Adamawa State University Journal of Agricultural Sciences ... · Web viewThirty-six (36) weaned...

HAEMATOLOGICAL AND SERUM BIOCHEMICAL INDICES OF WEANED RABBITS FED CHRISTMAS BUSH (Alchornea cordifolia) LEAF MEAL

EBEGBULEM, V. N.1, *DAUDA, A.1, DUWA, H.2

1Department of Animal Science, University of Calabar, P.M.B. 1115, Calabar, Nigeria.2Department of Animal Science, University of Maiduguri, P.M.B. 1069, Maiduguri, Nigeria.

*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

AbstractThirty-six (36) weaned rabbits of mixed breeds and sex between the ages of 4 and 6 weeks with average weight of 561.2 – 581.3 g were fed graded levels of Alchornea cordifolia leaf meal (ACLM) at different inclusion levels in the diet. This was aimed at evaluating the effect of ACLM on haematological and serum biochemical indices of the rabbits. Rabbits were assigned to the test diets using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Nine (9) rabbits were randomly allotted to each dietary treatment T1, T2, T3, T4 containing 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% of ACLM respectively, with three rabbits per replicate after balancing for body weight. The experiment lasted for eight (8) weeks. The haematological parameters values showed that white blood cell ranged from 5.43 – 7.03, red blood cell ranged from 4.85 – 5.98, haemoglobin ranged from 9.90–13.00, Mean Corpuscular Volume ranged from 68.17-71.53, Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration ranged from 30.20 – 31.37 and Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin ranged from 20.57 – 22.20. There was also no significant difference (P>0.05) in the haematological indices characteristics of rabbit fed ACLM except the lymphocyte which ranged from 3.77 – 6.20. The results of serum biochemical indices of rabbits fed ACLM indicated no significant differences (P>0.05) except triglyceride (TRIG) which ranged from 1.11 – 2.00, Low Density of Lipoprotein in cholesterol (LDL) ranged from 0.31 – 1.15 and Very low Density Lipoprotein in cholesterol (VLDL) ranged from 0.56 – 1.00. The study concluded that inclusion of ACLM up to 15% did not significantly influence the haematological indices except for the lymphocyte. The biochemical parameters of the rabbits showed no significant difference (P>0.05) except for the very low density lipoprotein in cholesterol, low density of lipoprotein in cholesterol and Triglyceride. Therefore, it was recommended that ACLM can replace wheat offal up to 15% in rabbit diet. Keywords: Rabbit, Haematological, Serum, Biochemical indices

IntroductionHigh cost of livestock production often precipitated mainly by high cost of finished feed is one of

the major causes of animal protein shortage in developing countries (Safwat et al., 2015). This could be attributed to scarcity of plant protein and energy concentrates. Therefore, reduction of the total production cost through the replacement of the expensive conventional feed stuffs by the unconventional ones that are not of high or any demand by human had been recently advocated (Oloruntola et al., 2015). Agunbiade et al. (2000) noted that apart from the fact that these are keenly competed for by humans, they are being imported into the country resulting in a situation that degenerates into a continuous rise in the cost of feed for human and animal feeding. Measures aimed at alleviating feed cost in animal production centred on the introduction of non-conventional feedstuffs. The non-conventional feed ingredient could be processed into a high quality feedstuff that can favourably supplement protein and energy sources which currently play the dual role of feeding man and his livestock. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) have been recommended as having the best productive advantage to utilize the non-conventional feed sources to bridge the animal protein gab in Nigeria (Agunbiade et al., 2000).

Non-Conventional Feed Stuff (NCF) offers the best alternative for the reduction in feed cost which ultimately leads to reduction in price of meat and other animal products (Taiwo et al., 2005). However, for these NCFs to meet the need of reducing cost of production, they must be available all year around and should be easy to produce and process. Non-conventional feed stuff may be of animal, plant or mineral origin (Dandu et al., 2009). The Christmas Bush (Alchornea cordifolia) shrub belongs to the family of Euphoribiaceace. It is found along the coastal areas of West Africa, in swampy and/or dry land (Kemeseiyefa et al., 2014). Alchornea cordifolia has been reported to have antibacterial (Ajao et al., 1985), antispasmodic (Ogungbamila and Samuelsson, 1990), anti-inflammatory (Osadebe and Okoye, 2003), anti-diarrhoea (Agbor et al., 2004) properties. Alchornea cordifolia raw seed meal contain toxic substances notably phytic acids, tannins, and saponins (Emenalom et al., 2009). Alchornea cordifolia is a tropical browse plant that little is known about the use in the feeding of non-ruminant animals. It is valuable in subsistence agriculture because its foliage are frequently fed to grazing animals or processed

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Adamawa State University Journal of Agricultural Sciences – Volume 5; June, 2017 ISSN: 2276-8491

into leaf meal for non-ruminants (Emenalom et al., 2009). Haematological parameters are indices for reflecting of the effects of dietary treatments on the animals in terms of the type, amount of feed ingested and available nutrients to meet the physiological, biochemical and metabolic need (Ewuola et al., 2004). This study was aimed at determining the effect of Alchornea cordifolia leaf meal on the haematological indices and serum biochemistry of weaner rabbits.

Materials and MethodsThis study was carried out at the Rabbitry Unit of the Department of Animal Science Teaching

and Research Farm, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria. Calabar is geographically situated between latitude 4058′ and 15°39′N and longitude 8°17′ and 10043′E of the equator, with annual temperature and rainfall ranges of 25°C to 28°C and 1260 mm to 1280 mm, respectively. The relative humidity rarely drops below 60% and fluctuates between 90 and 100% most months of the year (NMA, 2016). The test ingredient, Alchornea cordifolia leaves, was collected along University of Calabar farm. It was air dried for 7 days and milled before inclusion in the diet. A total of thirty six (36) weaned rabbits of mixed breed and sex between the ages of 4 and 6 weeks with average weight of 561.2 – 581.3g were allotted to dietary treatment T1, T2, T3, T4 containing 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% of ACLM, respectively, with nine rabbits per treatment and three per replicate were used for the study. Rabbits were assigned to the test diets using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Feed was given morning and evening throughout the period of the experiment and water was given ad-libitum. Feeders, drinkers and the animals, were also kept clean. At the end of feeding trial, blood was obtained from the jugular veins 12 rabbits (three per treatment) for haematological and serum biochemistry. Samples of blood were collected using the ear-vein procedure (Radostits et al., 1994). Each blood sample was put into test tubes containing Ethylene Diaminetetraacetic Acid (EDTA). Parameter measured/calculated by standard haematological procedures were White Blood Cell (WBC), Red Blood Cell (RBC), Haemoglobin (Hb), Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV), mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) and total counts and differential count Lymphocyte (LYM). The following indices: Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH), Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) and Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) were calculated according to Seiverd (1964). Serum biochemistry indices are High Density (HDL), Very Low Density Lipoprotein in cholesterol (VLDL), Low Density of Lipoprotein in cholesterol (LDL), Alanine Amino Transferase (ALT) and Aspartate Amino Transferase (AST). All data were analysed using One-way Analysis of Variance in Completely Randomised Design as reported by Steel and Torrie (1980) and means were compared using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.

Table 1: Ingredient Composition and Calculated analysis of Experimental Diets for Weaner RabbitsIngredients (%) Level of ACLM ingredients

T1 (0%) T2 (5%) T3 (10%) T4 (15%)Yellow Maize 36.00 36.00 36.00 36.00ACLM 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00Palm oil 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20Crayfish dust 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00Wheat offal 31.90 26.90 21.90 16.90Rice husk 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00Bone meal 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00Lysine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25Methionine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25Salt 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10*Premix 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00Calculated analysisCrude protein 15.85 15.87 15.92 15.97Crude fibre 10.24 10.78 10.32 11.87ME (Kcal/kg) 2546.24 2621.46 2696.24 2711.24

ACLM=Alchornea cordifolia leaf meal.*Premix (grow fast) Manufactured by Animal Care Service Consults Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, supplying the following per kg of premix; vitamin A = 32,000,000 IU, vitamin B3 = 640,000 IU, vitamin E = 2,000 IU, vitamin K = 800 mg, thiamine (B 1) =600 mg, riboflavin

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(B2) = 1600 mg, pyridoxine (B6) = 600 mg, vitamin B12 = 4 mg, pantothenic acid = 2000 mg, folic acid= 200 mg, biotin = 8 mg, choline = 80 mg, antioxidant = 50 g, manganese = 32 g, zinc = 20 g, iron = 8 g, copper = 2 g, iodine = 0.48 mg, selenium = 80 mg and cobalt = 80 mg.

Results and DiscussionTable 2: Proximate Composition of the Experimental Diet and ACLM

Proximate fractions (%) Level of ACLM ingredients ACLMT1 (0%) T2 (5%) T3 (10%) T4 (15%)

Crude proteinEther extractCrude FibreAshNitrogen free extractMoisture

8.75 13.12 17.50 15.75 13.506.5 5.0 2.5 5.0 1.1015.0 15.0 12.0 18.0 21.607.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.0062.75 61.88 63.0 56.25 60.4010.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 7.25

ACLM=Alchornea cordifolia leaf meal

The proximate composition of the experimental diets and ACLM are presented in Table 2. The crude protein value of 13.50% in ACLM is similar to the value of 13.58% reported bb983), ash 5 - 7% fall within the recommended range of 7.54 – 9.01 %, which is adequate for rabbit growth (Duwa et al., 2014). The value of nitrogen free extract (NFE) range from 56.25 – 62.75 in this study is higher than the nitrogen-free extract of 39.53% reported by Timbitei et al. (2014). This variation might be as a result of the differences in test ingredients and materials used for feed formulation.

The results of haematological characteristics of rabbits fed ACLM are presented in Table 3. There is no significant difference (P>0.05) in the haematological parameters of rabbits fed ACLM excepy lymphocyte. Since Haematological indices are reflection of the effects of dietary treatments on animals in terms of the quality of feed ingested and nutrients available to an animal to meet its physiological requirements (Gbore and Akele, 2010). The high value of 6.20 was found in T3 (10% ACLM). This might be that at 10 % ACLM rabbits immune systems were challenged by antigen (toxin) probably as Anti-nutritional factors in the diet which interfered with the digestion of dietary proteins and carbohydrates (Nodu et al., 2014). This could also be that rabbit in treatment three (T3) suffered infection (Charles et al., 2001). The value of WBC and RBC obtained in this study 5.43-7.03x109/L and 4.85-5.98x109/L respectively is close to the range 4.50-7.03x109/L and 4.50-5.98x109/L reported by Kemeseiyefa et al. (2014) who used ACLM to feed rabbit does.

The results of serum biochemical indices of rabbits fed ACLM are presented in Table 4. The serum biochemical indices of rabbits fed ACLM showed no significant difference (P>0.05) except Triglycerides (TRIG), very low density lipoprotein in cholesterol (VLDL) and low density of lipoprotein in cholesterol (LDLC). This means that ACLM has effect on TRIG, VLDL and LDL. The LDL value increases with an increase in the percent of the test material (ACLM) which is an indication that the higher the test ingredient the higher the value of LDL. LDL transfer lipids (fats) around the body in the extra-cellular fluid thereby facilitating fats to be available and taken up by the cells body via receptor-mediated endocytosis (Dashti et al., 2011). Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol in this study increases with an increase in percent of ACLM. This may imply that the test material (ACLM) is rich in proteins which are in liver since TRIG, VLDL and LDL are proteins released by the liver during starvation period. VLDL is produced in the liver and released into the bloodstream to supply body tissues with a type of fat (triglycerides) (Queiroz et al., 2010). Very low-density lipoproteins transport-endogenous triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and cholesteryl Esters function as the body's internal transport mechanism for lipids. In addition, it serves for long-range transport of hydrophobic intercellular messengers proteins (Queiroz et al., 2010). Triglycerides are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other animals, as well as vegetable fat they are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver (Nelson and Cox, 2000). Since Serum biochemical is used to determine the level of heart attack, liver and kidney as well as to evaluate protein quality and amino acid requirements in animals (Harper et al., 1999). Therefore, this implies that an increase in ACLM up to 15% might support healthy growth in rabbit, because VLDL-TRIG can be used as an energy source by various tissues, or taken up and stored in adipose tissue. Secretion of Fat as TRIG, therefore serves as an additional potential energy source in the form of circulating lipids (Wolfe, 1989).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor-mediated_endocytosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor-mediated_endocytosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular_fluid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular_fluid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid

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Table 3: Haematological characteristic of rabbits fed ACLMParameter T1 (0%) T2 (5%) T3 (10%) T4 (15%) SEM LOSWBC (109/ l )RBC (106/l)Hb (g/dl)MCV (fl)

MCH (Pg)

MCHC (%)

6.73 7.03 6.93 5.43 1.91 NS4.85 5.98 5.94 5.21 0.88 NS9.90 13.00 12.87 11.50 1.72 NS68.17 71.03 71.53 70.87 2.58 NS20.57 21.73 21.73 22.20 0.75 NS30.20 30.63 30.40 31.37 0.65 NS

LYM (%) 3.77ab 4.17ab 6.20a 0.00b 1.46 *A and b the means in the same row with different superscript are significantly different (P<0.05), NS = Not Significant (P>0.05), *= significant (P<0.05) SEM=standard error of mean, LOS= level of significant, WBC=white blood cell, RBC=red blood cell, Hb=haemoglobin, MCV=mean corpuscular volume, MCHC= mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, LYM=lymphocyte, *= significant

Table 4: Serum biochemical indices of rabbits fed ACLMParameter T1(0%) T2(5%) T3(10%) T4(15%) SEM LOSGlucose (mg/dl) 3.90 3.74 3.87 3.49 0.33 NSCholesterol (mmol/L) 4.09 5.00 4.74 5.36 0.30 NSTotal protein (g/dl) 4.74 5.10 4.37 5.18 0.50 NSAlbumin (mg/dl) 3.04 3.27 2.79 3.31 0.32 NSGlobulin (mg/dl) 1.70 1.83 1.57 1.86 0.18 NSALT (iµ/i) 18.33 22.33 26.33 21.00 2.31 NSAST (iµ/i) 21.67 19.00 27.00 25.67 2.21 NSHDL (mg/dl) 3.23 3.60 3.25 3.48 0.22 NSTriglyceride (mg/dl) 1.11b 1.32 1.98a 2.00a 0.08 *VLDL (mg/dl) 0.56b 0.66 0.99a 1.00a 0.04 *LDL (mg/dl) 0.31b 0.75 0.80ab 1.15a 0.17 *Calcium (mg/dl) 2.20 2.49 2.29 2.50 0.24 NS

a, b, c the means in the same row with different superscript are significantly different (P<0.05), NS = Not Significant different (P<0.05)SEM=standard error of mean, LOS= level of significant, HDL=high density, VLDL=very low density lipoprotein in cholesterol, LDL=low density of lipoprotein in cholesterol, ALT=alanine aminotransferase, AST=aspartate amino transferase and ACLM= Alchornea cordifolia leaf meal, * = significant (P<0.05).

ConclusionThe study concluded that inclusion of ACLM up to 15% did not significantly influence the

haematological characteristics of the rabbits except for the lymphocyte. The biochemical parameters also showed no significant (P>0.05) difference among the dietary treatment except for the very low density lipoprotein in cholesterol, low density of lipoprotein in cholesterol and Triglyceride. Therefore, ACLM can replace wheat offal up to 15% without adverse effect. Based on the findings of this study, it can be recommended that ACLM up to 15% be included in the diet of rabbits to support healthy growth as well as serve as energy source to various tissues.

