA is crop rotations that diversify the nutrition of the soil and in turn diversifies the crops. The diversity of the crops reduces the opportunity for weed and pest infestations to spoil the crops. The crop rotation also allows more water and nutrients into the soil. Crop rotation techniques vary depending on the type of farming being done. When all three of these CA principles are combined, they create a system that makes CA sustainable and most beneficial to the area it is being used. Since modern forms of CA discussed started in the 1980s results have included adaptation (FAO, 2014).

As part of the “Conservation agriculture in Africa series” the FAO published “Conservation agriculture as practised in Ghana” in 2007. This case study on conservation agriculture adaptation is useful in accessing how CA can combat the impacts of climate change to the focal region, Ghana. The first step to making CA a possible adaptation strategy in Ghana is getting farmers to participate and see the importance. For instance, traditionally farmers view soil tillage as important because they are familiar with the process and the expected crop yields. But in order to adopt CA, they have to change their way of thinking about their crops and how they are managed. As well as the technology needed to implement CA. Then they can begin the transition to resuming natural occurrences to their farm, for instance, instead of burning the vegetation to prepare for the new planting, using a machete to slash weeds and allowing the rest to form into mulch is a more natural process. In Ghana, the amount of farmers using conservation agriculture practices has increased, and according to the case study some of the reasons why that number has increased is because farmers see lower production costs and increased yields (Boahen et al. 2007).

The goal of CA being implemented in Ghana is to combat the rising amount of food insecurity due to climate change. This will cause the agriculture to be more likely to be consistent and increase crop yields. For instance farmers in Ghana have reported increased crop yields since implementing at least one of the CA practices, cover crop, direct planting, or crop rotations. When using a slashing and burning technique for planting maize, the crop yields were 1.2 t/ha, on the other hand, when cover crops were used farmers reported 1.8-1 t/ha for crop yields. Additionally for

maize yields when traditional slashing and burning were used .75 t/ha was the outcomes, but when minimal tillage and direct planting was used the maize yields were 3.0 t/ha (FAO, 2014). These results show a significant improvement in crop yields from implementing just one CA practice, another reason why CA would beneficial to Ghana’s agriculture that is suffering from climate change impacts to food security. CA also provides economic benefits; since CA is less time consuming than traditional farming it costs less for hiring labor, other costs that are reduced are fuel, operation, and maintenance. Overall, it is more efficient and does not require much strain on the workers and could still survive with fewer workers. CA is also good for the environment, for example, with no burning of weeds this improves air quality. And, because permanent soil cover reduces soil erosion surface water is cleaner with less sediment in drinking water and better water quality (Boahen et al. 2007).

It is evident that conservation agriculture has benefits to improve Ghana’s current situation with climate change impacts to food security in the country. An example of how CA could help Ghana adapt to climate change impacts is based on the fact that climate change has led to rainfall variability, increased temperatures, and longer dry periods. Increased vulnerability, being in sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana and other countries in the region only have two seasons

during the year, rainy and dry season. Evidence shows that climate change is responsible for the rainy season starting later and overall decreased rainfall. Because of this impact, rainfed crop yields have declined. On the other hand, CA has higher crop yields especially from the soil cover principle, instead of traditional forms of agriculture (see figure 1). This data shown in the graph was collected and averaged over 8 years in Brazil, and the results were most favorable to CA when the system was stable (FAO, 2014).

In Ghana, climate change is also predicted to cause water and heat stress that will lead to increased diseases and pests. And pests contribute to a decreased yield either after the harvest or in the field. After the harvest, common pests are weevils that mostly destroy crops that are dry like grains. As well as, rodents can also be a problem during harvest storage. Common pests that were found in the field include caterpillars, locusts, termites, and more (Boahen et al. 2014). According to Hobbes et al., crop rotations in CA reduce the risk of pests and diseases because rotations diversify the soil. Ghana is also vulnerable to climate change because of economic

Figure 1 Source: FAO. “Economic aspects of conservation agriculture”. 2005. Web.

disparities in the country along with an increasing demand for food, with a rising population; which is causing the problem of food security to become even more challenging to solve. Hobbes et al. predicts that in the future crop production will have less land to be produced, and with as little damage to the environment as possible is the only way to manage food production. But, with adaptation strategies like CA that improve soil and make it more affordable for farmers by exposing them to new equipment and technology is a sustainable solution (Hobbes et al. 2008).

The strengths of conservation agriculture as an adaptation strategy to combat climate change impacts is based on the three main principles of CA. As discussed in this paper, the implementation of permanent soil cover in an CA system improves crop yields. As Ghana struggles with the influences that climate change has, increased temperature, inconsistent rainfall, and longer dry periods, a decrease in crop yields happens as a result. With food security being a risk in Ghana, CA soil cover lowers the contact that the rain and sun makes with the soil. Climate change also influences insect populations; these insects then become pests that ruin crops. Crop rotation from CA reduces the ability of pests to affect the crops, also increasing crop yields and thus providing more food for Ghana. Economically, a strength of CA is that the direct seeding or zero tillage requires less equipment use therefore they last longer and less labor to hire. For the most part, the benefits of CA exceeds what the costs would be the implement in Ghana. Data collected by the FAO shows that the time required in hours for CA is significantly less that the time required for traditional tillage in agriculture. Plus, the costs of machines and fuel used for CA is lower that the costs of conventional tillage. CA will save Ghana money in the long run, because it is overall cheaper and produces better crop yields and environmental results than traditional farming.

