Adaptive Decision Support Systems Bijan Fazlollahi, Mihir A...
Transcript of Adaptive Decision Support Systems Bijan Fazlollahi, Mihir A...
Fazlollahi, Parikh, Verma/ 1
Adaptive Decision Support Systems
Bijan Fazlollahi, Mihir A. Parikh, and Sameer Verma
Department of Decision SciencesCollege of Business Administration
Georgia State UniversityAtlanta GA 30303
Tel: (404) 651-4000Fax: (404) 651-3498
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Effectiveness of Decision Support Systems (DSS’s) is enhanced through dynamic adaptation of
support to the needs of the decision maker, to the problem, and to the decision context. We
define this enhanced DSS’s as Adaptive Decision Support Systems (ADSS’s) and propose its
architecture. In an ADSS, the decision maker controls the decision process. However, the system
monitors the process to match support to the needs. The proposed architecture evolves from the
traditional DSS models and includes an additional intelligent “Adaptation” component. The
“Adaptation” component works with the traditional data, model, and interface components to
provide adaptive support. The architecture also integrates enhancements proposed in the past
research. In this paper, we have illustrated the proposed architecture with two examples, a
prototype system, and results from a preliminary empirical investigation.
Keywords: Decision Support Systems, Active decision support, Intelligent decision support,Adaptive support, DSS architecture, Cognitive support.
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Biographical Information
Bijan Fazlollahi is an Associate Professor of Decision Sciences at Georgia State University,
Atlanta, GA. His research is in the area of Decision Support Systems. He has published over 30
articles in various journals and proceedings including Journal of Information Systems Research,
Interfaces, and Information and Management. He is on the Editorial Board of the Journal of
Database Management. He is a former Fulbright Scholar.
Mihir A. Parikh is a doctoral candidate in Decision Sciences at Georgia State University. He has
received a Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering from Gujarat University, India and a Master of
Business Administration from Georgia State University. His current research interests are in the
areas of decision support and end-user systems, and applications of emerging information
technologies (e.g., neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, multimedia) in decision-
making and business training.
Sameer Verma is a doctoral student in Decision Sciences at Georgia State University, Atlanta
GA. He has a Master of Science in Decision Sciences from Georgia State University, and a
Bachelor of Engineering from Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. His areas of interest and
work include intelligent decision support systems, education support systems, business training
systems and strategic management through decision support and guidance. His focus is on the
implementation of these systems through cognitive style research, using hypermedia / multimedia
technologies.
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Adaptive Decision Support Systems
Abstract
Effectiveness of Decision Support Systems (DSS’s) is enhanced through dynamic
adaptation of support to the needs of the decision maker, to the problem, and to the
decision context. We define this enhanced DSS’s as Adaptive Decision Support Systems
(ADSS’s) and propose its architecture. In an ADSS, the decision maker controls the
decision process. However, the system monitors the process to match support to the
needs. The proposed architecture evolves from the traditional DSS models and includes
an additional intelligent “Adaptation” component. The “Adaptation” component works
with the traditional data, model, and interface components to provide adaptive support.
The architecture also integrates enhancements proposed in the past research. In this
paper, we have illustrated the proposed architecture with two examples, a prototype, and
results from a preliminary empirical investigation.
1. Introduction
DSS’s have benefited from advances in software and hardware technology. The data,
model and interface components of DSS’s are now much more sophisticated and powerful
than they were two decades ago. The databases are larger, more current and easier to
query and search, the models are more complex reflecting reality, and the interfaces are
much more user-friendly. However, the evolution has been in the direction of building a
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DSS to provide more effective support for the low level cognitive tasks such as, data
storage & retrieval, data drilling, manipulation, and consistency checking [19]. Little has
been done in developing DSS’s that provide support for the high level cognitive tasks such
as, framing of problems, alternative generation [17], making tradeoffs involved in
preferences, and handling incomplete information, misinformation, and uncertainty. These
high level cognitive tasks involve human mental activities of reasoning, learning, and idea
generation requiring human judgmental inputs.
A primary objective of DSS’s is to help the decision-maker make effective decisions by
identifying what should be done and ensure that the chosen criterion is relevant [7].
Provision of support for the high level cognitive tasks (i.e. the high level cognitive
support) can strengthen the capabilities for achieving the objective. This type of support
extends the limits of “bounded” rationality by promoting improved understanding, better
insights, and more extensive analysis [7,16, 27, 28]. The high level cognitive support is
analogous to referring the decision-making tasks to human staff assistants and staff
advisors. Normally, a staff assistant makes efforts to understand the changing
requirements of the task, the needs of the decision-maker, and the best way to support the
particular decision-maker. For this, the staff assistant constantly monitors the current
status of the task, provides interim reports, and is sensitive to the needs and the
peculiarities of the decision-maker and the context in which the decision is made. The high
level cognitive support adds to the functionality of DSS’s, especially for situations with
complex problems and expert decision-makers. As an example of the added functionality;
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some of the tasks may be delegated to the intelligent agents [26]. The intelligent agents
accomplish the tasks on their own initiatives while interacting with the decision-maker and
the decision environment. However, the agents operate within the user control philosophy
of DSS’s [14] where the decision-maker exercises human judgement and provides
judgmental inputs.
