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Acknowledgements

I would like to give thanks to my committee members: Dr. Tara Stevens for being a late

but very welcomed and appreciated member of my committee and for providing insight into the

more practical sides of Educational Psychology; Dr. Brian McFadden for patiently helping with

the translation of over three-thousand lines of Beowulf and for providing further insight and

understanding into the nature of languages and texts; and special thanks to Dr. Zenaida Aguirre-

Muñoz, who continually provided insight and support into the nature of Higher Education and

who was a positive voice and a continual source of inspiration.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ...…………………...……………………………………………………… ii

Reflection

Academic and Career Achievements …………………………………………………... 1

English and Language ………………………………………………………………….. 5

Philosophical Aspects and Implications of Teaching Beowulf ………………………... 8

Bilingual/Education Studies …………………………………………………………... 10

Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition …………..... 11

The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning . 12

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………. 13

Essays

Philosophical Aspects and Implications of Teaching Beowulf …...……………….…. 14

Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition ..………..…. 37

The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning .. 72

Reflection

Reflection

Academic and Career Achievements

Prior to undertaking my Master’s degree, I taught English in Germany to persons of all

ages and backgrounds and was inspired to continue my advancement in higher education based

upon the interaction and connections I had with them. While in Germany, I found that I was

relatively good at teaching the underlying concepts of the English language to others via more

practical and contextual means that went beyond classical grammar and vocabulary

memorization. The experiences I had teaching English and learning German at the same time

provided immensely valuable insight into how I used my own language and how it affected my

cognition, ultimately showing how much I had taken my own language for granted and also

portraying the world in an entirely new light.

Initially, I wanted to continue teaching English and share the insight I had gained, with

the goal of completing the coursework required to teach English at the high school level.

However, I also wanted to continue exploring the effect that text and language have on society.

Consequently, before beginning my Master’s work, I took three personal leveling classes:

Cognitive Psychology, Anthropological Linguistics, and Contemporary Sociological Theory.

These three classes were perhaps the three most interesting and inspirational classes that I have

taken throughout my entire time in higher education and laid the groundwork for my pursuit of

the Interdisciplinary Studies (INDS) degree.

It is a fair assessment to say that I have never wanted to focus on one subject. In fact, I

have always perceived most subjects in the Humanities as conjoined and have always tried to

portray links between subjects in all of my work, with the effort to do so sometimes succeeding

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and sometimes not. I believe that undertaking the INDS degree gave me the best opportunity to

work across fields by providing the ability to choose courses and construct my degree plan based

upon my own specific needs and interests. Also, before deciding on the INDS path, I researched

many PhD programs in higher education, of which, the programs that interested me were the

ones that highly stressed the ability to think abstractly across disciplines, which is precisely what

I intended to do.

Essentially, my pursuit of the INDS degree academically allowed me the following:

• Complete coursework needed to teach English domestically at the secondary level;

• Continue learning the history of the English language and further bridged German and

English to enhance my ability to teach English abroad;

• Demonstrate the ability to work across disciplinary borders, languages and cultures;

• Demonstrate the ability to manage academia and my own degree plan; and

• Determine a career path in higher education and direction for a PhD.

With respects to a career, working on the INDS degree has proven to be an invaluable

experience and has provided much insight into future direction and goals. During the entirety of

my work towards the INDS degree, I devoted most of my time to working with the Student

Government Association (SGA) and the Student Senate. Working within the SGA provided me

the chance to work directly with the administration Texas Tech and allowed me to see some of

the ups and downs of higher education administration and, more specifically, aspects of diversity

thereof. In my academic career, as well as my work in the SGA, I always wanted to emphasize

the benefits of diversity to higher education. In my academic work, the concept of diversity took

shape via bilingual and linguistic studies and, within the SGA, my work focused on propelling

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the initiative set forth by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board’s “Closing the Gaps”

plan.

While helping to propel the “Closing the Gaps” initiative, I was fortunate to have

collaborated on many occasions with Dr. Juan Muñoz, and all of the staff of the Division of

Institutional Diversity, Equity and Community Engagement, who continually showed patience

and regularly allowed me to learn from my work without reproach, and not only served as

personal role models, but, and perhaps more importantly, also served as an example of what

higher education stands for. During one of the last meetings I had with Dr. Muñoz, I informed

him that “I wish I had known then what I know now”, to which he simply smiled and nodded. A

simple gesture that again showed what higher education is all about: education and affording the

opportunity for individuals to continually learn and mature from all they do.

Through my interactions with Dr. Muñoz and my work with undergraduates across campus, I

came to see the positive effects that all people have on one another when they work together and

continually learn from each other. Dr. Muñoz served as a personal role model to me, and,

consequently, I strove to serve as a personal role model to those I worked with in the SGA.

Based upon these interaction, and work with diversity, I gained a stronger appreciation for the

administration of Texas Tech and have decided that higher education administration is a future

occupation that I would like to pursue. However, my interest in higher education administration,

and interest in my course work stems from interest in the more legal aspects of higher education

and government regulations. While working in the SGA, I became very familiar with the Higher

Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) and in EPSY 5356, the Individual with Disabilities

Education Act (IDEA). Working with both acts, learning the pasts, implications, and limitations

of each proved to be an immensely valuable experience. By working with various TTU

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faculty/staff and administrators regarding certain issues of the HEOA laws, I gained an

understanding of how difficult it is to be aware of and, more importantly, follow all of the laws

public institutions are required to abide by; certainly a task that proves difficult even at the best

of times.