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Adamawa State University Journal of Agricultural Sciences (ADSUJAS) Volume 5, June, 2017 ISSN 2276-8491

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PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS OF BROILER CHICKENS FED VARYING LEVELS OF GINGER (Zingiber officinale) DIET

1EBEGBULEM, V. N. and 2ITA, U. R. Department of Animal Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria

Correspondence: [email protected]: +2348064473566

AbstractAn experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of inclusion of graded levels (0, 2, 4, 6 and 8%) of ginger in the diet of broiler chickens on their performance and carcass characteristics. A total of two hundred (200) Anak 2000 day-old broiler chicks were used for the feeding trial. The chicks were allotted to five (5) dietary treatments at 40 birds per treatment. Each treatment had four replicates of ten (10) birds per replicate. Growth parameters studied include feed intake, live body weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio. The result obtained from the study showed that inclusion of ginger at 8% into the diet of broiler birds gave the best performance at the finisher phase in terms of final live weight, weight gain, Feed Intake and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR). Results of the carcass characteristics study revealed that the treatment groups significantly (p<0.01) differed in most carcass traits. Carcass dressing percentage ranged from 63.73 – 71.04 %, the least being recorded in birds fed 8% ginger diet. Dressing percentage of the 2-6% ginger fed groups were statistically similar to the control group. It was concluded that the inclusion of up to 8% of ginger in broiler diet yielded an improvement in final live weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio of the birds. Equally, it led to a reduced feed intake thereby enhancing feed efficiency. On the other hand, ginger inclusion in the diet of broiler chickens up to 8% did not elicit an improvement in carcass characteristics of the birds.Keywords: Broiler chicken, growth performance, carcass characteristics, ginger powder

IntroductionInadequate animal protein intake is rife in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa due to high cost of animal

feed ingredients. This necessitates the judicious manipulation of feed ingredients to ensure an economic production of meat. The use of growth promoters including antibiotics has been practiced for several decades in the production of poultry meat and eggs. Although birds raised with antibiotics growth promoters achieve good performance, the danger presented by their potential side effect became a global public health concern. The concerns about possible antibiotic residues and antibiotic resistance aroused great caution in antibiotic usage in the animal industry (Rahimi et al., 2011). The consequent ban on the use of antibiotics in the animal industry in many countries opened up series of alternative feed additives in animal production. Natural substances such as ginger, garlic, onions, etc have been employed (Farinu et al., 2004; Moorthy et al., 2009; Ademola et al., 2009; Onu, 2010).

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a widely used plant either as a spice or a traditional medicinal treatment for certain ailments. In poultry nutrition, ginger has been reported to enhance nutrient digestibility and absorption feed intake and feed efficiency, as well as bodyweight gain (Onu, 2010; Herawati, 2010; Zhao et al., 2011). Ginger oil (containing zingiberol, zingiberene, phellandrene and linalool) has been shown to possess antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, thereby enhancing the health status of animals (Botsoglou et al., 2003; Khan et al., 2012). Malhotra and Singh (2003) asserted that ginger has significant anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic and chemo-protective effects. Several authors have reported improved feed intake and feed conversion ratio, enhanced nutrient digestibility and absorption, as well as better performance and carcass yield when ginger is fed at between 0.25 and 5% to chickens (Zhang et al., 2009; Herawati, 2010; Onu, 2010; Zhao et al., 2011).

This study was therefore, conducted to evaluate the effect of feeding graded levels of ginger on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens.

Materials and MethodsThe study was carried out at the Poultry Unit of the University of Calabar Teaching and Research

Farm, Calabar, Nigeria. Two hundred (200) day-old Anak 2000 broiler chickens were purchased from a reputable hatchery and used for the experiment. The birds were housed together and fed a commercial diet from 0- 7 days of age in order to stabilize them before the feeding trial and thereafter separated according to their treatment groups.

Fresh ginger rhizomes were purchased from the market, washed, sliced into smaller pieces and sundried for 7 days before being ground into powder using an electronic grinder. Five (5) experimental diets were formulated containing ginger at 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8%, respectively. Each treatment group comprised four replicates of 10 birds per replicate. Treatment 1 served as the control diet with 0% ginger inclusion while treatments 2, 3, 4 and 5 contained 2, 4, 6 and 8% ginger, respectively. Birds were housed in a deep litter house


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and fed the starter diets (Table 1) from 1 – 4 weeks of age, and finisher diets (Table 2) from 5-8 weeks of age. Vaccinations against Newcastle disease was administered at day old intra-ocular and through drinking water at 18 days of age. Adequate hygiene was maintained and all standard rearing procedures followed throughout the course of the experiment. The feeding trial lasted for 8 weeks.

Growth parameters measured were feed intake, final body weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio. Carcass characteristics assessed at 8 weeks of age were live weight, slaughter weight, dressed weight and dressing percentage. Carcass parts such as thigh, breast, back, drumstick, head, neck and wings were equally assessed.

Experimental design was the Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Data collected were subjected to one-way analysis of variance using SPSS (2010) computer package. Significant mean values were separated using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1955).

ResultsStarter phase

Results of the performance of the chicks (1-4 weeks old) are presented in Table 3. The inclusion of ginger into the diet of the chicks significantly (P<0.05) influenced final live weight, weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the birds. Inclusion of ginger up to 6% resulted to a significant (P<0.05) reduction in final live weight and weight gain of the birds. Significant (p<0.05) reductions in feed intake was however recorded at 8% inclusion. It was noted that inclusion of ginger from 2-6% in diet of the chicks brought about a significantly (p<0.05) more inferior FCR (2.37-2.60) relative to the control (2.08). The 8% inclusion level however, gave a significantly better FCR (1.68) than the other treatments.

Finisher phaseDietary treatment were found to have significantly (p<0.05) affected final live weight, weight gain,

feed intake and FCR of the birds at the finisher phase (Table 4). Birds fed 8% ginger diet were significantly (p<0.05) superior to the control and those fed 4 and 6% ginger with respect to their final live weight and weight gain. Inclusion of 2, 4 and 6% ginger brought about corresponding significant (p<0.05) increment of 454.99, 167.42 and 678.57 g respectively in feed intake of the birds relative to the control group. Lowest significant (p>0.05) feed intake was recorded in T5 (8% ginger) group in comparison with other treatment groups. Similarly, FCR was superior in T5 (2.85) group relative to the other treatments. This group also recorded similar FCR results during the starter phase.

Carcass characteristicsResults of carcass characteristics of the birds are presented in Table 5. Dietary treatment significantly

(p<0.01) affected carcass traits such as live weight, slaughter weight, dressed weight and dressing percentage. Dressed weight of birds in T2 (2% ginger), T3 (4% ginger) and T4 (6% ginger) were statistically (p<0.01) similar but lower than T1 (0% ginger) and higher than T5 (8% ginger). Dressing percentage was equally comparable among T1, T2, T3 and T4 but lowest and different in T5. Carcass parts such as thigh, breast, back, drumstick, head, neck and wing were equally significantly (p<0.01) affected by dietary treatments. Inclusion of ginger at 8% elicited significantly (p<0.01) lower weight of carcass parts except breast.

DiscussionFinal live weight and weight gain of chicks fed 2 and 4% ginger diets were statistically (p<0.05)

comparable to those fed the control diet. This is in line with the report of Ademola et al. (2009) who observed increase in final live weight and weight gain of broiler chicks fed 2% ginger. At 8% inclusion of ginger in the finisher diet, a marked improvement in final live weight and weight gain of the birds relative to the control was observed. Conversely, feed intake was decreased engendering a comparatively low FCR in T5 (8% ginger) group. Fakhim et al. (2013) attributed the improvement in FCR to better digestibility attributed to the stimulation of the gastric glands by ginger, decreasing the pathogenic bacteria levels and formation of more stable intestinal flora. Incharoen and Yamauchi (2009) and Herawati (2010) reported improved FCR in chickens fed between 1 and 5% ginger diets. These reports are in agreement with the results of the present research. Dietary treatments were found to have significantly (p<0.01) affected carcass traits of the birds. The trend of differences varied among the dietary treatments. Generally, live weight, slaughter weight and dressed weight of the birds did not increase with increasing levels of ginger inclusion. Ademola et al. (2009) gave similar report in their study. On the contrary, Zhang et al. (2009) and Javed et al. (2009) reported higher carcass weights, dressing percentage, breast and leg weights in birds fed ginger extracts than the untreated group. Other authors however observed non-significant differences in carcass characteristics of ginger fed chickens (Moorthy et al., 2009; Onu, 2010). Differences between the present research findings and the reports of these authors could be attributed to different percentages of ginger inclusion, methods of treatment administration and environment.


ConclusionBased on the results obtained from this study, it can be concluded that the inclusion of up to 8% of

ginger in broiler diet yielded an improvement in final live weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio of the birds. Equally, it led to a reduced feed intake thereby enhancing feed efficiency. On the other hand, ginger inclusion in the diet of broiler chickens up to 8% did not elicit an improvement in carcass characteristics of the birds.

Table 1: Ingredient composition and calculated analysis of broiler starter dietsIngredient Levels of ginger powder in diets

T1 (0%) T2 (2%) T3 (4%) T4 (6%) T5(8%)Yellow maize 49.00 49.00 49.00 49.00 49.00Soybean meal 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00Crayfish dust 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 6.00Groundnut cake 13.00 12.00 11.00 10.90 8.90Palm kernel cake 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.50 1.40Wheat offal 7.00 6.00 5.00 3.00 3.00Ginger 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00Limestone 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00Dicalcium phosphate 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00Salt (NaCl) 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20Vitamin/mineral premix 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10Methionine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00Calculated analysisCrude protein % 23.54 23.09 22.65 22.47 20.20ME (kcal/ kg) 2936.06 2884.66 2833.26 2782.80 2734.67Crude fibre % 3.86 3.84 3.81 3.76 3.65

Vitamin/mineral premix supplied the following nutrients: Vitamin A 1120 i.u.; 2250 i.u; Vitamin E, 3.7mg ,Calcium panthothemate, 7.5 mg; riboflavin, 4.125mg; Manganese oxide, 242mg; zinc oxide, 18.75mg; copper oxide, 1.90mg; Ferrous carbonate, 30.5mg; Cobalt sulphate, 425mg.

Table 2: Ingredient composition and calculated analysis of broiler finisher dietsIngredient Levels of ginger powder in diets

T1(0%) T2(2%) T3(4%) T4(6%) T5(8%)Yellow maize 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50Soybean meal 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00Crayfish dust 3.50 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.50Groundnut cake 4.00 3.00 3.00 1.50 1.00Palm kernel cake 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00Wheat offal 15.00 14.00 13.00 13.00 12.00Ginger 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00Limestone 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00Dicalcium phosphate 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00Salt (NaCl) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25Vitamin/mineral premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25Lysine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25Methionine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00Calculated analysisCrude protein (%) 20.11 23.09 22.65 22.47 22.20ME (kcal/ kg) 2920.12 2868.72 2818.55 2764.65 2715.57Crude fibre (%) 4.18 4.16 4.11 4.15 4.09

Vitamin/mineral premix supplied the following nutrients: Vitamin A 1120 i.u.; 2250 i.u; Vitamin E, 3.7mg ,Calcium panthothemate, 7.5 mg; riboflavin, 4.125mg; Manganese oxide, 242mg; zinc oxide, 18.75mg; copper oxide, 1.90mg; Ferrous carbonate, 30.5mg; Cobalt sulphate, 425mg. Table 3: Performance of broiler starter chickens fed graded levels of ginger diet from 1-4 weeks of age

Parameter Level of ginger powder in the diet


T1 (0%) T2(2%) T3(4%) T4(6%) T5(8%) SEM

Initial body wt (g)18.80

40 40 40 40 40Final live wt (g) 810.62a 740.00ab 776.87a 715.00b 707.50b

Weight gain (g) 770.62a 700.00ab 736.87a 675.00b 667.50b 18.80Feed intake (g) 1599.98a 1821.41a 1745.98a 1721.41a 1121.42b 103.12FCR 2.08b 2.60a 2.37a 2.55a 1.68c 0.15

a,b,c Means on same row with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05)SEM = Standard error of meanFCR = Feed conversion ratio

Table 4: Performance of broiler finisher chickens fed graded levels of ginger diet from 4-8 weeks of ageParameter T2 (2%) T3 (4%) T4 (6%) T5 (8%) SEM

(Level of ginger in diet)Initial body wt (g) 810.62 740.00 776.87 715.00 707.50 18.80Final live wt (g) 1785.00b 1915.95a 1833.45b 1761.50b 2040.00a 42.02Weight gain (g) 974.38c 1175.95b 1056.58b 1046.50bc 1332.50a 51.59Feed intake (g) 4657.13b 5112.12a 4824.55a 5335.70a 3803.55c 218.79FCR 4.78a 4.34a 4.56a 5.09a 2.85b 0.32

a,b,c Means on same row with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05)SEM = Standard error of meanFCR = Feed conversion ratiowt = weight

Table 5: Carcass characteristics of broiler finisher chickens fed graded levels of ginger diet Parameter T1 (0%) T2 (2%) T3 (4%) T4 (6%) T5 (8%) SEM

(Level of ginger in diet)Live wt. (g) 1830a 1600b 1730a 1530b 1530b 48.39Slaughter wt (g) 1700a 1500b 1680a 1475b 1450b 44.72Dressed wt (g) 1300a 1100bc 1125b 1025b 975c 46.28Dressing % 71.04a 68.75a 65.03ab 66.99a 63.73b 4.08Thigh (g) 175.00b 200.00a 175.00b 200.72a 150.00b 8.41Breast (g) 218.85b 208.05b 200.98b 216.52b 240.58a 6.48Back (g) 250.00c 250.00c 300.00a 250.00c 262.50b 8.18Drumstick (g) 156.47b 175.34a 181.04a 160.31b 162.74b 4.07Head (g) 60.21a 55.00a 49.82b 57.98a 43.19b 2.57Neck (g) 50.13c 75.47a 80.00a 68.12ab 62.92b 4.46Wing (g) 250.00a 200.00ab 187.50b 150.00b 150.00b 16.37

a,b,c Means on same row with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05)SEM = Standard error of mean, wt = weight

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ASSESSMENT OF MAIZE FARMERS ACCESS TO EXTENSION ADVISORY SERVICES PROVIDED BY ADAMAWA AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND INVESTMENT

LIMITEDYOLA, NIGERIA.

BELLO, K.1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Adamawa State University, P.M.B. 25 Mubi. Adamawa

State, Nigeria.*Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The study assessed advisory services provided by Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited (AADIL) among beneficiaries in Adamawa State. The study was conducted in the year 2015 in Adamawa State of Nigeria located in the north-eastern part of the country. Extension advisory services are of two-fold: The qualitative and the quantitative. However, inadequate accessibility of end-users to extension advisory services may negate the good intention of agricultural extension delivery. A purposive and multi-stage simple random sampling technique was employed for the study. In stage I, two agricultural zones (I and III) were purposely selected because they were earmarked as maize production project zones by AADIL. Out of this, one LGA was purposely selected out of the five LGAs situated in zone I, and three LGAs were purposely selected out of the seven LGAs in zone III. In stage II, a total of four LGAs were thus, purposely selected. In stage III, two communities each that are predominantly rural farming areas with high intensity of maize production were purposely selected from the selected LGAs, based on AADIL lists of maize farmers. In stage IV, selection of respondents proportionate to size (10%) of the household heads of maize farmers from the 8 communities was done. Thus, total number of 223 maize farmers served as respondents from the 2,233 population of maize farmers in the 8 selected communities. Descriptive statistics which includes frequency distribution, percentages, mean and standard deviations were used to achieve stated objectives. Findings of the study revealed that respondents had a mean age of 41 years, mean farming experience was 6 years, mean farm size was 3ha of land, mean household size was 16, mean membership years of respondents in a group was 4 years, 84% of the respondents accessed demonstrations of improved agricultural production practices in Adamawa State. This study concluded that farmers benefit from the demonstrations of improved agricultural production practices usually provided by AADIL. It therefore, recommended that loans which are interest free should be given to farmers and inputs in subsidized rates should be provided.Keywords: Access, advisory services, AADIL, Adamawa State

Introduction Agricultural extension has been evolving as an integral part of agricultural development over the past

century, but was primarily developed for the production of export commodities in the developing countries, Nigeria inclusive. It evolved as a government policy instrument in the 1970s in response to the World Food Crisis when efforts were being made to boost staple food production through increased public spending in the agricultural sector, including provision of extension services (Benson and Jafry, 2013). Nonetheless, according to Anderson and Feder (2004) the provision of agricultural extension as a service has a number of different functions: multi-directional transfer of technology and information between organizations aimed at a wider rural development; the mobilization of the farming community into groups and organizations to enable farmers to set their own agendas and make better decisions; capacity-building within rural populations to improve ability to access services, solve problems and make the most available resources and thus encourage self-reliance and improved rural welfare.