Some of the weaknesses associated with conservation agriculture is that it can take a while to see results, and it works best when all principles are working together simultaneously. Therefore, farmers are required to be patient and trust the process which also requires a new way of thinking. Farmers have to understand the benefits and the processes to acquiring those benefits. And, they have to be able to afford the new technology to start CA, and it is also helpful is they have communication with other farmers who have succeeding in CA. Another weakness is seed availability in farming communities, and produce priced lower in relation to the input prices. When assessing the risk associated with implementing CA in Ghana on a scale of “no regrets”, “low regrets”, and “win-win”; CA would fall within “win-win” for Ghana. It is a “win-win” because the actions required for CA are helpful in reducing contributions to climate change in addition to providing other benefits. CA is good for water and air quality, which Ghana needs because of their large growing population and scarce water resources.

Strategy Recommendation Each of the strategies above have great potential to increase food security in Ghana by ways of increasing and insuring crop yields. Each has a different level of risk resulting from how it approaches adapting to the various local impacts of climate change in Ghana. These risks can be assessed using a system by Snover in Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments. Genetically modified organisms falls in to the category of “low regrets”. This is because there are important benefits to food security predicted to follow the integration of GMOs, but extraneous risks are also present. This risk is mainly the projected drop in Ghana’s GDP for agricultural exports when they are labeled GMO on the international market. Ghana cannot afford any drop in income, as there are many human development factors that would suffer as a result, which coincidentally are connected intimately with food security. Because we are focusing the issue of food security in the terms of crop yields, and the overall severity of this risk or its actual occurrence has uncertainties, we have classified this problem as posing relatively little additional risk. Still, we have concluded that the introduction of GMOs is the lowest priority adaption strategy. Integration of indigenous knowledge into water and weather management policy is a “no regrets” scenario. Even if climate change does not occur the positive impacts of this strategy will prove beneficial. The water management strategies may reduce the current stress on farmers during the dry season, and delay the need for importing water as the population of Ghana continues to boom. Also, creating an effective weather prediction and early warning system will be invaluable to farmers nationwide despite any global warming. Our most highly ranked adaption strategy is to implement conservation agriculture into Ghana’s agriculture and food system. Conservation agriculture is a “win-win” situation because the impacts of climate change will be reduced, in addition to economic gains, social cohesion, and environmental restoration. It seems that IK and CA would cooperate especially well together to create an even stronger adaption strategy that covers more bases of water management and social empowerment. Hopefully these tactics will be continually researched and implemented in order to work towards a future where Ghana is food secure.

Works Cited Armah, F.A., Odoio, J.O., Yengoh, G.T., Obiri, S., Yawson, D.O., & Afrifa, E.K. (2010). Food Security and Climate Change in Drought-Sensitive Savanna Zones of

Ghana. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 16(3), 291- 306.

Boahen, P;Dartey, B. A.;Dogbe, G.D.;Boadi, E.A.;Triomphe, B;Daamgard-Larsen, S;Ashburner, J. 2007. Conservation agriculture as practised in Ghana. Nairobi. African Conservation Tillage Network, Centre de Coopération Internationale de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Conner, A.J., Glare, T.R., & Nap J.P. (2003). The release of genetically modified crops into the environment: Overview of ecological risk assessment. Plant Journal, 33(1), 19-46.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 2014. Agriculture and consumer protection department: Conservation agriculture. Web. 02 Mar 2014

Ghana Web, (2014). Genetically Modified Foods to Affects Exports. http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/artikel.php?ID=29721 3

Gyampoh, Benjamin A . and Winston A . Asante. 2011. Mapping and Documenting Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana. Africa Adaption Programme and United Nations Development Programme: 2-16, 97- 131.

Gyampoh, B.A., S. Amisah, M. Idinoba and J. Nkem. 2009. Using traditional knowledge to cope with climate change in rural Ghana. Unasylva 231/232, Vol. 60.

Gyampoh, B. Idinoba, M., and Amisah, S. 2008. Water scarcity under a changing climate in Ghana: Options for livelihoods adaptation. Journal of International Development 51: 415-417.

Hobbes, P.R.; Sayre, K.; Gupta, R. The Role of Conservation Agriculture in Sustainable Agriculture. 2008. Vol. 363, No. 1491, Sustainable Agriculture I, pp. 543-555.

Snover et al. 2007. Preparing for climate change: a guidebook for local, regional, and state governments. Chapters 10 and 11, pages 93-111.

Zerbe, N. (2004). Feeding the Famine? American Food Aid and the GMO Debate in Southern Africa, 29(6), 593-608.

.