Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia across...

Behavioural Neurology 25 (2012) 159–163 159DOI 10.3233/BEN-2012-119000IOS Press

Introduction

Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia acrossscripts

Brendan Stuart WeekesLaboratory of Communication Science, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, ChinaTel.: +852 2241 5986; Fax: +852 2241 5988; E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords: Models of reading, Spelling, Biscript reading, Bilingualism

Many studies have investigated the cognitive pro-cesses used to read and to spell in English. Much ofour kowledge about these processes comes from reportsof patients with acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia, firstidentified in the behavioral neurology clinic. As inall clinical studies, the detail in these reports includesdescription of preserved and impaired abilities of thepatient, usually with reference to a cognitive neuropsy-chological model of reading and spelling [6,12,13,26,28,29]. The beauty of these reports is the insight pro-vided to the clinician and to theorist about the topogra-phy of cognitive processing, allowing science to ‘carvenature at its joints’.

One criticism of this research is the emphasis onEuropean languages. However, a review of acquireddyslexia and dysgraphia in languages other than En-glish reveals an interesting fact. Many cases are report-ed in Behavioral Neurology – a revelation that reflectsthe global reach and sophistication of this readership.It is therefore a great privilege to present this SpecialIssue on the topic of Reading and Writing DisordersAcross Scripts.

The question posed to the authors (and readers) ofthe papers in this Special Issue is whether the process-es identified for reading and spelling in cognitive neu-ropsychological models developed for English, extendto other languages. This is not a trivial question that islimited to the armchair. Language processing in bilin-gual speakers is moving towards the front of cognitive

neuropsychological enquiry simply because bilingualspeakers are the majority of speakers in many languageenvironments. Thus, it is of interest to know aboutdyslexia and dysgraphia in Chinese, Korean and Urdufor theoretical reasons but also because it is necessaryto know if the cognitive processes used to read and tospell in one language have any effects on reading andspelling in another language [see 8, 9, 16 for interest-ing answers]. If the cognitive mechanisms used to readand to spell in one language impact on reading andspelling in another language then several clinical impli-cations follow, specifically for the treatment of acquireddyslexia and dysgraphia in bilingual speakers [23,26,40].

The contributors to this Special Issue report on pat-terns of acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia in Arabic,Chinese, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese,Russian, Slovak and Spanish. One unique feature is re-ports of multilingual speakers with reading and spellingdisorders in different languages (Druks et al.; Fried-mann and Haddad; Kambanaros et al.; Senaha and Par-ente). These cases not only highlight the striking simi-larities in the patterns of dyslexia and dysgraphia acrosslanguages, they converge on the view that cognitiveprocesses used to read and to spell are independent oflinguistic differences. Such reports have implicationsfor theoretical models of bilingual language processingbecause they suggest language ‘non-selective’ access tothe reading system. For example, the Bilingual Interac-

ISSN 0953-4180/12/$27.50 2012 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved

160 B.S. Weekes / Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia across scripts

tive Activation (BIA) model developed by Dijkstra andcolleagues [8,9] assumes an integrated system for oralreading across languages with language non-selectiveaccess to the oral reading system [see also 28, 29].

Wilson, Kahlaoui and Weekes [40] reviewed extantreports of acquired disorders of reading and spellingin bilingual speakers. Their review found that the er-ror patterns of surface, phonological and deep dyslex-ia in monolingual speakers in different languages areobserved in bilingual speakers [1,2,11,14,15,19,20,24,30,39]. That is not to say that all cases of acquireddyslexia in bilingual speakers show the same pattern oforal reading impairment in both languages. Weekes etal. [38] report Mongolian-Chinese bilingual speakerswith different reading errors in two types of script. TheMongolian language has an alphabetic script with a setof sublexical mappings from orthography to phonolo-gy. Weekes et al. observed semantic oral reading er-rors in Mongolian but semantically-related translationerrors in Chinese i.e. reading a Chinese character usinga semantically-relatedMongolian syllable. One patientproduced within-language semantic oral reading errorsin Mongolian e.g. table read as “stool”, but did notproduce these errors in Chinese. Language selectivereading errors are a challenge for the BIA+ model.