The importance of maize crop globally, regionally and nationally cannot but be overemphasized. It is a world-wide crop used for both food and industrial purposes such as raw materials for many agro-allied industries. In terms of importance, it is next to wheat and rice. It is one of the main cereal crops of West Africa and the most important cereal food crop in Nigeria. Maize is produced in all agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. According to National Agricultural Extension Rural Liaison Services NAERLS (2012), the total estimated land area devoted for maize production in Nigeria is about 5,995,420 hectares. Agriculture and its overall activities globally predate civilization of mankind. The increasing population, depleting natural resources, food insecurity, political instability and relegation of agricultural practices to the background in Nigeria, makes maize productivity an important decimal in the nation development. Maize is the most extensively grown crop in Adamawa State with an average yield of 1.1tonnes per hectare which is lower than the national average of 1.6tonnes per hectares (AADIL, 2012). Access to extension services delivery for maize production in Adamawa State right from onset has been saddled upon extension organisations/agencies which includes: Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), Directorate of Food Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs), Upper Benue River Basin Development Authority (UBRBDA) and recently Adamawa


Agricultural Development and Investment Limited (AADIL) to disseminate technological information to the resourceful farmers for efficient productivity.

According to Agbamu (2007), agricultural extension service delivery all over the world has been concerned with communicating research findings and improved agricultural practices to farmers. Various studies (Oladosu and Yekini, 2008; Umunna et al., 2012; Ayoade, 2012; Okwoche and Asogwa, 2012; Ogunsumi and Abegunde, 2011) on the access of farmer’s to agricultural extension advisory services and appraisal of such as indicated in their findings shows that the structure of the service can be regarded as two-fold: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative extension is in the form of advisory services to farmers and quantitative takes the form of input delivery and service in a two-way dynamic action. The policy implication for input delivery services at farm level would enable increased agricultural productivity. The supply of modern inputs such as seeds, fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides, ox-drawn ploughs and other associated inputs are important for the promotion of agro-based agriculture among millions of small-scale farmers in Nigeria.

In Adamawa State particularly, not much scientific research has been done on evaluation of maize farmers’ access to extension advisory services provided by an agricultural extension agency; the types of extension advisory services provided; accessibility of the clientele to the services provided and the impact on agricultural productivity and control over the extension systems for which they are the clients. This situation suggests that the inability of the practitioner system to access the technologies disseminated to it by the communicative system from the innovative system could be a major hindrance to the achievement of improvements in agricultural productivity and rural life.

It may be an incorrect assumption that the educational programmes of the various extension advisory services in Nigeria performed well to an extent. Past studies by various authors (Atala, 1986; Adebayo, 2004; Madukwe, 2006; Adesiji et al., 2010; Ogunsumi and Abegunde, 2011; Umunna et al., 2012) have shown that most Nigerian extension advisory services have been unsatisfactory, although records of success have been reported by others (Agwu and Adeniran, 2009; Okwoche and Asogwa, 2012). From the foregoing, it becomes pertinent to note that scientific information on extension advisory services provision, accessibility and usage is generally scanty.

Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited (AADIL) is an agricultural intervention programme that was established by the erstwhile executive governor of Adamawa State, Murtala Nyako in 2010. The establishment of AADIL was motivated by the desire of government to transform the state into a sustainable, modern, competitive and prosperous economy. To achieve this, the state government identified agriculture as the major pillar of its economic transformation. The main objective of AADIL is to “facilitate, encourage and provide necessary linkages, nationally and internationally for the development of the agricultural and agro-industrial complex of the state” (AADIL, 2012). AADIL has the status of a limited liability company with the state as the major (100%) shareholder and it is central to the commercial aspect of the programme. Nine project goals were set at its establishment, spread across the 21 local government areas (LGAs) of the State sited at various locations suited for the projects. The nine AADIL projects were meant to be achieved by the end of the second phase of the programme. The first phase was meant to run from establishment stage year (2010) to year (2013), while the second phase was meant to run from the year 2013 to year 2015. The projects are: Rice, Maize, Groundnuts, Aquaculture, and Seed multiplication, Fodder crops, Farm skills acquisition centers (FSACs), Input supply and Soil testing laboratory (AADIL, 2012). The maize project is focusing on the development of seed breeding facilities, development of seed multiplication stations and the development of Adamawa Chapter of the Maize Farmers Association to encourage and facilitate small scale growers. The intervention recorded 33% increase in yield, 75% increase in farm size and 39% increase in beneficiary’s annual income (AADIL, 2011).

Extension advisory services are provided by a variety of agencies in the public, private and voluntary sectors. The objectives in the three sectors are not the same. Public sector organizations work towards national policy goals, private entities are guided by profit considerations and will seek to achieve high quality standards in the crops reaching their processing plants and a level of production to meet plant and market capacity. The voluntary sector, consists mainly of the many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) usually guided by the welfare of the farmers. Despite their differences, however, they all seek to achieve their objectives by influencing farm decisions and practices of large numbers of rural household.

Agricultural extension advisory services provide the link between the researchers and the farmer. The extension agencies function as a conduit for bringing agricultural innovation to farmers as well as taking farmers problems to the researchers (Adesiji et al., 2010). Also, extension advisory services can be organized and delivered in a variety of forms, but their ultimate aim is to increase farmer’s productivity and income.

This study assessed maize farmer’s access to extension advisory services provided by AADIL to maize farmer’s beneficiaries in Adamawa State, Nigeria.

Methodology


Study areaThe study was conducted in Adamawa State of Nigeria in the year 2015. The State is one of the six

northeastern States of Nigeria. It is located between latitudes 7o and 11o N of the equator and longitudes 11o and 14o E of the Greenwich meridian. It shares boundaries with Taraba State in the south and west, Gombe State in its northwest and Borno State in the north. It also has an international boundary with Cameroon along its eastern border (Adebayo, 1999). Adamawa State with its capital situated in Yola, has a land area of approximately 42,159 square kilometers, out of which 28,730 square kilometers are arable land, and about 226,040 hectares are under cultivation. According to AADIL (2010), only 20% of the arable land is cropped while 80% is under-utilised. Out of the cultivated land, approximately 400 hectares are irrigated (ADADP, 1996). The State has a population of 3,178,950 (NPC, 2006). When projected based on 3.18% growth rate, in the year 2017, the estimated population is 4,628,390 people.

Agriculture is the main stay of the State economy and the major food crops are mainly cereals (such as maize, rice, sorghum, and millet), legumes (such as cowpea, groundnut, and Bambara-nut), and root crops (such as yam, sweet-potato, Irish-potato and coco-yam), while the cash crops are mainly cotton, groundnut and sugar-cane. Maize is the most extensively grown crop and has a yield of 1.1tonnes per hectare (AADIL, 2012). Adamawa State is one of the States with very high concentration of a wide variety of livestock. Cattle, pigs, sheep and goats are the major livestock found in the State. The State is reputed to have the highest population of cattle (4.4 million) in Nigeria (AADIL, 2012).

The climate is tropical and characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Average minimum daily temperature for the State is 15.2oC, with a maximum of 39.7oC. Between November and February, however, a cooler season is experienced because of harmattan brought about by the north-east trade winds which cause minimum temperatures to drop below 15oC. The rainfall is uni-modal, having a peak in August (ADADP, 1996). According to Ezenwaji and Otti (2013), average annual rainfall of the State is 1,205mm.

Sampling procedure and sample sizeThe study population consisted of all maize farmers registered with AADIL in the study area. The State

is divided into four agricultural zones (Zone I, II, III and IV) by Adamawa Agricultural Development Investment Limited (AADIL). Zone I consists of 5 LGAs [Michika, Madagali, Mubi-North, Mubi-South and Maiha]. Zone II consists of 4 LGAs [Hong, Gombi, Song and Girei]. Zone III consists of 7 LGAs [Yola-North, Yola-South, Fufore, Mayo-Belwa, Jada, Ganye and Toungo] and Zone IV consists of 5 LGAs [Demsa, Numan, Lamurde, Guyuk and Shelleng]. By design, the zones are divided according to their peculiar ecology and soil characteristics and adaptable crop types.

A purposive and multi-stage random sampling technique was employed for the study. In stage I, two agricultural zones, that is, zones I and III, were purposely selected for the study out of the four agricultural zones in the State. This was because maize production projects are located in the two zones. In stage II, one LGA (Mubi-North) was purposely selected out of the five LGAs situated in zone I due to high displacement of people (farmers) by the Boko-Haram crisis in the whole five LGAs. In zone III, three LGAs (Yola-North, Fufore and Ganye) were purposely selected out of the seven LGAs because displacement of people (farmers) was not as high as that of zone I. A total of four LGAs were thus purposely selected for the study in stage II. In stage III, two communities each that are predominantly rural farming areas with high intensity of maize production were purposely selected from the selected LGAs, based on AADIL lists of maize farmers. The communities were: Zone I, Mubi-North LGA (Digil and Vimtim); Zone III: Yola-North LGA (Wuro-Jabbe and Gerio); Fufore LGA (Mayo-Ine and Karlahi); and Ganye LGA (Ganye and Sugu). In stage IV, simple random sampling was used to select 10% of the household heads of maize farmers from the 8 communities selected. Thus, total number of 223 maize farmers served as respondents from the 2,233 population of maize farmers in the 8 selected communities (Table 1).


Table 1: Distribution of Selections based on Population and Sample size of the Study Agricultural zones Selected

LGAs Selected Numberofvillages selected

Numberoffarmers in village

Samplesize(10%)

Zone I Mubi-North Digil 175 18Vimtim 314 31

Zone III Ganye Sugu 211 21Ganye 310 31

Yola-North Gerio 320 32Wuro-Jabbe 284 28

Fufore Karlahi 397 40Mayo-Ine 222 22

Total 4 8 2,233 223Source: Field Survey, 2015

Analytical TechniquesDescriptive analytical tool was used to achieve the stated objectives of the study. Frequency

distribution, percentages, mean, and standard deviations were used to achieve objectives i, and ii respectively.Data of the study was obtained through the use of a structured questionnaire. The instrument was face-

validated by experts. The instrument was pre-tested in four villages, one each from the four LGAs selected for the study. Ten maize farmers from each village were randomly selected, totaling forty maize farmers (they serve as pretest respondents, that is, they were not the respondents used for the study). Data collected on socioeconomic factors were: age, sex, marital status, educational level attained, number of occupation, farming experience, land ownership, farm size, household size.

Results and DiscussionSocioeconomic characteristics

Table 2 depicts the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. The results shows that majority (41.7%) of the respondents are between 41-50 years. The mean age of the respondents is 41years. This result implies that most of the respondents are of middle age; signifying they are within the agricultural productive age range of 30-50 years quoted by Food and Agricultural Organization and World Bank (FAO and WB, 2000). Having middle aged implies that access to extension advisory services would be adequately done by the respondents since they are youths and are expected to be more inquisitive in finding more result oriented techniques of improving the usage of extension advisory services provided to them. The middle aged groups that constituted the majority (41.7%) are known to be in their active and productive ages. This is in conformity with findings of Abdulkareem (2000), that age significantly affect the productivity of farm business. Distribution according to gender shows that male respondents were 82.1% and female respondents 17.9%. This percentage (17.9%) of women found in the study area might be attributed to societal norms, culture and religious disposition of the people in the study area. Study by Adisa and Okunade (2005), on women in agriculture and rural development, listed some of the constraints that limit women access to extension services as cultural restrictions that barred male extension officers from meeting with women farmers; domestic responsibilities which sometimes limit women mobility and making it harder for them to attend courses away from home; and women are less likely than men to speak the national official language and extension advisory services are sometimes not offered in local languages. Gender is an important factor that determines involvement in farming activities.

The distribution of the respondents by marital status indicated high proportions (75.8%) of the respondents were married, 13.0% widowed, 7.6% single, and 3.6% divorced. Majority (75.8%) with support of their spouses are expected to effectively access extension services provided to them. The dominance of male in farming agreed with the findings of Onuk study (2008), revealed that male constituted the majority in maize production because female are mostly involved in domestic work.

Some proportion (17.5%) of the respondents had attained tertiary educational level, specifically, college of education, 15.2% senior secondary schools, primary schools and vocational schools each, 9.9% junior secondary schools, 9.0% Quranic/Islamiyya education, 4.5% informal out-of-school education and the least 4.0% University school educations. The level of educational attainment of the respondents is diverse as the respondents completed various educational schools. Going by the definition of a literate person as one having the ability to read and write, it can be concluded that majority of the respondents for this study were literates. It


could also be said that, literacy is an advantage in accessing of extension advisory services. Studies have shown that education enhances people’s ability to think rationally and make informed judgment.

Majority (71.8%) of the respondents indicated farming as their major occupation, 13.5% indicated trading, and 9.0% were civil servants, 2.7% artisans, and 1.8% students. This simply implies that farming was the major source of livelihood for most of the respondents. This is in agreement with study of Ayoade (2012) that showed 82.2% of the respondents had farming as their primary occupation while about 17.8% had other occupations as their primary occupations, but also had farming as a secondary occupation.

The highest proportion (46.6%) of the respondents had maize farming experience of less than 5 years, 43.0% 6-10 years maize farming experience, 6.3% 11-20 years maize farming experience, 3.1% 21-30 years of maize farming experience, and the least 0.9% 31-40 years of farming experience. The mean maize farming experience of the respondents is 6 years, indicative that highest proportion (46.6%) of the respondents was the pioneer farmers of AADIL maize project in the study area and is found to be engaged in one form of agricultural activity or the other. Also, the 6 years mean of maize farming experience of the respondents connotes that maize farming in the study area had greatly increased. This agrees with the findings of AADIL (2010) that the maize project in particular recorded an increase of 33% in yield, 75% in farm size and 39% in annual income of beneficiaries. Farming experience as measured by years of practice in farming activities is a vital factor.

Land ownership through inheritance had the highest proportion of (57.8%), purchase 21.5%, and rent 14.8%, gift 3.1% and lease 2.6%. The result therefore shows that the highest proportion of the respondents acquired their farmland through inheritance. This assertion agreed with the study of Owolabi et al. (2011) that land ownership system varied among the respondents, 50% inherited land from their parents or husbands, and 25% got their farm through lease, 11.7% from rent and 5% by gift. Only 8% were able to buy their farm land. Findings of the study indicated that higher proportion (46.64%) of the respondents had between 1-10 members in the household, 43.04% 11-20 members, 6.28% 21-30 members, 3.14% 31-40 members and 0.90% above 40 members in the household. The mean household size is 16 members. This implies that the respondent’s household is large. This serves as an advantage to accessing extension advisory services by the respondents through the supply of labour for farm activities. This finding corroborated to the study of Nani (2005), that the higher the labour available for production activities. High proportion (32.74%) of the respondents had farm size of between 2.1-3 hectares, 24.22% 1.1-2 hectares, 17.04% 0.1-1 hectares, 15.25% 4.1-5 hectares and 10.76% 3.1-4 hectares. The mean farm size of the respondents is 3 hectares of land. This implies that majority of the respondents were small scale farmers but on the threshold of medium-large scale farmers if encouragement on accessing extension advisory services activities was emphasized by AADIL for optimal productivity. This finding is in agreement with the study of Adesiji et al. (2010) that revealed most of the farmers were small-scale farmers (farm size less than 5 hectares), and concluded that obstacles to larger farms may be lack of credit sources.


Table 2: Some Selected Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Respondents (N=223)

YearsFrequency Percentage

Age

Below 20 8 3.6

21 -30 24 10.8

31 -40 44 19.7

41 - 50 93 41.7

51 - 60 36 16.1

Above 6118 8.1

Mean 41

Min 18

Max 64

S.D 1.189

Gender

Female40 17.9

Male183 82.1

Marital status

Married169 75.8

Single17 7.6

Divorced8 3.6

Widowed29 13.0

Education

Degree 9 4.0Polytechnic 21 9.4College of education 39 17.5Senior secondary 34 15.2Junior secondary 22 9.9Vocational school 34 15.2Primary school 34 15.2Koranic 20 9.0Informal school 10 4.5Farming experienceLess than 5 Years 104 46.66 - 10 Years 96 43.0


11 - 20 Years 14 6.321- 30 Years 7 3.131 - 40 Years 2 0.9Mean 6Min 1Max 40S.D 0.799Land ownershipInheritance 129 57.8Purchase 48 21.5Lease 6 2.6Rent 33 14.8Gift 7 3.1

Source: Field Survey, 2015

Types of Extension Advisory Services Accessed by FarmersExtension services are provided to farmers so as to increase their knowledge about farming activities in

order to boost their level of production in terms of output. Table 3 shows eleven different types of extension services provided by AADIL to the respondents in the study area. Majority (83.9%) of the respondents accessed demonstrations of improved agricultural production practices, 62.8% accessed group formation and dynamics trainings, 56.5% accessed source of improved agricultural inputs, such as improved seeds, chemicals and equipment’s agencies, 45.7% accessed sources of farm inputs such as (fertilizer, seed, manual thresher, ox-drawn plough and pesticide), 39.0% accessed training and workshop on extension advisory services. The remaining six types of extension services accessed by respondents is low in percentages, 11.7% recorded the least, indicative that extension agents or facilitators hardly arranged tours, visits, or excursions to large farms. This finding agreed with the work of Adesiji et al. (2010) that provision of training and other services on an occasional basis may suffice to stimulate the adoption of innovation, since farmers are receiving at least some instruction in the use of new technologies.