The purpose of this paper is to propose an enhanced DSS, adaptive decision support
system (ADSS), which provides the high level cognitive support adapted to the needs of
the user, the decision task characteristics, and the decision context. The paper reviews
past research and discusses ADSS’s as a prescription to the unaddressed requirements of
complex decision-making situations. It proposes an architecture that identifies and
incorporates key components for designing and developing an ADSS. It illustrates the
architecture through building and using a prototype ADSS including results from a
preliminary empirical investigation. Finally, it provides a summary of observations and
recommendations for future directions of research in ADSS’s.
2. Background
DSS’s have evolved to provide more effective support for decision-making. The factors
influencing DSS evolution include (1) the discovery of structure in some judgmental tasks
and then assigning the task to the computer, and (2) improvements in technology allowing
the computer to do more tasks. Keen and Stable as far back as in 1978 foresaw that
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decision support may be achieved by exploitation of many technologies [7]. Modern
database technology, graphical user interface, hypermedia, multimedia, expert systems,
neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, distributed systems, client-server, object-
oriented approach are examples of recent technologies that can carry out prescriptions
which were not feasible in 1978. In recent years, some of the emerging technologies have
been used in providing the high level cognitive support. Research in the area of high level
cognitive support is labeled active decision support, inductive learning, decisional
guidance, and adaptive interface.
Manheim [10] suggests active DSS’s which have few features which can provide the high
level cognitive support. These features include:
< maintaining an explicit representation of the decision-maker's conceptual problem-
solving model and using it to guide support activities;
< providing tools for supporting the "natural heuristics", such as "do the easy things
right away" as well as tools for rational model-type such as linear programing and
break-even analysis model; and
< providing tools to enhance the user's ability to balance strategic (global and long
term) and opportunistic (local and short term) thinking.
The active DSS’s are capable of active participation in the decision-making processes. The
systems operate almost independent of explicit directions from the users and provide
support which the users may find helpful [8, 20]. Raghavan [21] identifies support features
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of the active DSS’s as monitoring the user activities, making inferences, and conducting
appropriate activities such as alerting, engaging in an insightful conversation, or
automatically carrying out certain tasks. The active DSS’s aim at improving the decision-
making effectiveness through stimulating creative ideas, criticizing choices, and guiding
decision structuring.
The active DSS’s complement users’ problem solving abilities in the application domain
[20]. The DSS’s use alternative models of the problem solving processes, ask the users to
make choices at the intermediate stages allowing the users to determine the problem
solving paths, and maintain updated models of the user problem-solving processes. They
support the users in a number of forms such as suggesting alternative actions and
indicating issues that the users may have overlooked. Rao [20] concludes that the active
DSS’s should be designed as knowledge-based systems.
Piramuthu, et. al. [18] describes an adaptive DSS for real-time scheduling of a flexible
manufacturing system. The DSS dynamically identifies a pattern in the scheduling
environment and matches an appropriate scheduling heuristic rule to the task. The system
architecture includes a “learning and refining” module capable of simulation and inductive
learning for acquisition and refinement of heuristics. The module interacts with the
knowledge-base to provide adaptive scheduling.
Holsapple, et. al. [4] describe an adaptive DSS which utilizes unsupervised inductive
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learning, a learning through observation and discovery, to acquire problem processing
knowledge for machine learning. The DSS refines the problem processing knowledge to
match the existing conditions.
Holsapple, et. al. [4] summarize the relationship among DSS paradigms based on two
problem processor related factors of active/reactive and adaptive/non-adaptive. The
traditional DSS’s are labeled as non-adaptive and reactive. They suggest that the focus of
research should be on adaptive and active DSS’s. These are the systems where problem
processors acquire and eliminate knowledge through unsupervised learning and are largely
self-driven. The research is concerned more with learning abilities that improve the
problem processing behavior of a DSS [4].
Silver [25] proposes “decisional guidance” as an enhancement to the DSS’s. The
decisional guidance enlightens or sways its users as they structure and execute their
decision making processes and thus provide meta-support for judgmental activities. The
guidance is implemented in the form of help facilities [12] or embedded intelligence that
inform and advise users. The objective of the decisional guidance is more effective use of
DSS’s leading to more effective decision making.
Several researchers propose adaptive interface, user-controlled or self-adaptive, to allow
for the differences in the users and to enhance DSS’s quality and effectiveness [2, 24].
Adaptability of interface ensures that the system provides flexibility to satisfy the different
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users' cognitive styles, the users’ experience level, and different decision approaches.
Thus, adaptable interface allows a DSS to provide ease of learning and user control.
Dutta [3] proposes additional intelligent components to a planning DSS so that the system
can adapt to the changing task requirements. He identifies a need for support in
monitoring, replanning, and managing interdependencies among different temporally
separated actions in the iterative process of planning. The DSS monitors the environment,
handles uncertain and incomplete information, and interprets and integrates conflicting
output from different models and view points.