Language selective reading errors are observed inother bilingual speakers. Laine et al. [36] reporteda Swedish-Finnish speaker who had acquired dyslex-ia in both alphabetic scripts but was more likelyto make phonological errors when reading Swedishthan Finnish. Garcıa-Caballero et al. [25] report-ed a Galician-Spanish patient who had reading dif-ficulties only for Galician – a transparent orthogra-phy that shares morphology and vocabulary with Por-tuguese. Raman and Weekes [30] reported a Turkish-English speaker who was surface dyslexic in Englishbut deep dysgraphic in Turkish. Such reports suggestthat oral reading problems manifest themselves differ-ently across languages, according to the unique prop-erties of a script.

It is of interest that language selective oral readingerrors are not limited to bilingual speakers. The moststriking cases are reports of selective reading impair-ments in biscriptal patients showing that the type ofscript used within a language can have an impact onacquired dyslexia. Korean uses two different scripts:an ideographic writing system Hanja and syllabic writ-ing system Hangul. Disorders of reading and writingfor ideographic and syllabic characters in Korean canbe script specific [18]. These reports are difficult toreconcile with non-selective models of bilingual oral

reading [8]. Indeed, Caramelli et al. [4] observed awithin language dissociation in reading errors acrossscript in a Brazilian Portuguese-Japanese (Nisei) bilin-gual speaker who produced more oral reading errorsin Japanese (ideographic) than Portuguese (alphabetic)even though he acquired both languages at an early age.Of even more interest was the differential pattern ofreading impairment within the Japanese language forKanji and Kana script. Japanese script uses an ideo-graphic writing system (Kanji) adopted from Chinesecharacters and a syllabic system (Kana). Reports ofmonolingual Japanese speakers with acquired dyslex-ia who read well in one script and not the other i.e.biscriptal dyslexia are plentiful [7,32–34]. However,Caramelli’s report was the first to show that acquireddyslexiawithin Japanese transfers to irregularly spelledPortuguese words (see also Senaha and Parente, thisvolume).

A review of the cases reported with acquired dyslex-ia and dysgraphia in bilingual speakers is summarizedin Table 1 (biscriptal cases are omitted). Each caseis described in terms of the language status i.e. thefirst acquired (L1) and the second acquired (L2) lan-guage, the cerebral pathology (if reported), the patternof reading impairment and the characterisation of ac-quired dyslexia stated in the case report. The summaryshows a mixed pattern. For some cases there are nodifferences in quantity or quality of oral reading errorsacross languages, even if the languages use very dif-ferent scripts (e.g., Arabic-Hebrew). However for themajority of cases there is some effect of language statuson performance with different patterns of reading er-rors across languages. Two features that emerge fromthe summary are that 1) effects of language status donot necessarily favour the first acquired language and2) effects of language status do not depend on simi-larity between scripts. For example, there are reportsof Chinese-English speakers who produce more errorsin Chinese (L1) than English (L2) but another reportshows the opposite pattern. Reports of acquireddyslex-ia and dysgraphia in bilingual and biscript patients willcontinue to challenge and inform cognitive neuropsy-chological models of reading as will cases of readingand writing disorders in monolingual speakers such asthose reported here by Crepaldi et al., Hricova et al.,Mondini et al., Semenza et al., and Wilson et al.

In closing, I would very much like to thank ArgyeHillis and Naama Friedmann for encouragement andhelp in editing this Special Issue. Thanks also to thecontributors for their insights into acquired disordersof reading and writing across scripts.