Table 3: Types of Extension Services Accessed by RespondentsExtension services *Frequency PercentageDemonstration of improved agriculturalproduction practices

187 83.9

Group formation and dynamics training 140 62.8Linkage to sources of farm inputs 102 45.7Linkage to credit sources 79 35.4Assistance with hiring of farm machinery and equipment 46 20.6Information on marketing outlets 33 14.8Improved agricultural inputs (such as resourcesused in farm production, e.g. chemicals, seeds and equipment)

126 56.5

Information on environmental conditions (such as weather and climate) 45 20.2Organization of visits, excursions, or tours to large farms 26 11.7Provisions of workshops and training 87 39.0Provisions of services on family/home welfare improvement (such as nutritional diet of farm families)

35 15.7

* Multiple responses recordedSource: Field Survey, 2015

Conclusion and RecommendationMaize farmer’s access to extension advisory services provided by AADIL was a relative success during

the period of study, much is still needed to be done by the providers specifically in areas such as: access to credit, assistance in access to hiring of farm machinery and equipment and access to information on marketing outlets of maize farmer’s produce.

This study established that majority of the respondents accessed mostly demonstrations of improved agricultural production practices out of the eleven extension advisory services provided by AADIL.

Adamawa State Government, as matter of urgency should consider setting machinery into motion on conserving human resources especially that of the farmers. This could be achieved through creating


rehabilitation loans that is interest free, concise and thorough in disbursement and recovery, made for all categories of farmers in the State.

ReferencesAdamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited, AADIL (2010). End of Year Report on the

Activities of the Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited December, 2011. Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited, AADIL (2012). Adamawa State Agriculture as

the Centerpiece for Development. A Hand Book Presented to the Government of Adamawa State by AADIL.

Abdulkareem, H. (2000). The Role of Rural Women in Agricultural Development: A Case Study of Female Farmers in Giwa Local Government Area of Kaduna State. An Unpublished B. Agric. Project Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Nigeria.

Adamawa Agricultural Development Programme, ADADP (1996). Crop Production Recommendations for Adamawa State ADADP, Yola Nigeria.

Adebayo, A.A. (1999). Adamawa State in Maps. Paraclete Publishers, Yola-NigeriaAdebayo, K. (2004). Private Sector Participation in Agricultural Extension Services in Nigeria. Proceedings of

Farm Management Association of Nigeria (FAMAN) Conference held in Abuja Nigeria Oct. 19-21 Adesiji, G.B; Akinsorotan, A.O; and Omokore, D.F. (2010). Farmers’ Assessment of Extension Services in

Ogun State, Nigeria Journal of Agricultural and Food Information, 11:143-156.Adisa, B.O. and Okunade, E.O. (2005). Women in Agriculture and Rural Development, Agricultural Extension

Society of Nigeria Proceedings, Agbamu, J. U. (2006). Essentials of Agricultural Communication in Nigeria. First Edition, Malthouse Press

Limited. Lagos, Nigeria. 47-81Agwu, A.E. and Adediran, A.A. (2009). Sources of Agricultural Information Used by Arable Crop Farmers in

Isale Osun Farm Settlement, Osogbo Local Government Area of Osun State. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 13 (1):

Anderson, J. R. (2007). Agricultural Advisory Services Background Paper for the World Development Report2 00http://sieresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/27950871191427986785/AndersonAdvisoryServices.pdf. Accessed

Anderson, J.R. and Feder, G. (2003). Rural Extension Services Agriculture and Rural Department World Bank, Washington, D. C.

Atala, T.K. (1986). Role and Impact of Extension Agents in Kaduna State Nigeria: An Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Iowa State University, USA.

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Madukwe, M. C. (2006). Internet. Delivery of Agricultural Extension Services to Farmers in Developing Countries. Published by CTA in Knowledge for Development. Observatory on Science, Technology and Innovation for ACP Agriculture and Rural Development. Retrieved July 29th, 2009 from CTA and S&T.

Nani, J. R (2005). Analysis of Smoked Fish Marketing in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State. Nigeria Journal of Arid Zone Economy1

National Population Commission (2006). National Population Census, Abuja, Nigeria.Okwoche, V.A. and Asogwa, B.C. (2012). Impact of Extension Services on Cassava Farming in Benue State,

Nigeria. International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology, 2(6):Oladosu, I.O. and Yekini, O.T. (2008). An Assessment of Agricultural Extension Activities to Cocoa Farmers in

Ekiti West Local Government Area of Ekiti State International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development- 1(2):

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Owolabi, J. O., Abubakar, B. Z., and Amodu, M.Y. (2011). Assessment of Farmers (Women) Access to Agricultural Extension, Inputs and Credit Facility in Sabon-Gari Local Government Area of Kaduna State Nigeria Journal of Basic and Applied Science, 19 (1): 87-92.


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Umunna, M.O; Adeeko, A; Onifade, O.T.; Adigun, O.S; and Apapa, A.N. (2012). Poultry Farmers’ Access to jExtension Services in Atisbo Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria African Journal of Basic Applied Sciences, 4 (6): 221-225.

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GENETIC STUDIES OF DURATION TO ANTHESIS AMONG POPULATION FROM 8 x 8 DIALLEL CROSS IN WEST AFRICAN OKRA (Abelmoschus caillei)

JONAH, P. M1., FAKUTA, N. M2. AND MSHELMBULA, B.P3.1Department of Crop Science, Adamawa State University, PMB 25, Mubi, Nigeria.

2Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria, Gum Arabic Sub-Station,Gashua, Nigeria3Department of Botany, Federal University, Lafiya, Nassarawa State.

Correspondence e-mail/ Mobile number: [email protected] /08161231550

AbstractCrossing pattern to understand the genetic architecture of days to flowering in West African okra (Abelmoschus caillei) using 8 x 8 half diallel was carried out in Mubi at the Teaching and Research Farm, Adamawa State University, during 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons. The 28 F1 hybrids including their 8 parents were laid in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Data collected includes: Days to first and 50% flowering, plant height, pod length, pod width, number of leaves/plant, branches/plant, number of pods/plant, weight of 100 seeds and pod yield at harvest. The mean squares of general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) showed highly significant differences (P < 0.01) for flowering attributes, pod length, number of leaves and branches/plant including hundred seed weight. This indicates that these traits are controlled by both additive and non-additive gene actions. However, pod width, pods/plant and fresh pod yield were controlled by additive gene action. GCA/SCA ratio were greater than unity for most of these traits with the exception of leaves/plant, branches/plant and hundred seed weight; indicating the predominance of additive gene action in the expression of these traits. Parent 1, 3 and 7 were best general combiners for earliness since they recorded significant and negative GCA effects, of which parent 1 and 3 recorded -7.35 and -4.83 for days to first and -11.38 and -3.78 for days to 50% flowering respectively. The following hybrids: S12, S15, S23, S25, S35, S67, S68 and S78 are best combiners for earliness in West African okra.Keywords: Anthesis, Photoperiod sensitivity, GCA/SCA ratio and Abelmoschus caillei.

IntroductionWest African okra a member of the Malvaceae family is photoperiod sensitive (short day), biennial though high yielding and resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses, while the common okra is photo-neutral, short growth cycle, less vigorous, low fruit yield, highly susceptible to diseases and insect pests attack (PROTA, 2004). It is a multipurpose crop valued for its tender and delicious pods (Chinatu and Okocha, 2006). Some production constraints of West African okra include: variation in yield resulting from differences in yield potentials of landraces, severity to incidence of pest and diseases, limited research in West African okra and non-availability of improved varieties. Most farmers still plant landraces that have a lot of variability in many traits such as pod yield, number of days to anthesis (flowering), pods/plant and plant height. Medagam et al. (2013) reported that mean squares were highly significant (P < 0.01) for both general and specific combining ability for most of the traits studied including days to 50% flowering in Abelmoschus esculentus; indicating that both additive and non-additive components of heritable variance are responsible for variation observed for these traits.

As a means of ensuring early maturing and a reasonable high yield in okra, the available accessions need to be improved through hybridization and selection. The objectives of this study was to assess the combining ability (additive and non-additive gene effects) of days to anthesis and pod yield in some population of 8 x 8 diallel cross of West African okra.

Materials and MethodsEvaluation of 8 parents and 28 F1 straight crosses were conducted during 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons at two locations namely: Teaching and Research Farm, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Nigeria (Longitude 130071E and Latitude 100031N) altitude 400 meters above sea level and the Teaching and Research Farm, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State (Longitude 070481 E and latitude 080351N) located in southern Guinea Savannah Zone of Nigeria. A randomized complete block design with three replications was used at both locations. Each plot had five rows of 5 meters long by 3 meter width. Seeds of the F1 hybrid and the eight parents were planted at a spacing of 40 cm within rows and 60 cm between rows. Two weeks after planting the seedlings were thinned to one plant per stand. Fertilizers at 100 Kg/ha (N P K 15:15:15) was applied by side placement to meet plant nutrient requirement. To control Flea beetles and other insects associated with okra Cymbush (Cypermetrin (10% EC) was sprayed at a rate of 50ml/10 liters of water at vegetative growth stage at



three weeks after planting and repeated at flowering stage. Weeding was carried out manually and frequently with hoes to maintain weed-free plots. Data were collected on: Days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, and at harvest, plant height (cm), pod length (cm), the pod width (cm), number of leaves per plant, branches per plant, number of pods per plant, weight of 100 seeds (gm) and pod yield (t/ha) were collected. Analyses of variance were done and means were separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT). After detecting significant F values for the F1S, a combining ability analysis was performed following method 2, model 1 of Griffing (1956) (SAS 1998) for the combined data over the two locations. F values for testing combining abilities were calculated as follows:

δ 2gca =

MSgca+MSscaL

MSsca+ MSgcaL, δ 2

sca = MSsca

MSscaL, δ 2

scaL = MSscaL

MSe and δ 2

gcaL= MSgcaL

MSscaL

Where: δ 2gca, δ 2

sca, δ 2gcaL and δ 2

scaL are variances due GCA, SCA, GCA x Location and Sca x Location respectively and MSgca, MSsca, MSgcaL, MSscaL and MSe are mean squares due to GCA, SCA, GCA x Location, SCA x Location and error respectively.

Results and Discussion Mean squares for combining ability and components of variance for agronomic characters among entries are presented in Table 1. The mean squares due to GCA for flowering characters and other yield related characters showed a highly significant difference (P < 0.01). This revealed that additive gene effect is important in the inheritance of these characters as earlier reported by Medagam et al. (2013). In a similar fashion, the SCA mean squares returned highly significant differences (P < 0.01) for most of agronomic characters except plant height, pod width, pods per plant and pod yield. This indicates that gene action in okra for these characters is controlled by both additive and non-additive gene action. Similar results were reported by Ariyo et al. (1987), Adeniji and Kehinde, (2003), Dahake and Bangar (2006) and Jindal et al. (2009). The variances due to GCA were more pronounced for flowering traits, plant height, pod length, pod width and pods/plant. Similarly, variances due to SCA as indicator of non-additive gene action were greater for flowering traits, pod length, leaves/plant, branches/plant and hundred seed weight. These findings are in line with Kurma et al. (2005) and Jaiprakashnarayan et al. (2008) for GCA and SCA variances in okra. All characters showed significant difference for GCA x Location interaction except days to first flowering, pod length, pod width and leaves per plant. The SCA x Location mean squares were insignificant for all agronomic characters investigated. The GCA by Location mean squares were larger in magnitude than their corresponding SCA by Location estimates for all studied traits. Estimates of GCA by location variances were also greater in magnitude compared to their corresponding SCA by Location variances in days to 50% flowering, plant height, pod length, pod width, branches/plant, pods/plant, seed weight and pod yield. The significant GCA x Location interaction for days to 50% flowering, plant height, branches per plant, pods per plant, seed weight and pod yield, indicated that the GCA estimates of the parents were not stable in the two locations across years. Iqbal et al. (2010) and Iqbal et al. (2012), similarly reported significant interaction arising from GCA with the environments in pods/plants, pod length, seeds/pod, 100 seed weight and seed yield/plant in dry beans. In addition environmental variables (rainfall, temperature, sunshine, and altitude) largely influenced the GCA of the parents. In contrast, the GCA x location was stable for pod length and pod width, suggesting that the GCA values are consistent over locations and years and did not respond to changes in environmental variables. The result reported here are consistent with earlier views of Ariyo et al. (1987) and Adekoya et al. (2014), who also noted that climatic (environment) component played significant role in phenotypic expression of agronomic characters of West African okra. The climatic variation (Not shown) between the two locations could be an important factor in breeding for desirable traits. The insignificant SCA x location interaction effects for all studied traits revealed that the alleles controlling the SCA were stable, suggesting that SCA estimates were consistent over the two locations and were not influenced by environmental variables during the trial. This implies that non-additive gene action can be utilized in production of hybrids for the studied locations. In contrast, Iqbal et al. (2010) and Iqbal et al. (2012) reported significant interaction of SCA x location for pods/plant and other yield related traits. The GCA effects for agronomic traits of 8 parents are shown in Table 2. Five parents showed negative effects, while three parents showed positive effects for days to first flowering. The GCA effect was positive and high in Parent 5, followed by parent 1 with negative effect. Similarly, days to 50% flowering recorded a significant and positive GCA effect for three parents and also a significant and negative GCA effect for three parents. The significant and positive GCA effects recorded among parents for the flowering traits implied that such parents may constitute late maturity group, while parents with low and negative GCA effects implies that earliness can be found in such parents. These findings corroborates with the work of Medagam et al. (2012) and Salah et al. (2014), who reported that negative GCA effect is highly desirable for earliness attributes like days to 50%


flowering, first flowering node and first fruiting node. Parent 1 had highly significant and positive GCA effect for plant height, pod length, pods/plant and pod yield, followed by parent 2; while parent 6 is a poor combiner and not stable for pod yield due to its negative significant GCA value for pod yield. Similarly, parent 4 showed significantly negative GCA for pod width but recorded high significant positive effects for number of leaves and branches per plant. However, parent 2 had significantly negative GCA effect for branches per plant. For number of pods/plant, parent 6 recorded a significantly negative GCA effect, but parent 1 recorded a positive and significant GCA effects. Furthermore, parent 1 also had negative and significant GCA effect for 100 seed weight, while parents 5, 7 and 8 recorded significant positive effect for 100 seed weight. For pod yield trait, the parents either recorded negative or positive but insignificant estimates except for Parent 1and 6. High GCA effects for some or all of these traits in okra were also reported by Jaiprakashnarayan et al. (2008), Jaiprakashnarayan et al. (2008a) Singh et al. (2009) and Jindal et al. (2009a).

Table 3 shows the estimates of SCA effect pooled over locations across years of evaluation. SCA effect was positive for P5 x P8 (8.01**) and negative for P1 x P5 (-7.69**) for flowering traits; indicating the importance of non-additive gene effects for the hybrids evaluated. Significant and positive SCA effects were recorded for plant height (P1 x P7), hundred seed weight (P7 x P8), pod yield (P2 x P5), pod length (P2 x P6), branches/plant (P7 x P8). Duzyaman and Vurah (2002), similarly reported both additive and non-additive gene action for okra traits. Hybrids such as: S12, S15, S23, S25, S35, S67, S68 and S78 were the best hybrids for earliness.