Although the enhancements proposed in the past research provide the high level cognitive
support through increased DSS functionalities, the research and development in the area
of providing high level cognitive support is fragmented and technologically oriented. The
methodology for providing the support is yet in the infant stage [19]. In particular, there
are no frameworks to guide the identification of the necessary enhancements and addition
of functionalities to the DSS’s that would provide the high level cognitive support. In the
following section, we propose an adaptive decision support system (ADSS) that
incorporates different ideas regarding extensions and enhancements to the traditional
DSS’s for providing the high level cognitive support.
3. Adaptive decision support systems
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We define ADSS’s as:
“DSS’s that support human decision making judgements by adapting support to
the high level cognitive needs of the users, task characteristics, and decision
contexts.”
ADSS’s are enhanced DSS’s with an objective to improve the effectiveness of the
decision-maker in performing tasks requiring high degree of human judgement such as
framing problems, generating alternatives, making tradeoffs, and handling equivocality and
uncertainty. ADSS’s due to their emphasis on the high level cognitive support will also
improve user learning and understanding of the decision-making process and the domain
knowledge.
ADSS’s, unlike traditional DSS’s which are adaptive systems only through evolution
[29], are adaptive through adjustments to the skill level and changing needs of the
decision-maker during the decision making process. The decision maker learns through
interaction with the ADSS’s [7]. The learning leads to changes in problem-solving
expertise and support needs. ADSS’s provide support that fits the user's current needs.
Also, the progress through the intelligent, design and choice phases in a dynamic decision
environment leads to changing problem-solving task. ADSS’s adapt to the changing
problem solving model and provide support for the appropriate tasks. Furthermore,
ADSS’s adapt to the decision contexts such as organizational structure. For example, a
decision in a matrix structure would require more coordination with other decision makers
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than in a hierarchical structure. In such situations, the support must also provide
mechanism for coordination of decisions. Matching support to the decision-maker, the
decision problem, and the decision context substantially helps the decision-maker to make
effective decisions [7].
Adaptation is achieved by matching support needs with the system support. The support
needs of the user are determined by monitoring the user performance and support history.
The support needs of the task and the contexts are identified through monitoring the
decision process and selecting the appropriate models. ADSS’s monitor the decision-
making process, diagnose problems/ opportunities, and design and implement
interventions. Such abilities rest on having knowledge of the specific user, the problem
domain, an expert model of the decision process, and strategies for intervention. As the
support needs change, the systems dynamically change their support to match the current
needs. Dynamic adaptation enables ADSS’s to better address learning, interaction,
support, and evolution-the key words in the DSS definition [7].
ADSS’s use intelligent technologies to determine the support needs and may provide an
active rather than a passive participation in the decision making process [8]. The active
participation includes performing tasks such as finding patterns in data, selecting
appropriate models, or acting as critiquing agents [13, 26]. It further means that the
user/DSS interaction (a two-way communication) is established with the decision-maker
controlling the process, similar to in the case of a decision-maker with a human staff
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assistant.
4. ADSS Architecture
The architecture of decision support systems was first proposed by Sprague and Carlson
[30] as a macro architectural model with three components data, model, and interface.
Later, Turban [32] revised this model and added expert systems/knowledge-base
component to the model. Other researchers [3, 8,9, 10, 11, 23, 24, 25, 31] have
proposed enhanced architectures to encompass particular functionalities not specifically
identified in the original macro model.
********** Insert Figure 1 about here ***********
Figure 1 shows the proposed architecture for ADSS’s. The architecture is an evolution of
the Sprague & Carlson model [30]. In addition to the three; data, model, and interface
components, of the traditional DSS’s, ADSS’s have an “Adaptation” component. The
adaptation component is integrated with the other three components to generate and
provide adaptive support.
ADSS’s have three subsystems: user diagnosis, problem solving, and guidance/instruction.
Each subsystem incorporates data, model and adaptation component. The user diagnosis
subsystem includes information regarding what the user knows and what support the
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system has already communicated to the user. The problem solving subsystem includes the
model derived from a theory or stated by the user for appropriately solving the problem.
ADSS’s do not require the general model of human problem solving processes to guide
their automatic intervention in the decision-making processes. Instead the more attainable
descriptive models of specific tasks are used to guide some of the activities of ADSS’s.
The guidance/instruction subsystem includes knowledge about how to intervene in the
decision making processes. The ADSS architecture addresses the functionalities of
ADSS’s which are (1) to monitor the decision-makers, the decision-making tasks and the
decision contexts, (2) to make inferences on the basis of descriptive models, and (3) to
intervene at the discretion of the decision-maker to provide decision support.
Two examples are selected from management science and personal finance domain to
explain the architecture. Example A refers to an ADSS used for selecting appropriate
forecasting model for a given historical data. This decision-making situation is structured
with well-defined statistical models and quantitative methods to identify which forecasting
model is more suitable. Example B refers to an ADSS used for determining appropriate
allocation of assets for an individual investor. The process of asset allocation is dependent
on subjective variables such as the degrees of risk preference, time horizons, and financial
conditions of the investor. This decision-making situation is unstructured as there is a lack
of quantitative models which incorporate the individual investor’s characteristics and
concerns in performing asset allocation.