B.S. Weekes / Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia across scripts 161

Tabl

e1

Rep

orte

dca

sesof

dysl

exia

inbi

lingu

alsp

eake

rs(1

938–

2011

)

Cita

tion

Lan

guag

epa

irs

Neu

ropa

thol

ogy

Err

ors

Cha

ract

eris

atio

n

Lym

anet

al.(1

938)

Chi

nese

-Eng

lish

Lef

tTBA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

Chi

nese

(L1)

Non

eEng

(199

8)C

hine

se-E

nglis

hLef

tTBA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inC

hine

se(L

1)th

anEng

lish

(L2)

Sem

antic

erro

rsin

both

lang

uage

sin

clud

ing

tran

slat

ion

erro

rsEng

and

Obl

er(2

002)

Chi

nese

-Eng

lish

Lef

tTBA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inC

hine

se(L

1)th

anEng

lish

(L2)

Sem

antic

and

surfac

eer

rors

inbo

thla

n-gu

ages

(stres

san

dto

nal)

Byn

get

al.(1

984)

Dev

anag

ari-Eng

lish

Lef

tTBA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inD

evan

agar

i(L

1)th

anEng

ish

(L2)

Non

eK

amba

naro

set

al.(2

012)

Gre

ek-E

nglis

hLef

ttem

pora

lCVA

Mor

ew

ritin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

Gre

ekPh

onol

ogic

aldy

sgra

phia

∗ Che

ngap

paet

al.(2

004)

Hin

di-E

nglis

hN

one

repo

rted

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

inK

anna

da(L

1).

Surfac

edy

slex

iain

Eng

lish.

Dru

kset

al.(2

012)

Hun

garian

-Eng

lish

Dem

entia

(nfP

PA)

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

Hun

garian

(L1)

.Pr

ogre

ssiv

edy

slex

iain

both

lang

uage

sO

hno

etal

.(2

002)

Japa

nese

-Eng

lish

Lef

them

isph

ere

CVA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inJa

pane

seth

anEng

lish

(inc

ludi

ngtran

sla-

tion

ofka

naw

ords

).W

ritin

gsp

ared

Pure

alex

iafo

rJa

pane

seK

ana

and

Kan

ji.

∗ Kar

anth

(200

2)K

anna

da-E

nglis

hN

one

repo

rted

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

inK

anna

da(L

1).

Surfac

edy

sgra

phia

inbo

thla

ngua

ges

Rat

nava

lliet

al.(2

000)

Kan

nada

-Eng

lish

Lef

tocc

ipita

llo

beN

odi

ffer

ence

sbe

twee

nla

ngua

ges;

writin

gpr

eser

ved

Pure

alex

iain

both

lang

uage

s(w

ritin

gin

tact

)R

atna

valli

etal

.(2

000)

Kan

nada

-Eng

lish

Lef

tpar

ieta

llob

eM

ore

read

ing

erro

rsin

Kan

nada

(L1)

;writin

gdi

fficu

lties

forb

oth

lang

uage

sN

one

Kim

,Na

and

Park

(200

7)K

orea

n-Eng

lish

Lef

them

isph

ere

CVA

Dys

grap

hia

inbo

thla

ngua

ges

tran

spos

ition

erro

rsbe

twee

nco

n-so

nant

san

dvo

wel

soc

curr

edin

Eng

lish

Gra

phem

icbu

ffer

impa

irm

ent.

Mas

ters

onet

al.(1

985)

Span

ish-

Eng

lish

Lef

ttem

pora

lCVA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

Span

ish

(L1)

Non

eLag

anar

o&

Ven

et(2

001)

Span

ish-

Eng

lish

Lar

gele

ftTBA

No

differ

ence

sbe

twee

nla

ngua

ges:

mor

edi

fficu

ltyre

adin

gno

n-w

ords

com

pare

dto

wor

ds.

Am

ixtu

reof

pure

and

phon

olog

ical

alex

ia.