ConclusionThe 8 x 8 diallel crosses could further be exploited to breed for Abelmoschus caillei hybrids that produce high pod yield despite their earliness to physiological maturity. Eight hybrids proved to be best combiners for earliness. Based on this combining ability studies for earliness, the eight selected hybrids could be used for further heterosis breeding research.

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their 15 F1 hybrids of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) in half diallel mating design. Journal of Plant Breeding and Crop Science, Vol. 6(12): 179 – 184

Singh, D. R. Singh, P. K. Syamal M. M. and Gautam, S. S. (2009). Studies on combining ability in okra, Indian Journal of Horticulture, 66:277-280


Table 1: Analysis of variance and components of variance for yield and yield related traits among entries grown at 2 locations (2012 and 2013)Sources of Variation DF FF D50F Plt.H Pl Pw Lpp Brpp Ppp Swt 100 PYLocation (L) 1 454.48** 1415.56** 564.16 15.25* 0.33 13146.67** 344.89** 3745.33** 20.05** 16.80*Replication/Location 4 12.05 7.95 576.95 1.68 0.15 95.57 1.69 104.49* 0.15 6.20GCA 7 945.08** 1696.70** 16836.40** 20.19** 0.47** 451.99** 9.13** 144.31** 1.46** 19.26**SCA 28 101.67** 120.88** 811.15 2.48* 0.08 260.98** 2.91* 12.04 0.70** 3.47GCA x Location 7 52.51 169.83** 1799.85** 1.90 0.17 133.71 6.49** 62.31* 0.85* 9.94*SCA x Location 28 43.80 61.82 843.20 1.29 0.06 155.69 1.87 18.62 0.42 3.52Error 356 32.98 58.43 828.85 1.47 0.12 154.09 1.76 24.00 0.34 3.15δ2gca 6.79 6.05 6.77 4.90 2.12 1.54 1.17 2.19 1.21 1.70δ2sca 2.32 1.96 0.96 1.93 1.33 1.67 1.56 0.65 1.67 0.99δ2scaL 1.33 1.06 1.02 0.88 0.50 1.01 1.06 0.78 1.24 1.12δ2gcaL 1.20 2.75 2.13 1.47 2.83 0.86 3.47 3.35 2.02 2.82GCA/SCA 2.93 3.09 7.05 2.54 1.59 0.92 .075 3.37 0.72 1.71*= significant at 0.05% probability level, ** = significant at 0.01% .FF= first flowering, D50F = days to 50% flowering, Plt.H = plant height, Pl = pod length, Pw = pod width, Lpp = leaves per plant, Brpp = branches per plant, Ppp= Pods per plant, swt100 = weight of 100 seeds, PY = pod yield (t/ha)

Table 2: Combining ability effect for agronomic characters of 8 accessions pooled over locations across years

Parent FF D50F Plt.H Pl Pw Lpp Brpp Ppp Swt 100 PYNG/AA/SEP/038 (P1) -7.35* -11.38* 45.81* 2.64* 0.18 -12.93 -1.70 4.96* -1.03* 2.06*NG/SA/DEC/07/0528 (P2) -1.45 4.02* 35.53** 1.95** 0.02 -3.15 -1.74** 1.00 -0.19 0.68NG/TO/JUN/09/007 (P3) -4.83** -3.78* -29.64** 0.21 -0.11 -1.167 0.38 1.38 0.09 0.34NG/SA/DEC/07/498 (P4) 2.98 2.93 -36.77** -1.54** -0.26* 7.86** 1.49** -1.71 -0.09 -1.29NG/SA/DEC/07/0475 (P5) 10.31** 14.38** 10.11 -0.93* 0.07 4.70 0.37 -2.36 0.52* -0.79NG/SA/JAN/109 (P6) 2.6** 5.04* 14.37** -1.45** 0.05 3.33 0.24 -3.76* 0.21 -1.30*Syria (Mubi – 1) (P7) -1.24 -2.29* -24.68** -0.45* 0.10 1.82 0.60* 0.56 0.25* 0.52NG/SA/DEC/07/0445 (P8) -1.03 -0.87 -12.73* -0.32 -0.05 0.05 0.36 -0.07 0.24* -0.21*= significant at 0.05% probability level, ** = significant at 0.01%, FF = first flowering, D50F = days to 50% flowering, Plt.H= plant height, Pl = pod length, Pw = pod width, Lpp = leaves per plant, Brpp = branches per plant, Ppp = Pods per plant,swt 100 = weight of 100 seeds, PY = pod yield (t/ha)


Table 3: Specific combining ability effects for studied characters pooled over locations across years

Crosses FF D50F Plt.H Pl Pw Lpp Brpp Ppp Swt 100 PYS12 -5.02* -1.16* -29.53* -0.90* 0.07 -0.41 1.58* 2.39* 0.50* 0.36S13 -0.20 -1.06* 4.41* 0.44* 0.13 1.97* 0.09 -1.17* 0.12 0.53*S14 -0.73 -1.39* 25.70* 1.01* 0.26* -5.96* -1.12* -0.01 -0.10 0.93*S15 -7.69* -8.71* 31.99* 1.79* 0.09 -9.08* -1.27* 0.46 -1.10* 0.58*S16 4.88* 0.33 30.93* 0.70* 0.14 -0.26 -0.82* 1.44* -0.65* 0.26S17 4.27* 3.39* 45.04* 1.21* 0.31* -2.31* -1.68* 1.18* -0.93* 1.23*S18 2.48* 4.01* -23.83* -1.44* -0.33* 3.30* 0.53* -1.74* 0.68* -1.33*S23 -1.65* -1.27* -10.62* -0.42* -0.04 -5.39* 0.02 -0.32 -0.02 -0.78*S24 1.15* 1.07* 14.81* 0.38* 0.10 11.59* -0.52* 0.01 0.06 0.11S25 -1.14* -6.26* 40.74* 1.47* 0.14 8.04* -1.67* -0.77* -0.41* 11.36*S26 3.52* 2.70* 38.49* 1.88* 0.12 -5.88* -1.72* -0.55* -0.27 1.35*S27 3.32* 2.76* 33.07* 1.58* 0.08 -5.01* -0.08* -0.89* -0.91* 0.26S28 4.80* 3.10* -27.34* -1.52* -0.11 -0.35 1.50* -1.74* 0.17 -1.27*S34 1.87* 2.27* -5.55* 0.09 0.02 6.73* 0.49* 0.27* 0.20 0.29S35 -3.35* -1.30* 7.45* -0.24 -0.03 3.59* 0.09 -0.84* -0.07 -0.60*S36 0.73* 2.66* 13.37* 0.50* 0.07 4.67* -0.29 -0.28 0.07 -0.15S37 0.37 0.96* 22.07* 0.43* 0.15 -1.62 -0.24 0.54 -0.35* 1.17*S38 1.15* 0.40* -9.56* -0.11 -0.14 -6.61* -0.70 1.28* -0.11 0.34S45 -2.46 -5.51* -10.94* -0.37* -0.21* -2.86* 0.28 -1.01* -0.11 -0.36S46 0.62 0.70 0.71 -0.30 0.03 0.39 0.81* 0.48 0.36 0.21S47 1.08** 1.00* 6.02* -0.17 -0.12 -4.99* -o.64* -0.86* -0.20 -0.01S48 -0.12 0.73* -14.33* -0.20 -0.02 -5.69* 0.12 -0.61 0.32* 0.78*S56 -0.42 0.74 -19.27* -0.61* -0.03 -6.64* -0.35 -0.59 0.17 -0.45*S57 1.54* 1.54* -5.49* -0.29 0.03 -1.52* 0.29 1.99* -0.24* -0.42S58 8,01* 10.73* -20.20* -0.68* -0.02 4.28* 1.58* 0.30 1.11* 0.06S67 -1.57* -1.33* -16.99* -0.01 0.02 -1.47* 0.56* 0.17 0.31 0.49*S68 -5.06* -3.73* -31.28* -1.38* -0.14 5.79* 1.39* -0.27 0.58* -1.13*S78 -6.46* -5.85* -56.52* -1.93* -0.28 10.67* 1.98* -0.75 1.53* -1.60*

*= significant at 0.05% probability level, ** = significant at 0.01%, FF= first flowering, D50F = days to 50% flowering, Plt.H = plant height, Pl = pod length, Pw = pod width, Lpp = leaves per plant, Brpp = branches per plant, Ppp= Pods per plant, swt 100 = weight of 100 seeds, PY = pod yield (t/ha)


EVALUATION OF ADVISORY SERVICES PROVIDED TO VIMTIM FADAMA COMMUNITY ASSOCIATION UNDER FADAMA II PROJECT IN MUBI-NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA,

ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

BELLO, K.Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Adamawa State University, P.M.B. 25, Mubi,

Adamawa State,–Nigeria.Email: [email protected]

AbstractThe study investigated the advisory services provided to Vimtim Fadama Community Association under Fadama II Project in Mubi-North LGA, Adamawa State. The study also assessed hither the demand-responsive advisory extension services sought for by Fadama Users Group (FUGs) of Vimtim Fadama Community Association (FCA) were significant to the participants (respondents) based on the activities identified and implemented at the end. Also, whether the advisory service providers were worthy of payment of the service they rendered the participants. A purposive and simple random sampling was used in selecting124 respondents which represented the sample size of the study. Data were generated through field forms, structured questionnaires from participants present at the workshop organized for various advisory service activities sought for by the participants. Collated data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results revealed that many (56%) of the respondents were between the ages of 31 – 40, majority (52%) were males. Majority (71%) agreed that services provided them were significant to their activities in their various groups, the worthiness variable (52.471) was significant at 1% level of probability, while majority (62%) of the respondents chose risk and uncertainty management practices as their most preferred, the variable was significant at 1% level of probability. The study recommends demand-responsive advisory extension services to all agricultural extension services providers to their end-users be it in public, private and non-governmental sectors, because it instill seriousness on all stakeholders of the extension system.Keywords: Advisory services, Vimtim, Fadama Community Association, Fadama II Project, Demand-Responsive.Introduction

Agricultural advisory (extension) services have long been recognized as an important factor in promoting agricultural development (Birkhauser et al., 1991; Anderson and Feder, 2007). The terms agricultural advisory services and agricultural extension refer to the entire set of organizations that support and facilitate people engaged in agricultural production to solve problems and to obtain information, skills and technologies to improve their livelihoods (Anderson, 2008).World Development Report 2008, identified that agricultural advisory services are relevant in all three types of countries – agriculture-based economies, transforming economies and urbanized economies – yet the scope and type of advisory services and the ways in which these services are best provided and financed differs between as well as within these groups (Anderson, 2008). Apart from the “classical” objective of agricultural advisory services can also play an important role to meet the new challenges agriculture is confronted with: changes in the global food and agricultural system, excluding the rise of supermarkets and the growing importance of standards and labels; growth in non-farm rural employment and agribusiness; constraints imposed by HIV/AIDS, and other health problems that affect rural livelihoods; and the deterioration of the natural resource base and the emerging need to cope with climate change.

While the continuing and evolving need for agricultural advisory services is well-established (Byerlee, 1988; Anderson, 1999; Alex et.al., 2002). The challenge is to devise systems for providing and financing these services in a cost-effective and sustainable that fits country-specific frame conditions (Leeuwis, 2004). New approaches for providing and financing agricultural advisory services include decentralization to lower levels of government; involving farmers association (as witnessed in Fadama II and III projects in Nigeria); Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs); contracting-out of extension services (also adapted by Fadama II and III projects in Nigeria); public-private partnerships, privatization; embedding advisory services in other types of contracts; and broadening the types of advisory methods applied; including the use of modern information and communication technologies; all of which are conveniently elaborated with country-specific experience (Anderson, 2008).

Going by the aforementioned, and realizing the potentials in the flood and wet lands (Fadama) for dry season irrigated agricultural production (Sulaiman and Ja’afar-Furo, 2010) by the Federal Government of Nigeria, the latter in collaboration with the World Bank introduced National Fadama Development Projects (NFDP) I and II, in 1993 and 2004, respectively (Ja’afar-Furo et.al. 2015). While NFDPI was put in place to assist in realizing the agricultural potentials of the rural areas by building on the huge success of the Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) through the provision and strengthening of the use of pump and wash bore-based irrigated farming



(Akinyele et al., 2005; World Bank, 2008). The NFDP II was instituted to basically enhance the welfare and income of rural population mainly through the promotion of Capacity Building, Rural Infrastructure Investment, Pilot Productive Asset Acquisition Support, and Demand Responsive Advisory Service (Akinyele et al., 2005; Umar et al., 2012; Girei and Dire, 2013).

Presently in Nigeria, there are agricultural extension delivery approaches gaining grounds such as Community Driven Development (CDD) and Farmers Field Schools (FFS) which are bottom-up participatory and lateral in their methodology of operation in which farmers are in the driver’s seat while agents and advisory service providers are facilitators. Fadama II adopted the CDD approach in providing solutions to problems militating against farmers in their various field. Fadama II was launched by the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) in 2005 after its introduction in 2004. The project intended to increase the income of farmers, fishers, and other poor people in the low-lying flood plains, or Fadama areas, where poverty is concentrated.

The project provided demand driven extension services, increased local capacity to resolve conflicts over natural resources, developed rural infrastructure such as roads, and increased the capacity of beneficiaries to manage economic activities (IFPRI, 2007). They also targeted service providers, public and private operators and professional/semi-professional associations operating in the project areas.

The Demand-Responsive Advisory component of the NFDP II of Vimtim Community Association in Mubi North Local Government Area (LGA) of Adamawa State is the nexus of this study. Four major constraints were identified by VFCA together with registered service providers (ANNUR AGRO CONSULT), and advisory services activities were implemented. The constraints were: identification, handling, maintenance, repairs and services of water pumps, processing equipment, engine trouble-shooting, design/maintenance and repair of poultry houses, livestock pens and equipment and ground processing technique; farm planning, budget, record and accounting techniques; risk and uncertainty management practices, marketing of livestock and cereals – including diseases management and control in poultry, small and large ruminants, selection techniques in poultry, small and large ruminants; and pest and diseases control measures in cowpea production and storage, fodder crops production techniques and storage. The aim of the survey was to ascertain after provision of advisory services to the VFCA members that the advisory services carried out and implemented by the providers (ANNUR AGRO CONSULT) was worth paying for by VFCA in collaboration with the Fadama II project. Also, the essence of the study was to investigate whether advisory services provided to FUGs members on the activities they sought for from service providers through their FCA was significant or not to them.

Thus, the objective of this study is to evaluate the demand-responsive advisory services sought for by FUGs members of VFCA under Fadama II Project in Mubi-North LGA. The specific objectives of the study were to; identify the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents in the study area; determine the worthiness for payment of advisory services providers for services they provided to the respondents; and investigate choice of advisory services preferred by respondents based on the activities (services) they sought for from the service providers.

It is hypothesised that Annur Agro-Consult is unworthy for payment of advisory services they provided their respondents.

MethodologyStudy area

The study was conducted in Vimtim Ward of Mubi North LGA of Adamawa State in the year 2010. Vimtim Ward is one of the ten wards that constitutes Mubi North LGA, the ten wards namely are: Sabon Layi, Lokuwa, Kolere, Yelwa, Digil, Vimtim, Muchalla, Bahuli, Mayo-Bani and Betso. Mubi North LGA is located between latitude 10o32'N to 10o11'N of the Equator and longitude 13o12'E to 13o35'E of the Greenwich Meridian with a total landmass of 506.4 km2 (Wante and Anoliefo, 2014). It has a population of 151,515 based on the National Population Census of 2006 (NPC, 2006). Vimtim ward is about is 6 kilometers away from Mubi township. Majority of the people in the LGA are engaged in farming and rising of livestock. However, other economic activities like petty-trading and hunting thrives very well.

Sampling Procedure and Data CollectionA purposive and simple random sampling procedure was employed for the study. Vimtim Fadama

Community Association (VFCA) constitutes 10 FUGs. Five FUGs (Manoman Sa’o’i, Vimtim sugar-cane water users, Lepro women, Lira women, and Mizuwa women) were active out of the 10 FUGs of the FCA during the period of the study, because the 5 FUGs with a total number of 417 members were eligible for the project funding of the Fadama II project. The remaining 5 FUGs were inactive. Three FUGs out of the five active FUGs were purposely selected because they sought for advisory services on activities militating against them in their various


groups through their FCA (VFCA). Simple random sampling method was used to select 50% participants proportionately from each of the 3 selected FUGs out of the 5 active FUGs of the FCA. The sampling frame of the 3 selected FUGs was 247 members. Thus a total of 124 participants was selected that served as respondents of the study (Table 1).