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The components of each ADSS are described in details and are illustrated with examples
A and B in the following sub-sections:
Data: This component is similar to the data component of the Sprague & Carlson model
[20]. It stores raw data about the problems, the concepts and procedures, and the user
history. It has three sub-components: Problem, concept/procedure, and user history.
Problem: This sub-component stores raw data about the problem or decision at
hand. The details of the problem can be obtained from this database and presented
to the user of the system. This sub-component can be an external database
dynamically linked to the other components of the system.
Example A:Problem: Forecasting sales for year 1997Data (historical) : Year Sales
1985 $5,234,667.001986 $8,342,235.00.....................................................................1995 $41,564,982.001996 $59,002,538.00
Example B:Problem: Investment asset allocation for a household with four
members- husband, wife, two young children.Data: Household Income : $60,000 per year
Major expenses: Rent+utilities $1,000Auto loans - $600Other - $2,000
Major financial goals:Retirement - $400,000 in 30 yearsEducation for the children - $50,000 in 14years Buying a house - $25,000 in 2 years
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Concept/Procedure: This sub-component stores information on the concepts and
procedures related to the domain knowledge area. This sub-component can also be
dynamically linked with an external concept/procedure library.
Example A: Domain knowledge: Time-series forecasting Model: Linear forecastingConcepts:
what a linear forecasting model is; when it should be used; theunderlying assumptions of the model; the advantages anddisadvantages of using this model.
Procedures:how to find the coefficients of the independent variables; how toimport data into the model.
Example B: Domain knowledge: Personal finance and investmentsConcepts:
What stocks, bonds, or money market funds are; what anemergency fund is; what a portfolio is; risk and return of aportfolio.
Procedures:How to determine portfolio risk; how to determine portfolio return.
User History: Before the user uses the system, the system performs a diagnostic
test and determines the knowledge level of the user in the concepts and
procedures involved in the decision-making process. These diagnostic data are
stored in this component. When the user uses the system, the system continuously
monitors actions of the user. This sub-component stores the sequential historical
actions and interactions such as performance of the user, type of help the user
requested, and time it took the user to solve the problem. Example A:User: Jeff Jones, Performance history: Outcome Time
Problem 1: Right 5 min.Problem 2: Right 7 min.Problem 3: Wrong 3 min.Problem 4: Right 2 min.
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Support history: Concept: Linear model,
Exponential Smoothing model, Procedure: Doing a square of differences,
Finding a coefficient for independent variable.
Example B:Performance history (alternate portfolio developed by the user):
Iteration 1: Stocks-30%, Bonds-20%, Cash-50%Iteration 2: Stocks-35%, Bonds-35%, Cash-30%Iteration 3: Stocks-50%, Bonds-40%, Cash-10%Iteration 4: Stocks-50%, Bonds-30%, Cash-20%
Support history:Iteration 1: The user did not ask for supportIteration 2: The user asked for support on:
Concepts: Returns on stocks, risk involved in the CashInvestmentsProcedure: How to determine portfolio return
Iteration 3: The user asked for support on:Concepts: Portfolio evaluation, risk involved in stocksProcedure: How to determine portfolio risk
Iteration 4: The user did not ask for support
Models: This component stores models and knowledge about problem solving,
guidance/instruction, and user diagnosis in three sub-components: Problem solving model,
guidance/instruction model, and user diagnosis model.
Problem Solving Model: This sub-component stores descriptive problem-solving
models for different problems. When a problem is presented, this sub-component
has the knowledge and the models for identifying and solving the problem. This
sub-component has two parts: Associated concepts and associated procedures.
Associated concepts include the models about the identifying concepts involved in
solving the problem. Associated procedures have the models about identifying the
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procedures involved in solving the problem.
Example A:Associated concept: If the historical data shows a linear trend with no
seasonality and low fluctuations, then simple linearregression model should be used.
Associated procedure: To use the linear model: (1) find the coefficient, (2)find the intercept, (3) select a future time period toforecast, (4) use the developed model to find thenew level of the dependent variable for the futuretime period.
Example B:Associated concept: If the risk preference is high, time horizon is long,
and financial condition is stable, allocate a largerpart of the portfolio to stocks.
Associated procedure: To determine suitability of the portfolio in terms ofrisk, identify risk preference of the user and matchthat with the risk of the portfolio.
Guidance/Instruction Model: This sub-component has models about presentation
of the concepts and the procedures. It has models to determine when, how, and at
what level a concept or a procedure should be presented.
Example A:Problem: In case of the linear regression model, present the concepts and
procedures related only to the linear model and not otherforecasting models.
User: If the user knowledge is strong in linear model concept, give onlybrief conceptual information.If the user knowledge is weak in linear model concept, give detailedconceptual information about the model along with examples/non-examples of the model.
Example B:Problem: In case of the portfolio return, present only the concept and
procedures involved in determining portfolio return.User: If the user knowledge is strong in the concept of determining
portfolio return but weak in calculating portfolio return, then givebrief conceptual information and detailed step-by-step procedure
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for calculating portfolio return.