Ram

an&

Wee

kes

(200

5)Tur

kish

-Eng

lish

Lef

ttem

pora

lCVA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

Tur

kish

(L1)

Surfac

edy

slex

iain

Eng

lish/

deep

dysg

raph

iain

Tur

kish

Bea

ton

&D

avie

s(2

007)

Wel

sh-E

nglis

hLef

tCVA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L2)

than

Wel

sh(L

1)D

eep

dysl

exia

inbo

thla

ngua

ges

Tain

turier

etal

.(2

012)

Wel

sh-E

nglis

hLef

tCVA

(x7)

No

differ

ence

betw

een

lang

uage

sPh

onol

ogic

aldy

slex

iain

both

lang

uage

sG

arcı

a-C

abal

lero

(200

7)G

alic

ian-

Span

ish

Bas

alga

nglia

Rea

ding

erro

rsin

Gal

icia

n(L

1)on

lyN

one

Lai

neet

al.(1

994)

Finn

ish-

Swed

ish

Lef

tant

erio

rC

VA

No

differ

ence

sbe

twee

nla

ngua

ges:

mor

edi

fficu

ltyre

adin

gno

n-w

ords

com

pare

dto

wor

ds.

Am

ixtu

reof

pure

and

phon

olog

ical

alex

ia.

Bel

and

&M

imou

ni(2

001)

Ara

bic-

Fren

chLef

ttem

pora

lCVA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inFr

ench

(L2)

than

Ara

bic

(L1)

Dee

pdy

slex

iain

both

lang

uage

sIb

rahi

m(2

008)

Ara

bic-

Heb

rew

Lef

them

isph

ere

tum

our

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inA

rabi

c(L

1).C

ould

only

spel

lsin

glew

ords

inA

rabi

cLet

ter-by

-let

terre

adin

g

Ibra

him

(200

9)A

rabi

c-H

ebre

wH

erpe

sen

ceph

aliti

sM

ore

read

ing

erro

rsin

Heb

rew

(L2)

.In

spel

ling

todi

ctat

ion,

Ara

bic

bette

rpr

eser

ved

than

Heb

rew

Let

ter-by

-let

terre

adin

g

Frie

dman

n&

Had

dad

Ara

bic

Heb

rew

Lef

tTBA

No

differ

ence

betw

een

lang

uage

sLet

terpo

sitio

ndy

slex

iaW

eeke

set

al.(2

007)

Mon

golia

n-C

hine

seLef

ttem

pora

lCVA

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inC

hine

se(L

2)th

anM

ongo

lian

(L1)

.Tra

ns-

latio

nre

adin

ger

rors

Dee

pdy

slex

iain

Mon

golia

nan

dC

hine

se,

Meg

uro

etal

.(2

003)

Portug

uese

-Jap

anes

eD

emen

tia(D

AT)

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inK

anji

than

kana

(L2)

and

irre

gula

rly

spel

led

wor

dsth

anno

nwor

dsin

Portug

uese

(L1)

Surfac

edy

slex

ia

Sena

ha&

Pare

nte

(201

2)Po

rtug

uese

-Jap

anes

eLef

ttra

umat

icbr

ain

inju

ryM

orere

adin

ger

rors

inK

anji

than

kana

(L2)

and

irre

gula

rly

spel

led

wor

dsth

anno

nwor

dsin

Portug

uese

(L1)

Surfac

edy

slex

ia

Car

amel

liet

al.(1

994)

Portug

uese

-Jap

anes

eLef

ttra

umat

icbr

ain

inju

ryM

orere

adin

ger

rors

inJa

pane

se(L

2)th

anPo

rtug

uese

(L1)

.M

ore

read

ing

impa

irm

entf

orK

anji

than

Kan

aN

one

Meg

uro

etal

.(2

003)

Portug

uese

-Jap

anes

eD

emen

tia(A

lzhe

imer

)K

ana,

Portug

uese

and

Japa

nese

nonw

ords

>Po

rtug

uese

irre

gula

rw

ords

(L1)

>K

anji

char

acte

rs(L

2)N

one

∗ Wyd

ell&

But

terw

orth

Eng

lish-

Japa

nese

Non

ere

ported

Mor

ere

adin

ger

rors

inEng

lish

(L1)

than

Japa

nese

(Kan

jian

dK

ana)

Dev

elop

men

talph

onol

ogic

aldy

slex

iain

Eng

lish

∗ The

sear

eca

sesof

deve

lopm

enta

ldy

slex

iaw

here

none

urop

atho

logy

isre

ported

.

162 B.S. Weekes / Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia across scripts

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