The study employed primary data for its analysis Data were elicited for the purpose of this study by use of pre-tested and structured questionnaires administered personally by resource persons of ANNUR AGRO-CONSULT (advisory service providers) to participants immediately at the end of the last day of the workshop on activities militating against them in their various FUGs. Information was collected from secondary sources which include: text-books, journals, learned publications, and the internet. Data collected includes some socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents, worthiness of advisory services provided by the service providers and choice of preferred advisory services by the respondents based on the activities they sought for.

Table 1: Distribution of Selections Based on Population and Sample Size of the StudyFadama Community Association (FCA)selected

Active Fadama User Groups (FUGs) of VFCA

Number of FUGs selected

Number of FUGs members selected

Sample size (50%)

Vimtim FCA Manoman Sa’o’iVimtin sugar cane

Manoman sa’o’i 89 45

Water usersLira womenLepro women

Lira women

Lepro women

78

80

39

40

Source: Field Work, 2010

Analytical TechniqueTo realize the essence of this study, descriptive statistics which includes tables, frequencies, percentages,

mean, standard deviations, minimum and maximum, and Likert-scale type measurement were employed to analyze the data collected for objective i. Inferential statistics such as student T-test was employed to test the significance of worthiness for payment of advisory service providers and choice of preferred advisory services by respondents based on the activities they sought for from service providers, for objectives ii and iii respectively.

Results and DiscussionSocioeconomic characteristics of the respondents

The socioeconomic characteristics of the FUGs members investigated are presented in Table 2. Analysis of the results shows that majority (56%) of the respondents that sought for advisory services from service providers were between the ages of 31-40 years. This implies that most of the FUGs members were youth and economically productive to enable them participate actively in the activities they sought for from service providers. This is in tandem with the study of Ndanisa and Umar (2007), who stated that most of the respondents active in fadama farming are youths. The result on gender revealed that 64% were male, while 60% were female. Impliedly, the slight difference between male and female could be due to high number of women in the FUGs in the FCA. This is contrary to the finding of Akinyele et al. (2006) that women are not adequately represented in most of the FCAs and FUGs in Nigeria. The marital status of the respondents of the respondents indicated that majority (71%) were married. The result suggests that the participants are more likely to be responsible and committed in managing and sustaining their fadama economic activities for their family welfare and sustenance. The education (years spent schooling) status of the respondents indicated that majority (79%) had completed their primary school, high proportion (40%) had completed both junior and senior secondary school, lowest proportion (5%) had completed their tertiary schooling. Impliedly all of the respondents had some educational qualification that might have enable them to have participated and contributed effectively to the FUGs, FCA and Fadama II project success at large. This is in consonant with the study of Gwary et al. (2010) that educational level is an important factor for respondents to comprehend the different components of a programme and in the adoption of improved technology.


Table 2: Socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents (N=124)Variable Frequency Percentage (%)Age (Years)Below 20 2 221 30 15 1231 40 69 5641 50 35 28Above 51 2 2Mean 37.169Min 19.0Max 53.0Std. Dev. 6.6354


Table 3: Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents (N=124)

Variable Frequency PercentageGenderMale 64 52Female 60 48Marital statusSingle 18 15Married 88 71Divorced 9 9Widowed 9 7

Mean 2.073Min 1.0Max 4.0Std. Dev. .7120Education (Years spent schooling)1 – 6 79 647 – 13 40 3214 – 20 5 4

Mean 1.419Min 1.0Max 3.0Std Dev. .5716


Worthiness for payment of Annur Agro-Consult (Advisory service providers) for services provided to respondents

Responses of respondents in Likert-scale type format on whether advisory service provider’s services as provided to the respondents were worth paying for? The responses were put on scale 1 – 5 and measured thus: 1 = unworthy for payment; 2 = undecided, 3 = partially worthy for payment, 4 = moderately worthy for payment and 5 = highly worthy for payment (Table 3). This was further analysed using descriptive statistics which includes frequency, percentage, mean, min and max values and standard deviation. The variable was further subjected to student’s T-test so as to determine its significance. The result indicated majority (71%) of the respondents agreed to the service providers as worthy for payment on the services they provided. The variable was positive and significant at 1% level of probability. Impliedly, advisory services increases farmers preference and propensity to participate in group activities. The significance of advisory services hinges on the fact that it would enhances farmers’ knowledge


and broaden their horizon on the activities they sought for and once this is accepted, they will be readily willing to pay for such a service. It was hypothesised that Annur Agro-Consult is unworthy for payment of the services they provided to respondents of the study. Based on the result of this study that revealed the significance of the variable worthiness, the null hypothesis that stated Annur Agro-Consult is unworthy for payment of the services they provided was rejected and the alternative that stated Annur Agro-Consult is highly worthy for payment of the services it provided to the respondents.

Table 4: Responses of respondents on worthiness for payment of ANNUR AGRO-CONSULT for services they provided

Scale Responses Frequency Percentage (%)1. Unworthy for payment - -2. Undecided 4 33. Partially worthy for payment 26 214. Moderately worthy for payment 6 55. Highly worthy for payment 88 71

Mean 4.419355Min 2Max 5Std. Dev. .9378818Std. Error Mean .0842243DF 123T-value 52.471***

***p < 0.001 **p < 0.05 and *p < 0.10 Source: Field Work, 2010

Choice of advisory services provided to respondents based on the activities they sought for from Annur Agro-Consult

The result in Table 5 revealed that majority (62%) of the respondent’s ranked risk and uncertainty management, marketing of livestock and cereals as their first choice of activities sought for from the advisory services providers and was judiciously handled by the service providers Impliedly, the respondents are conscious of the monetary aspect of the activity which leads to increase in income wellbeing of participants. When subjected to t-test, the variable was significant at 1% level of probability.

Table 5: Choice of preferred advisory services provided to respondents based on the activities they sought forVariable Frequency Percentage RankMaintenance, repairs and servicing of water-pumps and equipment

7 6 4

Risk and uncertainty management practice Marketing of livestock and cereals

77 62 1

Farm planning, budgeting, record keeping and Accounting techniques

8 6 3

Pest and diseases control measures in cowpea Production and storage

32 26 2

Mean 2.524Min 1.0Max 4.0Std. Dev. 0.9411Std. Error of Mean 0.845T-value 29.869***

***p < 0.001 **p < 0.05 *p < 0.10Source: Field Work, 2010

Conclusion and Recommendation


It could be concluded from the findings of this study that the demand-responsive advisory service sought for by the respondents of the study was a step-up scenario by the FUGs members, and that the activities implemented by the service providers was significant to the respondents demand. It is recommended that there should be a synergy between government and private sector and the remaining stakeholders to fashion out methodology on how to make demand-responsive advisory services compulsory in agricultural extension system of the country.

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Anderson, J. R. and Feder, G. (2007), “Agricultural Extension,” In R. E. Evenson and P. Pingali (eds), Handbook of Agricultural Economics, Chapter 44, Volume 3 Agricultural Development: Farmers, Farm Production and Farm Markets, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2343-78.

Birkhauser, D., Evenson, R. E. and Feder, G. (1991). “The Economic Impact of Agricultural Extension: A Review.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 39:607-650.

Byerlee, D. (1988a). “Agricultural Extension and the Development of Farmers Management Skills.” In J. Howell (ed). Training and Visit Extension in Practice. Agricultural Advisory Unit Occasional Paper 8, ODI, London, 8 – 27.


Girei, A. A. and Dire, B. (2013). Impact of National Fadama II Project on the Socio-economic Characteristics of Crop Farmers in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Institutional Journal of Innovative Agriculture and Biology Research, 1(2): 31-38.

International Food Policy Research Institute [IFPRI] (2007). [email protected]’afar-Furo, M. R., Madu, U. A. and Bello, K. (2015). Analysis of Households Income Generation in Fadama III

Beneficiary Communities in Adamawa State, Nigeria. IOSR. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS). 8(11)II: 21 – 26.

Leeuwis, C. (2004). Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural Extension. Blackwell, Oxford.National Population Commission (2006).National Population Census, Abuja, Nigeria.Sulaiman, A. and Ja’afar-Furo, M. R. (2010). Effects of Farmer Grazer Conflicts in Nigeria: A Case Study of

Bauchi State Trends in Agricultural Economics 3(3): 147-157.Umar, A. M., Phoe, C. I. J. and Khalique, M. (2012). An Investigation on the Impact of Fadama II Project on the

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http://steresourcesworldbank.org/INTWDR2018/RESOURCES/27950871191427986785/Ande%20rson%20AdvisoryServices.pdf

http://steresourcesworldbank.org/INTWDR2018/RESOURCES/27950871191427986785/Ande%20rson%20AdvisoryServices.pdf

ASSESSMENT OF THE CHANNELS USED IN DISSEMINATING AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION TO MAIZE FARMERS BENEFICIARIES OF AADIL, IN ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

1BELLO, K.

1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Adamawa State University, P.M.B. 25, Mubi. Adamawa State, Nigeria.

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

AbstractThe Study was conducted in Adamawa State in 2015 to investigate channels used in disseminating agricultural information to maize farmer’s beneficiaries of Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited (AADIL). Therefore, the objectives of the study were to: i) describe the institutional characteristics of the maize farmers and ii) identify channels used in disseminating agricultural information to maize farmers in the Study area. Paucity of data was observed on channels used in the dissemination of agricultural information in the Study area. A purposive and multi-stage simple random sampling technique was employed for the study. In stage I, two agricultural zones (I and III) were purposely selected because they were earmarked as maize production project zones by AADIL. Out of this, one LGA was purposely selected out of the five LGAs situated in zone I, and three LGAs were purposely selected out of the seven LGAs in zone III. In stage II, a total of four LGAs were purposely selected. In stage III, two communities each that are predominantly rural farming areas with high intensity of maize production was purposely selected from the selected LGAs, based on AADIL lists of maize farmers. In stage IV, selection of respondents proportionate to size (10%) of the household heads of maize farmers from the 8 communities was done. Thus, total number of 223 maize farmers served as respondents from the 2,233 population of maize farmers in the 8 selected communities. Descriptive statistics will include frequency distribution, percentages, mean and standard deviations were used to achieve stated objectives. Findings of the study revealed that 65.5% of the respondents belonged to a social group, 76.0% spent between 1-3years in a group with a mean membership of 4 years. 76.1% had extension contact, 69.1% had access to credit facility, 84% obtained less than N 100, 000.00 credit with a mean of N 100,000.00. 77% of the respondents received agricultural information mostly from their field facilitators through interpersonal communication method.Keywords: Channels, Agricultural Information, Maize farmers, Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited.

IntroductionIn Nigeria, maize is one of the most important food and cash crop. Its dual role of feeding a fast increasing

population and supporting a potentially buoyant agricultural industrialization is well recognized. Further, by 1975 there was a projected demand of over one million metric tons against a supply of 931,231 tons. The deficit was met by importation of maize. With the expansion of the economy, particularly the poultry industry, the deficit has increased even more. However, maize production, in Nigeria has been on the increase both in terms of hectare and production (Buba, 2005).

The type of channel or medium of delivery used in dissemination of agricultural information to farmers could be a resultant factor of high yield of the crop. Agricultural extension is an educational process with a dual goal: it brings information and technology to farmers and teaches them how to use it to improve their productivity; and it enables farmers to specify their own needs and provide feedback on the effectiveness of extension in meeting them, through this two-way communication between farmer and researcher, extension services can provide effective transfer of relevant information and technology to farmers (Maiangwa et al., 2010). The farmers’ definition of agricultural information problems and the underlying cause has indicated that the limited impact which agricultural information and communication has is because of the channels or medium used to transfer and access this information by the end user’s. Farmers communicate with multiple sources of information systems to shape and enrich their knowledge base. Ozowa (2000) noted that the existing farmer communication networks has a lot of loop holes which have left farmers behind in accessing vital agricultural information to help increase their agricultural knowledge.

Information is an indispensable factor in the practice of farming and it is the basis of extension service delivery. Information has been identified as an important and crucial variable in the development process. This makes it imperative to provide adequate, relevant and up-to-date information in order to transform agricultural production in many developing countries. Adebayo (2006) posited that agricultural information is no doubt central in enhancing agricultural productivity and facilitating poverty alleviation among rural farmers. Today, in the age of


information communication technology (ICT), the dissemination of information becomes much easier nevertheless more complex, this is because of information messages must be disseminated to the farmers in the manners and methods, which are appropriate, and best support its recipient. Study by Olaniyi (2013) have shown that the potency of information dissemination channels such as interpersonal (extension agents), mass media (radio and television) and posters used to reach farmers of varying personalities because they are easily accessible to them. However, it is doubtful, if these farmers effectively utilize any information provided, as performance in the agricultural sector is still low.

Communication, on the other hand, could be adjudging to be the process of information/idea/technology/ message transmission from a sender or source to a receiver through a channel with the conscious intent to change the skill or attitude of the receiver/end-user (Bello, 2016). Communication is a key process in information dissemination in agriculture. In a similar vein communication can be regarded as a process by which one person (or group) shares and impact information to another Adebayo (2004). Quality information rests on three pillars, which include: accuracy, timeliness, and relevance. Accuracy of information is when information is free from bias, while timeliness means end-users can get information when needed, and relevance means the applicability of the information for the purpose originally meant for by the end-users (Bello, 2016).

Nigeria is a vast country with different farming systems involving a variety of crop, cereals, legumes, fiber, root and tubers etc. The agricultural sectors play a key role in the economic development of Nigeria in terms of food, foreign exchange earnings from exports, raw materials for industries and employment. Unfortunately information about these practices does not reach the rural farmer on time and may not get to them at all. Access to information is very crucial to increase agricultural productivity by farmers (Abdulwahab, 2015)

The usage of available information by farmers has received attention in literature because it justifies among other factors, efforts by research and related organizations to improve farmer’s activities and output.

Adamawa State Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) with its extension component was the source of agricultural information to farmers after political independence of 1960. With the fizzling out of the extension component and the establishment of nationwide Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs), Adamawa Agricultural Development Programme (AD.ADP) became the primary agency responsible for public extension delivery at the grassroots in the State. To enhance agricultural productivity of farmer’s in the State, State M.O.A through AD.ADP has been disseminating information among farmers on the latest agricultural techniques. In spite of all these efforts, farmers have low accessibility to agricultural information as a result of low extension workers to farmer’s ratio, inadequacy of agricultural programmes aired by the State radio and television and wrong timing of such programmes to the target audience. This might have been the likely reason why Adamawa Agricultural Development and Investment Limited (AADIL) were established in the year 2010. Rehman (2010) argues that socio-economic variables may influence the accessibility to agricultural information of the farmers.

AADIL is an agricultural intervention programme that was established by the erstwhile executive governor of Adamawa State, Murtala Nyako in 2010. The establishment of AADIL was motivated by the desire of government to transform the state into a sustainable, modern, competitive and prosperous economy. To achieve this, the state government identified agriculture as the major pillar of its economic transformation. The main objective of AADIL is to “facilitate, encourage and provide necessary linkages, nationally and internationally for the development of the agricultural and agro-industrial complex of the state” (AADIL, 2012). AADIL has the status of a limited liability company with the state as the major (100%) shareholder and it is central to the commercial aspect of the programme. Nine project goals were set at its establishment, spread across the 21 local government areas (LGAs) of the State sited at various locations suited for the projects. The nine AADIL projects were meant to be achieved by the end of the second phase of the programme. The first phase was meant to run from establishment stage year (2010) to year (2013), while the second phase was meant to run from the year 2013 to year 2015. The projects are: Rice, Maize, Groundnuts, Aquaculture, and Seed multiplication, Fodder crops, Farm skills acquisition centers (FSACs), Input supply and Soil testing laboratory (AADIL, 2012).