User Diagnosis Model: This sub-component stores information about how to
interpret the user history. This sub-component has models and rules needed to
interpret the conceptual and the procedural knowledge levels of the user and
determine the level of expertise and support needs.
Example A:Concepts: If the user does not know what a trend is, the difference between
high and low fluctuation, and what seasonality is, then the userknowledge in linear model is weak;If at least two (of the above three) concepts are clear, then the userknowledge in linear model is average;If all the concepts are clear, then the user knowledge in linearmodel is strong.
Procedure: If historically the user was never able to perform this task, then theuser knowledge is weak in finding coefficient of independentvariables ; If the user was able to perform the task successfully half of thetime, then the user knowledge is average in the procedure;If the user was able to perform the task successfully most of thetime, then the user knowledge is strong in the procedure.
Example B:Concepts: If the user portfolio does not match with optimal portfolio given
user’s risk preference, time horizon, and financial condition, he isconceptually weak in understanding one or more of these threedimensions. The degree of weakness can be determined by the sizeof the difference in the portfolios.
Procedure: If the user has never been able to perform the procedure ofdetermining portfolio return, then the user is weak in the procedure.If the user has determined the portfolio return successfully abouthalf of the time, then the user is average in the procedure.
Adaptation: This component integrates the sub-components of the data and model
components to infer about the adaptive support. The component has three sub-
components: Expert problem solving evaluation, user performance evaluation, and
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guidance.
Expert Problem Solving Evaluation: This sub-component represents expert's
evaluation of the problem and problem solving knowledge. It matches the problem
sub-component from the data component and the problem solving model sub-
component from the model component and determines the concepts and
procedures related to the problem. It creates a dynamic task profile of the
associated concepts and procedures for solving the given problem. For example,
Let's say problem T11 is selected from the problem sub-component of thedata component. The expert problem solving evaluation sub-componentidentifies the key features of the problem T11, (such as linear trend, lowfluctuations, no seasonality for the example A and low risk preference,short time horizon for the example B). Then, it uses the models from theproblem solving model sub-component of the model component anddetermines the associated concepts and the associated procedures as shownbelow:
Problem: T11.Associated concepts: C1 and C8Associated procedures: P2, P6, P8 and P14.
User Performance Evaluation: This sub-component evaluates the performance
level of the user and develops a dynamic user performance profile for both
concepts and procedures. As the user uses the system, the history of interaction is
recorded in the user history sub-component of the data component. The user
performance evaluation sub-component, uses the user history and interprets the
knowledge of the user based on the user diagnosis knowledge. For example,
Let's say the user is Jeff Jones and has used the system for quite sometimeand the system has accumulated a history of interaction during this time.
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The user performance evaluation sub-component matches the interactionsrecorded in the user history sub-component of the data components withthe models form the user diagnosis model of the model component. Fromthe comparison it determines a user profile indicating Jeff’s degree ofknowledge of concepts and procedures as shown below:
User: Jeff Jones. Concepts: Weak-C1, C3 and C7;
Average- C2, C4 and C5; Strong- C6 and C8.
Procedure: Weak-P1, P2, P9 and P14; Average-P3, P5, P6, P7, P8, and P10; Strong-P4, P11, P12, and P13.
Guidance: This sub-component compares the task profile from the expert problem
solving evaluation sub-component with the user profile from the user performance
evaluation sub-component. It compares knowledge required for an associated
concept with user's knowledge in the concept and determines the concept
differences ()C). It also compares the proficiency required to preform an
associated procedure with the user's proficiency in performing the procedure and
determines the procedure differences ()P). Based on )C and )P, this sub-
component determines which concepts and procedures should be presented and at
what level. For example,
Jeff Jones is given the problem T11. This problem has C1 and C8 asassociated concepts and P2, P6, P8 and P14 as associated procedures. Jeffis weak in concept C1 and procedures P2 and P14, average in proceduresP6 and P8, and strong in concept C8. So, the guidance sub-componentdetermines to provide Jeff the detailed information along with examplesand non-examples of C1, P2 and P14, the detailed information about P6and P8, and only the brief information about C8.
Problem: T11.Associated concepts: C1 and C8Associated procedures: P2, P6, P8 and P14.
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User: Jeff JonesConcepts: Weak-C1, C3 and C7;
Average- C2, C4 and C5; Strong- C6 and C8.
Procedure: Weak-P1, P2, P9 and P14; Average-P3, P5, P6, P7, P8, and P10; Strong-P4, P11, P12, and P13.
Prescription:Concepts: C1 - Detailed information along with examples
and non-examplesC8 - Brief information
Procedures: P2 - Detailed information along with examplesand non-examples
P6 - Detailed informationP8 - Detailed informationP14 - Detailed information along with examples
and non-examples.
User Interface (dialogue): The user interface component is the link between the user
and the system. This component is the one that is seen and used directly by the user, so the
user may think that this is the system. It is a self-adaptive interface that automatically
adjusts to the users' preferences and tasks, and provides the functionality and form
required to match the interface to a specific user performing a specific task. Self-adaptive
interface promotes ease-of-use and consistency of features in the interface that are
important factors in establishing usefulness and success of the system.