Maize project objective is to promote food security through maize production, demonstrate more efficient agronomic practices to farmers for adoption and adaption, and demonstrate benefits of improved seeds and inputs. The maize project is focusing on the development of seed breeding facilities, development of seed multiplication stations and the development of Adamawa Chapter of the Maize Farmers Association to encourage and facilitate small scale growers, and provision of accessible agricultural information to farmers in the State. The intervention recorded 33% increase in yield, 75% increase in farm size and 39% increase in beneficiary’s annual income (AADIL, 2011).The broad objective of the study is to investigate channels used by AADIL in dissemination of agricultural information to maize farmer’s beneficiaries in the State. The specific objectives are to:i, identify the institutional characteristics of the farmer’s


ii. identify channels used in dissemination agricultural information to farmer’sThere is a dearth of empirical studies on channels used in disseminating agricultural information to farmers

in Adamawa State and scientific information of such is generally scanty. There is, therefore, a research information gap. It is important for all stakeholders to understand whether the existing channels used in dissemination of agricultural information to farmer’s has effect on their productivity. The work will contribute to strategic agricultural information transfer that will serve as grounds for improvement of farmer’s productivity and income. As such it will serve as a source of knowledge to farmers, researchers and policy makers. Besides, it is not exhaustive as such can provide areas of further research.

Study of Agbamu et al. (1996) as cited in the study of Agbamu (2006) founded that it was village extension workers that farmers in Ogun State of Nigeria used most as information source. Over 79% of them used extension workers regularly to obtain farm information. This was followed by radio with 77.6% usage frequently, and out of which 20.5% of the sampled farmers accounted for very often while 57.1% used radio often. Social or group meetings ranked third among the information sources. Newspapers and television were not used at all for maize and cassava innovations. Only 0.9% of them had ever used it as source of information. The farmers in Ogun State used radio often probably because the Ogun State Agricultural Development Programme produces a weekly Yoruba language Programme called Agbe Afokosoro. He further stated that the study revealed the use of interpersonal (face-to-face) communication as more prominent among the farmers compared to the use of mass media. Other information sources that farmers used includes: contact farmers, village heads, friends and relatives, research institutes, opinion leaders, cinema and videos, posters/pamphlets, agricultural shows, mobile phones and internet.

MethodologyStudy area

The study was conducted in Adamawa State of Nigeria, in 2015. The State is one of the six northeastern States of Nigeria. It is located between latitudes 7o and 11o N of the equator and longitudes 11o and 14o E of the Greenwich meridian. It shares boundaries with Taraba State in the south and west, Gombe State in its northwest and Borno State in the north. It also has an international boundary with Cameroon along its eastern border (Adebayo, 1999). Adamawa State with its capital situated in Yola, has a land area of approximately 42,159 square kilometers, out of which 28,730 square kilometers are arable land, and about 226,040 hectares are under cultivation (Bello 2016). According to AADIL (2012), only 20% of the arable land is cropped while 80% is under-utilised. The State has a population of 3,178,950 (NPC, 2006). When projected based on 3.18% growth rate, in the year 2017, the estimated population is 4,688,390 people. Agriculture is the main stay of the State economy and the major food crops are mainly cereals (such as maize, rice, sorghum, millet), legumes (such as cowpea, groundnut, and Bambara-nut), and root crops (such as yam, sweet-potato, Irish-potato and coco-yam), while the cash crops are mainly cotton, groundnut and sugar-cane. Maize is the most extensively grown crop and has a yield of 1.1tonnes per hectare (AADIL, 2012). The climate is tropical and characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Average minimum daily temperature for the State is 15.2oC, with a maximum of 39.7oC. Between November and February, however, a cooler season is experienced because of harmattan brought about by the north-east trade winds which cause minimum temperatures to drop below 15oC. The rainfall is uni-modal, having a peak in August (ADADP, 1996). According to Ezenwaji and Otti (2013), average annual rainfall of the State is 1,205mm.

Sampling procedure and sample sizeThe study population consisted of all maize farmers registered with AADIL in the study area. The State is

divided into four agricultural zones (Zone I, II, III and IV) by Adamawa Agricultural Development Investment Limited (AADIL). Zone I consists of 5 LGAs [Michika, Madagali, Mubi-North, Mubi-South and Maiha]. Zone II consists of 4 LGAs [Hong, Gombi, Song and Girei]. Zone III consists of 7 LGAs [Yola-North, Yola-South, Fufore, Mayo-Belwa, Jada, Ganye and Toungo] and Zone IV consists of 5 LGAs [Demsa, Numan, Lamurde, Guyuk and Shelleng]. By design, the zones are divided according to their peculiar ecology and soil characteristics and adaptable crop types.

A purposive and multi-stage random sampling technique was employed for the study. In stage I, two agricultural zones, that is, zones I and III, were purposively selected for the study out of the four agricultural zones in the State. This was because maize production projects are located in the two zones. In stage II, one LGA (Mubi-North) was randomly selected out of the five LGAs situated in zone I due to high displacement of people (farmers) by the Boko-Haram crisis in the whole five LGAs. In zone III, three LGAs (Yola-North, Fufore and Ganye) were randomly selected out of the seven LGAs because displacement of people (farmers) was not as high as that of zone I. A total of four LGAs were thus purposely selected for the study in stage II. In stage III, two communities each that are predominantly rural farming areas with high intensity of maize production was purposively selected from the


selected LGAs, based on AADIL lists of maize farmers. The communities are: Zone I, Mubi-North LGA (Digil and Vimtim); Zone III: Yola-North LGA (Wuro-Jabbe and Gerio); Fufore LGA (Mayo-Ine and Karlahi); and Ganye LGA (Ganye and Sugu). In stage IV, simple random sampling was used to select 10% of the household heads of maize farmers from the 8 communities selected. Thus, total number of 223 maize farmers served as respondents from the 2,233 population of maize farmers in the 8 selected communities (Table 1).

Table 1 Distribution of Selections based on Population and Sample size of the StudyAgricultural zones Selected

LGAs Selected Numberofvillages selected

Numberoffarmers in village

Samplesize(10%)

Zone I Mubi-North Digil 175 18Vimtim 314 31

Zone III Ganye Sugu 211 21Ganye 310 31

Yola-North Gerio 320 32Wuro-Jabbe 284 28

Fufore Karlahi 397 40Mayo-Ine 222 22

Total 4 8 2,233 223Source: Field Work, 2015 Data Collection

Data of the study was obtained through the use of a structured questionnaire. The instrument was face-validated by an expert so as to ensure its validity. The instrument was pre-tested in four villages, one each from the four LGAs selected for the study. Viability test of the instrument is necessary to ascertain if the research instrument could measure what it was designed to measure. Reliability test of the research instrument was determined before its final usage.

Data collected on institutional factors were: extension contacts, access to extension contacts, access to credit, source of credit, amount of credit obtained, access to farm inputs, extension services provided. Data on channels of delivery of agricultural information was collected too.

Analytical TechniqueThis involves the use of descriptive analytical tools which include frequency distribution; percentages,

mean, and standard deviation which were used to achieve objectives (i) and (ii) respectively.

Results and DiscussionTable 2 depict the institutional characteristics of the respondents, the results shows that majority (76.7%) of

the respondents had contacts with extension agents while 23.3% had no contact. This implies that the respondents had good extension contact; this could be due to the resolve of AADIL objectives to link the trained farmers’ cooperative groups to financial institutions, extension services, input suppliers, research institutions for the provision of support cum advisory services and to be an agricultural inputs distribution point. This finding will definitely have a positive effect on the utilisation of extension advisory services provided to the respondents, the reason is that, it is expected that when farmers come into contact with extension agents, the use of agricultural technology is usually positively influenced (Adesiji et al., 2010). The result agrees with the study of Manu (1980) on acceptance of appropriate technology among peasant farmers in Nigeria had a positive correlation between adoption of technologies and contact with extension agents.

A higher proportion (31.0%) of the respondents were visited by extension agents during the 2014 cropping season, once in every three months, 19.3% once monthly, 16.4% not visited at all, 15.8% once in a year and 5.8% once in every six months. By implication, the respondents had varied frequency of extension visits from once in every fortnight, once in every month, once in every six month to once in a year to respondents that had none at all visits of extension agents. This further implies that, respondent’s access to agents was relatively frequent; however, more still need to be done in improving frequency of extension visits. This result is in agreement with study of


Ummuna et al. (2012) on poultry farmers’ access to extension services in Atisbo local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria that showed poultry farmers had access to extension services in the study area; however, the frequency of access to extension services varies among farmers. 35.9% of the respondents were visited by the extension agents once in two weeks, 23.3% of the farmers had access to extension agents once in a month, 40.7% of the respondents had varied frequency of access from once in two months to once in a year.

Majority (69.1%) of the respondents had access to credit whereas; 30.9% had no access to credit. Credit serves as an important accelerator of agricultural development by enabling farmers purchase and use improve seeds, fertilizers and other inputs. Owolabi et al. (2011) had also observed that access to credit increase farm output. From the result, majority of the respondents had access to credit which might have been accessed from different sources available to them as discussed below.

Respondents have five sources of credit: no source of credit, cooperatives, farmers associations, financial institutions, and friends and relatives. Majority (69.5%) of the respondents source of farm capital was through formal financial institutions, 8.1% each of the respondents had no source of credit, 8.1% from farmers associations, 7.6% have source of credit from cooperatives and 6.3% the least sourced their credit from friends and relatives. Access to credit is an important factor source of credit that can positively influence the utilization of extension advisory services provided the respondents. Apart from increase in input, credit brings other advantages to the respondents such as, helping farmers to smooth consumption, manage risk and take advantage of market opportunities. Study of Owolabi et al. (2011) showed that credit can also affects expenditure on the use of mechanical equipment, working capital as well as improved seed. Corroborating to this finding, study of Onoja et al. (2013) on the relationship between farmer’s socioeconomic characteristics and maize production in Nigeria showed that 89.2% of maize farmers in Nigeria depended solely on their personal savings to finance their production and marketing activities.

Majority (84.1%) of the respondents had credit of less than N100, 000=00, 13.0% between N101, 000-150, 000 and 2.9% between N151, 000-200,000. The mean amount of credit obtained by the respondents was N 100,000=00. This implies that most of the farmers obtained credit for their maize production and maybe, the amount was not substantial enough to meet their production demand. It is imperative to note that credit do increase total out-put of farmers. This finding is in conformity with study of Owolabi et al., (2013) that showed most of the respondents interviewed complained of securing loan from financial institution and that less than 50% of the respondents received financial assistance from informal sources.

Table 2: Institutional characteristics of the respondents (N=223)Institutional characteristics Frequency Percentage

Extension contactNo 52 23.3

Yes 171 76.7

Access to extension contact

Once every fortnight 20 11.7Once monthly 33 19.3Once every three months 53 31.0Once in every six months 10 5.8Once in a year 27 15.8None 28 16.4

Access to creditNo 69 30.9

Yes 154 69.1


Source of creditNo sources of credit 18 8.1

Co-operatives 17 7.6

Farmer Associations 18 8.1

Financial Institutions 155 69.5

Friends and Relatives 14 6.3

Amount of credit obtained

Less than 100,000 58 84.1101,000-150,000 9 13.0151,000-200,000 2 2.9Mean 100,000Min 20,500Max 200,000S.D 18,138

Channels Used in Disseminating Agricultural Information to FarmersTable 3 shows majority (76.7%) of the respondents indicated extension agents as their channel of receiving

extension services, 64.1% radio, 43.9% television, 35.4% farmers association, 27.4% worship centers and 23.3% mobile phones as their channel of receiving extension services. This implies that interpersonal communication was the major channel used in the delivery of extension advisory services to the respondents in the study area, complimented with mass media (radio and television) channels. Also, interpersonal communication method was perceived as the most frequent method used in the delivery of extension advisory services to the respondents, probably due to the possibility of the feed-back mechanism and multiplier effect of the method. This finding agrees with an earlier study by Ayanwu et al. (2002) who reported that women farmers in Orumba-North LGA of Anambara State received their farm information from non-professional interpersonal sources more often than from mediated and professional interpersonal sources. Also, this study is in tandem with the study of Agbamu et al. (1996), as cited in Agbamu (2006), which founded that it was village extension workers that farmers in Ogun State of Nigeria used most as information source. Over 79% of them used extension workers regularly to obtain farm information. This was followed by radio with 77.6% usage frequently, and out of which 20.5% of the sampled farmers accounted for very often while 57.1% used radio often. Social or group meetings ranked third among the information sources. Newspapers and television were not used at all for maize and cassava innovations. Only 0.9% of them had never used it as source of information. The farmers in Ogun State used radio often probably because the Ogun State Agricultural Development Programme produces a weekly Yoruba language Programme called Agbe Afokosoro. He further stated that the study revealed the use of interpersonal (face-to-face) communication as more prominent among the farmers compared to the use of mass media. Other information sources that farmers used includes: contact farmers, village heads, friends and relatives, research institutes, opinion leaders, cinema and videos, posters/pamphlets, agricultural shows, mobile phones and internet.Table 3: Channels used in Disseminating Agricultural Information to Respondents

Channels *Frequency PercentageExtension agent 171 76.7Radio 143 64.1Television 98 43.9Farmers association 79 35.4Worship centers (mosque and church) 61 27.4


Mobile phones 52 23.3Source: Field Work, 2015 * Multiple responses was allowed

Conclusion and RecommendationSome 76.7% of the respondents received extension services provided through their field facilitators; 64.1% through

radio programmes; 43.9% through television programmes; 35.4% through farmers associations; 27.4% through worship centers; and 23.3% through mobile phones. Impliedly, dissemination of agricultural information in the Study area was a success through extension agents/AADIL facilitators of the maize farmers, that is, the channel used correlates well to the usage of the information by the end-users.

Channels used in communicating agricultural information to maize farmers in the Study area constitutes: interpersonal communication (AADIL facilitators), group communication (maize farmers association), mass media (radio, television and mobile phones), and folk medium (worship centers). The mobile phones medium recorded the lowest (23.3%) average which is not encouraging for present day agricultural productivity.

Therefore, there is a dire need for improvement, this could be achieve by State government being proactive by contracting agricultural mobile phones to a reputable communication company that can impute GPRS, Various local and international marketing outlets (indicating crops type and trending prices), various local and international farm inputs providers (agrochemicals, seeds, tools and machinery) and various local and international agricultural extension services providers for the farmers usage.

Also, there is a dire need for more capacity building of agents so as to maintain extension agents-farmers ratio for optimum uptake of agricultural information in the Study area.

Access to internet services for the farmers should be toll free and communication language to be used should be in major local lingua franca found and use across the State ( such as: Hausa, Fulfulde and simple English).

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ASSESSMENT OF SOIL CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED BY THE PEASANT FARMERS IN GIWA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

SADIQ, A.ADepartment of Agricultural Technology, College of Environmental Sciences, Adamawa State Polytechnic, P. M. B.

2146, Yola.Correspondence: [email protected]

GSM: 07068036372AbstractGiwa Local Government Area (LGA) is one of the places with intensive cultivation and cropping, coupled with less or no adoption of soil conservation techniques in Kaduna State, north central part of Nigeria. However, farmers tried to adopt various soil conversation practices in the area with the aim of realising maximum farm output. This study was therefore, undertaken to assess the soil conservation techniques engaged by the Peasant Farmers in Giwa LGA. Questionnaire were administered to respondents in the sampled area through systematic random sampling, according to the population size. The results revealed that soil conservation techniques for maintaining water infiltration was adopted by 47 % for sand bags and 38 % for water ways techniques for control of soil erosion. Both methods were not prevalent among the farmers as required. However, practices for maintaining soil fertility using organic manure was 65 % as most dominant among the farmers because of its prompt and long term noticeable effectiveness than the other practices. Therefore, farmers in the area require ardent understanding on the most effectiveness soil conservation techniques that are environmentally friendly, cheap and realising maximum profit through educating the farmers by the extension workers. Also, government should intensify their effort towards making available modern soil conservation tools and equipment to the farmers in the area. Key words: Soil conservation, Soil fertility, Erosion, Soil infiltration

IntroductionIn recent years, intensive system of cultural soil conservation techniques have been developed by local

farmers most especially those settling around the floodplains in the North central region of Nigeria, which improved their production and sustained the inherent fertility of the soil. These conservation techniques include hillside terracing, earth contouring, sand bag barriers, stone bunds, vegetative barriers, mulching, cover cropping, mixed cropping and bush fallowing.

However, in recent years it was observed that intensive cultivation and cropping, coupled with less or no adoption of such techniques upset the farmlands’ nutrient status and eventually put most of their production less economical. In addition, farm land is getting out of hand as a consequence of increased in population density associated with rapid urbanisation over farmland in the locality. Often, crop return depletes sharply and reflected in prohibitive food dearth and starvation among human population. Similarly, some farmlands situated at steep slopes of the study area are also reduced inevitably in size encouraged by accelerated glaring effects of erosion coupled with high intensity of rainfall. Thus, Soil erosion not only removes the top soil but hinders crop emergence, growth and yield as a result of nutrient loss (Muhamman and Gongola, 2006) and erosion alter soil structure and texture (Adefun and Agbede, 2003). Conversely, extensive human activities such as deforestation, crop removal, overgrazing, bush burning etc., are also inflicting factors that lead to systematic degradation of soil fertility of land areas and subsequently decline in crop yield in the locality. Food security for an existing population is largely a problem of good soil management on existing cultivated lands and requires increased number of trained manpower (in conservation techniques) besides the capital intensiveness. Thus, adoption of such techniques towards conserving soil fertility and water infiltration are not effectively employed in the study area.

Therefore, it is of paramount important to investigate the ability of the farmers on how they control water infiltration and erosion on their farmlands and also what practice do they employ towards maintaining and improving soil fertility as a methods of boosting farm productivity in the area. In view of this, the present study intends to determine the cultural soil conservation management techniques practiced by the farmers for sustainable crop production in the study area and make appropriate recommendations.

Methodology The study was conducted in Giwa LGA which lies between latitude 11.200 N to 11.520 N of the equator and

longitude 7.0 E to 7.50 E of the Greenwich Meridian. The area lies within transition zones between Northern Guinea Savannah and Sudan Savannah characterized by altering dry and wet seasons with a mean annual rainfall of 1100 mm that last for 5 months from May to October. The mean daily minimum and maximum temperatures range



between 190C and 350C .The vegetation of the area is mostly grasses and shrubs. Giwa possess a physical landform features of floodplains popularly known as Fadama lands which provides rich fertile soils that favore intensive cultivation of crops in the area. The major crops grown in the area are sorghum, cowpea, maize, yam, vegetables and sugarcane (Kabir, 2013; Akinola et al., 2013).

Farming in Giwa LGA is usually a combination of crops and livestock production, with a few full time pastoralists. Farming system is of more subsistence by small-scale farmers in past years, but commercial system recently emerged prominent to cover massive land with intensive cropping leading to perpetual use of the marginal lands in the locality. As a consequence of floodplains in the area characterized by availability and accessibility to both open surface and underground water, the farmers and prompted to cultivate intensively throughout the dry and wet seasons which adhesively enhance the application of various cultural techniques in order to increase their productivity towards improving and sustaining the inherent soil nutrients. Even though, some cultural techniques in the study area are found less applicable by most of the farmers.

Table 1: Census Population for (2006) and Projected Population of the Study Area (2006- 2015)Sites 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Fatika 3501 3606 3714 4626 4764 4907 5055 5206 5362 5523

Giwa 15533 15999 16479 16973 17357 17483 18007 18547 19677 20267

Gangara 7425 7648 7878 8114 8357 8608 8866 9132 9406 9688

Galadima 4266 4394 4526 4662 4802 4946 5094 5247 5404 5566

Kaya 1108 1142 1176 1211 1248 1285 1523 1563 1610 1658

Kayawa 859 865 891 917 945 973 1002 1033 1064 1095

Kidandan 5728 5900 6077 6260 6447 6641 6640 6839 7044 7255

Yakawada 4595 4733 4875 5021 5172 5327 5487 5652 5821 5996Source: National Population Commission Kaduna State

Sampling Method and Data CollectionThe research was carried out between March and August, 2016, where eight (8) sites within Giwa LGA

where cropping system intensively practiced were systematically chosen for the research. The sites include Fatika, Gangara, Giwa, Galadimawa, Kaya, Kayawa, Kidandan and Yakawada. Field data were obtained using structured questionnaire administered to farming population practicing local cultural soil conservation methods. A sample size of 120 farmers were used as reflected in Table 1. Respondents were randomly selected through on-farm oral interviews on farmers’ perceptions. Other related information on the subject were sourced out from the existing relevant literature.Data Analysis

The analytical tool used in analysing the data is descriptive statistics where means, percentages, frequency distribution and range were applied to achieve the stated objectives of the study.


Results and Discussion

Table 2: Distribution of Respondents Based on Age and ExperienceAge (years) Frequency Percentage (%)less than 20 03 0320 – 39 80 6740 – 59 32 2760+ 03 03Total 118 100Duration of conservative farming (Years)1 – 5 37 31

6 – 10 45 38

11 – 15 20 17

16 – 20 11 09

21+ 05 04

Total 118 100Source: Field Survey, 2017

The results on Table 2 revealed the age distribution of farmers from Giwa LGA, Kaduna State, and shows that most (67%) respondents were within age range of 20 – 39 years, while 27% were within 40 – 59 years. This showed that majority of farmers were in their working age, which might influence their soil conservation practices. Also, the results on the years of practicing soil conservative showed that a larger proportion of the farmers (38%) have spent between 6 and 10 years, while 31% spent between 1 and 5 years and 17% spent between 11 and 15 years. These results showed that some farmers in the last ten years have adopted the conservative soil practices.

The results on the soil conservation techniques practiced by the farmers in the Giwa LGA of Kaduna State are presented in Tables 2 – 4 respectively.

Table 3: Infiltration Techniques Practiced in the Study Area

Location MulchingFx (%)

Planting of TreesFx (%)

Sand Bags/ Lines

Fx (%)

Stone BundsFx (%)

Vegetative BarriersFx (%)

TillageFx (%)

Use of Cover CropsFx (%)

TotalFx (%)

Fatika 0(0) 0(0) 9(50) 1(6) 0(0) 5(28) 3(17) 18(100)Giwa 0(0) 2(13) 8(53) 1(7) 0(0) 2(13) 2(13) 15(100)Gangara 1(9) 1(9) 2(18) 0(0) 2(18) 4(36) 1(9) 11(100)Galadima 1(7) 1(7) 11(73) 1(7) 0(0) 1(7) 0(0) 15(100)Kaya 0(0) 1(7) 8(57) 0(0) 1(7) 1(7) 3(21) 14(100)Kayawa 0(0) 0(0) 9(53) 0(0) 0(0) 7(41) 1(6) 17(100)Kidandan 2(13) 1(7) 4(27) 0(0) 0(0) 8(53) 0(0) 15(100)Yakawada 1(8) 2(15) 4(31) 1(8) 0(0) 5(38) 0(0) 13(100)Overall 5(4) 8(7) 55(47) 4(3) 3(3) 33(28) 10(8) 118(100)


Table 4: Methods of Erosion Control in the study Area


Location Terracing

Fx ()

Water ways

Fx (%)

Cover Cropping SystemFx (%)

Contour bundsFx (%)

Stone lines/ BundsFx (%)

Contour RidgingFx (%)

Vegetative BarriersFx (%)

TotalFx (%)



Table 5: Cultural Soil Fertility Improvement and Management in the Study Area

Location

Mixed Croppin

gFx (%)

Shifting Cultivatio

nFx (%)

Crop RotationFx (%)

Agro Forestr

yFx (%)

Cover Croppin

gFx (%)

Organic ManureFx (%)

Recycling Crop ResidueFx (%)

TotalFx (%)



The results on Table 3 revealed the infiltration techniques practiced in the study area. The study showed that a large proportion of the farmers (47%) practiced sand bags or lines infiltration, while 28% of the farmers adopted tillage techniques. This showed that most farmers are using sand bags as infiltration techniques and this may not be unconnected with the ease of using sand bags that may be relatively cheaper than other techniques. The results on Table 4 showed various types of erosion control practiced by sampled farmers from Giwa LGA, Kaduna State. In overall, most farmers (38%) adopted water ways erosion control method, while 20% used contour ridging method and other 14% uses vegetative barriers for control of erosion. This shows that most farmer prefer either water ways or contour ridging practices for the control of erosion in their farmlands, which may not be unconnected with its ease of construction.

The results on Table 5 revealed the cultural soil fertility improvement and management strategies adopted by sampled farmers from Giwa LGA, Kaduna State. The results show that most farmers (40%) use organic manure, while 28% were using crop rotation and 15% used mixed cropping. The fact that majority of farmers could not practice shifting cultivation, mixed cropping or cover cropping may not be unconnected with the fact that most are facing land ownership challenges. Majority of farmers borrowed farmland and most cases the land-portion leased to them is very small. Therefore, they were constrained to repeat farm on the same farmland in every season and the use of organic manure which is relatively available and easier to apply.

Table 6: Effectiveness of Practiced Soil Conservation Technique in the Study AreaLocation Cover Terracing Organic Mixed Tillage Contour Mulchin Total


Cropping

Fx (%) Fx (%)ManureFx (%)

Cropping

Fx (%) Fx (%)RidgingFx (%)

gFx (%) Fx (%)



The results on Table 6 revealed the farmers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of soil conservation techniques mostly practiced in the study area. The results showed that most farmers (65%) indicated using organic manure as best effective soil conservation technique in the study area, this was followed by contour ridging for erosion (11%) while others were ineffective. However, ineffectiveness of the terracing, cover cropping, mixed cropping as well as mulching as indicated by this study may not be unconnected with the fact that majority of farmers were not adopting most of these technique. In other words, the effectiveness of organic manure may not be unconnected with the fact that organic manure has natural and bio-degradable components which can easily be worked upon by microorganisms to aid plant growth and yield improvement.

Table 7: Challenges Facing Farmers from Adoption of Recommended Soil Conservation Practices in the Study AreaS/n Factors Fx % Rank1 Land tenure 91 18 32 Farm implement and Equipment 113 23 13 Application Knowledge 45 9 64 Availability of organic manure 89 18 45 Manpower 97 19 26 Financial constraint 67 13 5

* Multiple responses were observedSource: Field Survey, 2017

Table 7 presents the results on the challenges facing farmers from adopting recommended soil conservation practices in Giwa LGA. The results showed that, lack of farm implement and equipment is most significant challenge facing farmers, while making effort to practice soil conservation practices. Also, the shortage of manpower is one of the factors limiting practices of soil conservation in the study area. The third most significant challenge is land tenure, which was followed by availability of organic manure.

Discussion The findings from this study established that farmers used bags for infiltration techniques in their farmland,

while water ways was mostly adopted as erosion control method. Also, the traditional soil fertility techniques mostly used by the farmers in the study area is organic manure. These results implied that farmers are not embracing many soil conservation practices, which may not be unconnected with the disorientation of farmers about various traditional soil conservation practices. Fapojuwo et al. (2012) argued that the earlier mechanized agricultural practices introduced by most regional governments in the early 80s affected the various known traditional soil conservation methods. According to Arua (2008), the introduction of green revolution programme as well as operation feed the nation that focused on mass food production with less soil conservation affected the orientation of local farmers on soil conservation. Also, the study by Ajayi et al. (2003) found that farmers changed from


conserved farming techniques into mechanized farming as a result of government consistent practices of mechanised agriculture without given thought on aspect of soil conservation.

In a nutshell, the orientation of farmers on the various conservative practices may be argued to be low, when considering the fact that most farmers that are using organic manure are doing so not to conserve the farm land but as result of financial constraint to purchase inorganic fertilizer. A similar result has earlier been obtained from a study conducted by Hassan and Nhemachena (2008) that investigated the farmers’ soils conservation practices in the South-West part of Nigeria. The study found that farmers in most southwest states were not having detail orientation about soil conservation. The study concluded that most farmers only showed concern to farming aspects that improve their produce without paying much attention to the soil conservative aspect. As a result, farmers are more of indiscriminate use of pesticide and insecticide as well as other chemical that are dangerous for microorganism and micronutrient of the soil. There are chances for farmers that borrow land for just period of farming season to consider soil conservation less important, while those that have limited farm size may avoid other soil conservation practices such as shifting cultivation, mixed cropping, cover cropping or agroforestry.

More so, the study indicated organic manure as most effective among other soil fertility technique. This finding concurs with the finding made by Fapojuwo et al. (2012) that organic manure remains most effective among other traditional soil enricher method as a result of the fact that organic fertilisers have proved to be the safest and long lasting soil improvisers. Also, it was established in a study conducted by Mandiringana et al. (2006) that most farmers adopt organic manures on the fact that organic manures do not exert harmful and do not have polluting effects on the soil and plants. In a nutshell, farmers in Giwa LGA, Kaduna State, may persistently use organic manure, as a result of the fact that the organic manures consist of natural and bio-degradable components and elements which can easily be worked upon by little microorganisms and thus reach the crops and plants in a safe manner. Likewise, study by Ajayi et al. (2003) revealed that organic manure is a similar compound highly rich in nitrogen, which prominently consists of animal waste and rotten grass. These natural components are harmless and take long time to be decomposed. Above all, the farmers in the study area were using organic manure to contribute greatly to the fertility of the soil nutrients to improve their farm produce without causing damage to the soil.

However, it could not be ascertain whether the farmers were using organic manures as substitute of inorganic manures as a result of scarcity and financial constraints. Evidences from studies by Mandiringana (2006) and Ajayi et al. (2003) have shown that the use of local practices for soil conservation is predominantly common among poor-farmers in the rural communities. Their studies indicated that the mechanised farmers and larger scale farming environment mostly used inorganic manures. Arowojolu and Oladeji (2010) expressed that the big-time farmers could afford to procure trailer of inorganic manures for their farming, while others may have to settle for the organic and other locally arranged soil conservation techniques.

Above all, this study found that lack of farm implement and equipment is one of challenges facing farmers from practicing soil conservation farming. Likewise, shortage of manpower is among the limiting factors to the soil conservative practice in the study area. The shortage of manpower may not be unconnected with the fact that most farmers in Giwa LGA Kaduna State, depend majorly on their family members for farm works, which most at times interrupted their school activities and affected the size of farmland. The finding agreed with the finding made by Junge et al. (2008) that most farmers as a result of insufficient manpower normally used their family members for farming activities. In a nutshell, there is always a high demand of labour during farming season which always lead to labour shortage and poor soil conservation practices. This study also identified land tenure as a challenge for soil conservation practices. This may not be unconnected with the fact that farmers that borrow farmland for short period of farming season may not see any sense in making extra effort to protect land from erosion. Likewise, other practices such as agroforestry, cover cropping and shifting farming practices may not be a feasible option for farmers that rented land for short farming period. This fact concurs with the finding made by Salako et al. (2006) that land tenure and land ownership problem usually hindering the soil conservation and soil recovery programme in African countries.

ConclusionIt could be argued that farmers in their efforts are trying to ensure food security. However, most farmers

embraced mass farm produce without much knowledge on their roles. Thus, this study had showed that farmers in Giwa LGA of Kaduna State usually go for easiest soil conservation techniques because of its quick result manifestation and it might not require hard work and has no or less financial involvement. Sand bags and tillage were most frequent infiltration techniques adopted. Similarly, the farmers intensively controlled erosion through construction of water ways as well as contour ridging to stress-free the movement of water from their farmlands. It was also clear from the result that, the use of organic manure was apparently efficacious in improving crop yield.


However, it has been evident from this study that land tenure system is discouraging farmers to adopt effective conservative practices towards improving their production into a large scale.

RecommendationsBased on the findings and conclusion of this study, the following are the recommendations;1. Trainings should be organised for the farmers to educate and inform them about environmental friendly soil

conservation practices that will improve and increase their yield thereby improving their income. 2. Agricultural extension agents should intensify their efforts in the dissemination of research information

techniques on soil conservation techniques suitable for small-scale farmers as climate change adaptation techniques.

3. A review of government policies on land use/tenure system in Nigeria is needed for expansion of farmlands in order to increase production and reduce leaching and overuse of small farm holdings available to the small-scale farmers.

4. Farmers should intensify the use of organic manure due to its mineralization effectiveness and is affordable to smallholder farmers in the area

5. Government and other agricultural co-operatives should timely and adequately provide modern farm implements and equipment to the existing small scale farmers with the aim of compounding their production into large scale farming.

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November, 78-87.Ajayi, O.C., Franzel, S., Kuntashula, E. and Kwesiga, F. (2003). Adoption of Improved Fallow Technology for Soil

Fertility Management in Zambia: Empirical Studies and Emerging Issues. Agroforestry Systems, 59:317–326.Akintala, M.O., Odu, M.E and Baiyegunhi L.J. (2013). Adopted village project and farm income of beneficiary

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