5. ADSS Prototype
Problem Description: We used the exploratory system development process
methodology [21] to investigate the proposed architecture with a prototype system. We
selected forecasting, specifically data analysis and model selection, as the area of domain
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knowledge. In this prototype system, the user is provided with the sales data plotted
against time and asked to examine the plot and select the most appropriate forecasting
model to predict future sales. The system presents four cases/problems (labeled A, B, C,
and D) of sales data, each of the problems requires different forecasting model. The user
examines the cases one at a time in a sequential and irreversible order, and selects an
appropriate forecasting model for each case. In solving the problems, the user can access
information about the data and the models pertinent to forecasting. The information may
help in analyzing the data plot and selecting an appropriate model. In this prototype, the
user's history of interactions in solving each case is stored to or retrieved from a database.
Prototype Description: We developed the system, by mapping the conceptual
components of the architecture to different files, programs and other features in
KnowledgePro software package. KnowledgePro is an environment that supports rapid
prototyping in rule-based programming for expert systems. The software allows reading
and writing to a variety of file and graphic formats. An add-on package called KPWIN ++
generates C++ code for the KnowledgePro-based programs and compiles them into run-
time executable files.
Physical representation: As described in the architecture, the system consists of the data,
model, adaptation and user interface components. Each component is divided into sub-
components.
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Data: This component consists of the problem, the concepts/procedures, and the
user history sub-components. It has data in the form of independent data files and
random access memory (temporal data).
Problem
The problem data are loaded by runtime programs from an independent file on a
disk. The data are presented to the user in a graphical format (bitmap) as a time
series plot which the user has to analyze.
Concept/Procedure
The concepts and procedures are assembled in text and graphics formats, in
accordance with the problem type and the problem solving stage requirements.
They are stored in files on a disk.
User History
This sub-component deals with temporal data. However, to maintain a cumulative
user profile, the data from the random access memory is dumped to a trace (ASCII
text/database) file, after every significant event. This file contains data regarding
navigation, time stamping, results, performance, etc. In every new session, the
trace file from the previous sessions of the user is accessed to adjust for the
previously learned concepts and procedures.
Model: This component consists of rule-based programs (executables), which store
the various models used by the system. The model component encapsulates three
sub-components: the problem solving model, the guidance/instruction model, and
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 24
the user diagnosis.
Problem Solving Model
This sub-component contains the problem solving models, represented through
associated concepts and associated procedures. We have modeled this knowledge
by programming in Knowledge Pro's rule-based expert system shell.
Guidance/Instruction Model
This sub-component is represented by the models that determine the format of the
presentation of the concepts and procedures that the user may require. The
inference is based on the performance of the user.
User Diagnosis Model
This sub-component has rules that diagnose and interpret the user history for
determining the strengths and weaknesses of the user in the domain knowledge.
Adaptation: This component has three sub-components. All sub-components are
exclusively rule based. The expert problem/solving evaluation sub-component
associates the problem file name with the problem solving knowledge rule block.
After comparing the problem and the expert's opinion, the sub-component
determines the expert's representation of the required concepts (C ) and theE
procedures (P ). The user performance evaluation sub-component examines userE
history from the trace file and the user diagnosis knowledge. Using the two, this
sub-component determines the concepts (C ) reviewed and procedure (P )U U
performed by the user. All these values are stored as temporal data in the RAM.
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 25
Finally, the guidance sub-component compares the inferences from the expert
problem solving evaluation sub-component and the user performance evaluation
sub-component, and generates the deviations for concepts ()C) and procedure
()P). The guidance sub-component determines which and in what format the
concepts and procedures need to be presented. The concepts and procedures are
obtained from the data component's concept/procedure sub-component, and the
presentation format is obtained from the model component’s guidance/instruction
sub-component. The system bases its inferences of formats and concepts on the
user profile and present user performance ()C and )P). In the prototype system,
the outcome for each of the four cases can be either right or wrong. Therefore, as
more information is gathered, the decision tree develops more branches. As an
example, trees for cases A and B are shown in figures 2 and 3 respectively.
********** Insert Figure 2 about here ***********
********** Insert Figure 3 about here ***********
For case A (Figure 2), the system uses the user history, which indicates that the
user could have been right or wrong about case A type of problems in previous
sessions. The outcome here refers to concepts and the format of presentation.
Therefore, while the user is in case A, he/she can get one of the two types of
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 26
outcomes. As the system proceeds to case B (Figure 3), the user's performance
profile has changed. It now consists of not only the performance in previous
sessions, but also of the performance on case A. This information is used in
conjunction with the user's history. In case B, the outcomes increase to four. This
is due to the number of combinations. It must be noted, that the user's performance
is a cumulative variable. We have used this approach to decrease the search time
for outcomes, and to make the process of concept retrieval and presentation more
efficient. Based on the inferences made by the guidance/instruction sub-
component, the concepts are presented to the user through the user interface.
Now for case C, we will have updated user history and the performance in case B.
User Interface: The user interface is designed in Microsoft Windows 3.1. By using
windows and buttons, the system provides the ease of navigation. The hypertext is
constrained to prevent the user from getting lost in hyperspace. For example, while
using the system, only the relevant hot regions are activated. These controls are
coded using KnowledgePro's event based topic controls.
Sample Session and Explanation: The user begins by registration. Registration allows the
system to retrieve the user's history from the database. Then the user is presented with an
information screen containing all the relevant and required information for using the
system. After reading the instructions, the user continues by clicking on the Continue
button. The system is designed to keep control over decision making process with the
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 27
user.
********** Insert Figure 4 about here ***********
********** Insert Figure 5 about here ***********
The next screen consists of two windows (shown in figures 4 and 5), which show the data
plot (Figure 5) for case A, and a menu pad (Figure 4) for access to guidance/instruction,
and for model selection. The user can click on any of the specific information buttons to
get extended guidance/instruction on those models, in the context of the present problem.
For example, by clicking on the "Information" button on "Least Squares Regression", the
information provided consists of textual information on least squares regression, and a
suggestion about the data. The screen also displays the current plot . When the user
selects the least squares model, the system provides feedback, indicating that the choice
was wrong. The system automatically proceeds to case B. This time the user selects
information option for Least Squares Regression. The screen looks different this time.
This is due to the fact that the user chose the wrong model for case A. Therefore the
guidance is more extended. A comparison of the two information screens is shown in
figures for case A and case B.
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 28
********** Insert Figure 6 about here ***********
********** Insert Figure 7 about here ***********
Comparing the figures 6 and 7, we see that in addition to the information in Case A
(Figure 6), the figure for case B (Figure 7) provides a comparison of example and non-
example. The user selects the least squares model this time. The feedback from the system
indicates the choice to be correct. The system proceeds to case C (Figure 8). In case C, by
clicking on the information option for "Least Squares", it displays a third format. In this
format the information includes three plots illustrating the key factors in forecasting. The
reasoning for this format is based on the performance of the user on previous sessions
(user history) and the performance on cases A and B (i.e. user history, and present user
performance).
********** Insert Figure 8 about here ***********
********** Insert Figure 9 about here ***********
The user selects exponential smoothing model. The system indicates that this model is
wrong. At this point, the user has two wrong and one correct choice. The system
continues to case D (Figure 9). Finally, case D reveals information on moving average
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 29
model, which explains the modeling technique, shows a data plot, provides graphical
comparisons, and indicates strongly that the user should not use moving average("So you
should not use moving average model..."). Comparing the figures for case C and case D,
we see that the graphical information and text are different. The suggestion also is
different, with a more emphatic statement in case D.
Hence, the system adapts to the user’s history from previous sessions, and makes fine
adjustments as the user goes from one problem to the other.
6. Results from a Preliminary Empirical Investigation:
We used the prototype discussed in the previous section to conduct a preliminary
empirical investigation in a laboratory environment. The study and the results are reported
in detail in other publications and conclusions are briefly discussed in the following1
paragraphs. One hundred and thirty five subjects participated in the study. The preliminary
results from the experiment show that the meta-support in DSS’s increases decision-
making performance, learning and satisfaction of the users. The study examined decisional,
instructional and cognitive aspects related to the support provided by the system.
On the decisional aspects, the decision quality improved, however, the decision time
increased. The reason for the increase in the decision time is that the user spends more
time using the DSS facility to explore more alternatives and increase understanding. The
users with dynamic guidance, where the message content is tailored to the user’s needs,
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 30
performed better than the users with predefined guidance, where the users got “canned” or
pre-determined messages. The users with suggestive guidance, where the system provides
recommendation, did not perform better than the users with informative guidance, where
the system provides detailed information without any recommendations. [Refer to Pub. 11
for details].
On the instructional aspects, the users of the DSS with guidance learned significantly more
than the users of the DSS without guidance. In addition, the users of the DSS with
guidance were more satisfied with the overall process of decision-making than the users of
the DSS without guidance. Also, the users with dynamic guidance learned more and were
more satisfied with the process than the users with predefined guidance. Furthermore, the
users with informative guidance learned more than the users with suggestive guidance.
However, both groups were equally satisfied with the process [Refer to Pub. 2 for1
details].
On the cognitive aspects, the influence of guidance on the user depended on the user’s
cognitive styles. We used Jung’s Psychological Types with Myers-Briggs Type Indicators
to determine cognitive styles of the users. The users with Sensing-Dominant and Thinking-
Auxiliary (ST) type performed better than the users with Intuition-Dominant and
Thinking-Auxiliary(IT) type. Furthermore, the ST users with dynamic guidance performed
better than the ST users with predefined guidance. However, the ST users with suggestive
guidance did not perform better than the ST users with informative guidance [Refer to
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 31
Pub. 3 for details].1
7. Summary and Conclusion
Traditionally, DSS’s have provided support for low level cognitive tasks. To increase
decision support effectiveness of DSS’s, there is a need to support high level cognitive
tasks which require human mental activities of reasoning and learning. In this paper, we
propose ADSS’s which provide support for high level cognitive tasks by dynamically
adapting system support to the knowledge level of the user, the decision task
characteristics, and the context in which the decision is made. ADSS’s are a result of
integration of research in the field of decision support systems, cognitive science, and
artificial intelligence.
ADSS’s monitor the problem solving processes and the human decision-maker to
determine the support needs for making the judgmental inputs. The systems determine the
gaps in the conceptual and procedural knowledge of the user for performing the given
decision task. Based on the gaps, the systems determine the support needs and customize
the support to match the needs.
ADSS’s have, in addition to the data, model and user interface components of the
traditional DSS’s, an "adaptation" component. The adaptation component uses artificial
intelligence techniques to identify user needs and problem solving model, and matches
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 32
them with appropriate level of support.
We developed a prototype ADSS with decisional guidance capabilities to support the
decision-maker in selecting an appropriate forecasting model for a given set of data.
Selection of the appropriate forecasting model required user judgement as to which
forecasting model was more appropriate. The prototype system provided guidance for
making the judgement, the guidance was matched to the particular user’s needs and the
decision task on hand. A preliminary empirical investigation was conducted using the
prototype. The investigation was designed on the basis of a research practice where the
researchers invent and test ways for improving decision-making effectiveness. The results
of the investigation show that the guidance for judgmental inputs improves decision
quality, user learning, and user satisfaction.
This study provides an architecture to integrate the currently disparate and fragmented
research efforts. By applying this architecture in the development of real world DSS’s,
decision-support effectiveness of the DSS’s could be increased.
ADSS’s can be applied to other areas of decision making. We anticipate their usefulness
will be optimal in the areas, (1) where the task environment is unstructured requiring more
judgmental inputs from the decision-maker and (2) where the impact of the decision is
high, such as strategic management and crisis management.
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 33
In strategic management and planning, top management has to develop comprehensive
strategies to cope with the instability, uncertainty, and complexity of the environment.
This requires sophisticated and comprehensive understanding of the internal and the
external factors to develop strategic plans for long term direction of the establishment.
While a traditional DSS does not adequately support tasks like problem formulation and
problem structuring, an ADSS can provide support for high level cognitive tasks such as
setting goals and objectives, evaluation of alternative strategies, and stakeholder analysis
[15].
In crisis management situation, a tendency is to consider a limited number of alternatives
and quickly reach a decision. The limited analysis reduces the decision quality by rejecting
a correct course of action, accepting a wrong solution to the problem, solving the wrong
problem, and solving the right problem correctly but too late [22]. ADSS’s can support
the decision-making process by supporting generation and evaluation of more alternatives,
identifying objectives, and evaluating the consequences.
Although we performed a preliminary investigation of the architecture using a prototype
with decisional guidance capabilities, there is a need for further research. We suggest
ADSS research in the following areas:
1. Investigate ADSS’s for unstructured and complex decision-making situations.
2. Develop and test alternative strategies for adaptive support.
3. Study the impact of adaptive support on the expert and novice decision-makers.
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 34
4. Investigate the use of emerging technologies (e.g., neural networks, fuzzy logic,
and genetic algorithms) in developing ADSS’s. New developments in on-line
analytical processing and data-mining could also be used in building ADSS’s.
5. Investigate other related issues such as information overload, biasing behavior, and
restriction on flexibility and creativity in the context of ADSS’s.
USER
User Interface (Dialogue)
ExpertProblem Solving
Evaluation
Guidance
Module
UserPerformanceEvaluation
ProblemUserHistory
ProblemSolvingModel
Guidance/InstructionModel
UserDiagnosis
Model
DATA MODELS
ADAPTATION
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 35
Figure 1: An Architecture of Adaptive Decision Support Systems
Outcome for Case A
Profile of
User
Right
Wrong
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 36
Figure 2: Decision tree for Case A
Outcome forCase B
Result of
A
Right and Right
Wrong and Right
Right and Wrong
Wrong and Wrong
Profile of
User
R
R
W
R
R
W
W
W
R = RightW = Wrong
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 37
Figure 3: Decision tree for Case B
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 38
Figure 4: Menu pad
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 39
Figure 5: Data plot
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 40
Figure 6: Guidance screen for Case A
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 41
Figure 7: Guidance screen for Case B
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 42
Figure 8: Guidance screen for Case C
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 43
Figure 9: Guidance screen for Case D
Fazlollahi, et. al./ 44
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Footnote
Refer to the following three publications for details:1
Pub. 1: Fazlollahi, Parikh and Verma (1995). Evaluation of Decisional Guidance in Decision Support
Systems: An Empirical Study. Proceedings of the Third International Conference of the Decision
Sciences Institute, June 1995, Pueblo, Mexico; pp. 78-80.
Pub. 2: Fazlollahi, Parikh and Verma (1995). Evaluation of Alternate Instructional Strategies in Intelligent
Coaching Systems: An Empirical Study. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Meeting of the Decision
Science Institute, November 1995, Boston, MA; pp. 499-501.
Pub. 3: Fazlollahi, Parikh and Verma (1995). Influence of Decision Making Cognitive Style on the Design
Features of Intelligent Guidance/Help for DSS: An Empirical Study. Proceedings of the 1995
Information Resources Management Association International Conference, May 1995, Atlanta, GA;
pp. 25-30.