Taking EPSY 5356, Principles of Educational and Psychological Measurement, was very

advantageous because it not only allowed me to explore the more practical sides of Psychology

and Education, but it also gave me the opportunity to delve into the nature of Education Law,

specifically the IDEA, concerning individuals with disabilities and fair treatment. Both the

HEOA and IDEA further piqued my interest in diversity in the educational setting, not only

legally, but ethically and practically as well.

My work in the SGA also provided me the opportunity to meet several other administrators

who possess their law degrees and who all expressed the opinion that I would make a good

attorney. Consequently, I have decided to obtain a JD before getting a PhD. By getting a JD and

PhD, I intend to make myself more marketable in regards to higher education and also to open

doors in law and politics, three fields that certainly go hand-in-hand.

Completion of my INDS degree has professionally allowed the following:

• Provide valuable insight into the processes of higher education;

• Provide multiple avenues for success and career opportunities;

• Establish a network needed to excel both within academia and out; and

• Provide immensely valuable opportunities to more diversely evaluate myself, current

affairs and the world.

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English and Language

The courses I have taken towards a secondary English certification are:

ENGL 5300 Individual Study (Narrative Theory)

ENGL 5301 Old English

ENGL 5351 Film and Literature

ENGL 5303 Medieval British Literature

The choice to take these classes was multifold. Not only do they fulfill the requirement

needed for the certificate to teach English at the Secondary level, but I believe the courses are a

diverse representation of the English language across genres and time periods. In the Narrative

Theory course, most of the novels read were paired with corresponding films. The comparison of

text to film proved to be starkly different and was something I wanted to explore further.

The study of film (including digital media) and literature was a concept that I had been

interested in for a long time. Being born in 1982, I can remember what life was like before

computers and the internet. However, I also realized at a young age that the world was slowly

becoming populated by computers and connected via the World Wide Web. To me, this was an

important experience because I was able to witness more traditional means of communication

but also grew up with the current, more social, forms of communication. I often have concerns

about the amount of information, and the language used to express such information, which is

being released into this world. A lot of the information now circulating the world seems absolved

of credibility and I sometimes think that we are sacrificing quality for quantity. However, I also

understand that information, like language, must be allowed to flow, to evolve, and be used by

all people in ways that are best appropriate and suitable to them. Information and language are

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both experiences that must be conceptualized and, to be conceptualized, both experiences must

be internalized. Taking an example from M. A. K. Halliday, experiences are not internalized

until each experience has been transformed into meaning by each individual. It is in the concept

of individual meaning where I believe the importance of language, information, and, ultimately,

all education resides.

In regards to language and literature, with constantly changing technology in an ever-

increasing digital age, I believe that film, especially on-line video, has become and will continue

to be more popular than written text. To reach future generations in the most effective ways

possible, I believe it is important to continually remain up-to-date with such trends in order to

effectively construct and express information. This is a concept that is not only important in the

field of English but also across academia, no matter the subject. The mode that is used to express

and/or to inform is very important, and we must always be willing to adapt to the situation and to

those who are in it so that we can communicate in the most effective way.

Throughout my graduate career, I have always kept the following quote close:

“The colossal misunderstanding of our time is the assumption that insight will work with

people who are unmotivated to change. Communication does not depend on syntax, or

eloquence, or rhetoric, or articulation but on the emotional context in which the message

is being heard. People can only hear you when they are moving toward you, and they are

not likely to when your words are pursuing them. Even the choicest words lose their

power when they are used to overpower. Attitudes are the real figure of speech.”

Edwin H. Friedman

This quote may seem simple, but, to me, it is profoundly insightful and has influenced all

the work I have done throughout my graduate studies. The quote is also a concept that I wanted

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Reflection

to express in my essay, “Philosophical Aspects and Implications of Teaching Beowulf”. I wanted

to stress the importance of meaning and the continual construction and association of meaning

that is conveyed through text to all persons and generations.

My intended audience for the essay was specifically high school English teachers, and

one of the reviewers of my essay had over twenty years of experience teaching High School

English. The reviewer commented that my essay brought attention and concern to issues that the

reviewer had not previously considered. The reviewer’s comments also helped to confirm that

Beowulf is being taught in the State of Texas in a manner with which I disagree. I wanted to

express that it is always important to emphasize new and open-minded approaches to all texts, a

concept that stemmed from my own experience in public education and standardized teaching. In

middle school, I remember reading an abridged version of Beowulf and receiving, by my own

interpretation, a rather dogmatic instruction of what the text was supposed to mean. However, it

was not until having the advantage in graduate school of reading Beowulf in its entirety and

original language, that I discovered just how skewed the version of Beowulf was that I had been

taught in middle school. As I stated in my essay on page two, paragraph three, “the actions of

Beowulf, be them entertaining, carry with them important personal, social, and political

implications”. That is a concept that may go without saying, but one that, to me, was lost. I

believe that most meaning is lost when texts are taught in truncated forms because the omission

of any part of a text not only changes the context but also the basic content. Meaning, therefore,

is also modified, with individual internalization often being replaced with dogmatic dictation by

the person(s) who decide what content to keep in an abridged form and what such content is

intended to mean. I believe the emphasis on content and context is lost in academia when

concerted emphasis on diversity is not allowed. In education, it is often easy to fall into the trap

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Reflection

of standardizing what should be taught and in what ways it should be taught. This is a mistake

that too often occurs and is, to me, too prevalent in the teaching of literature and language(s).

The argument can be made that my attempt to make the “Philosophical Aspects and

Implications of Teaching Beowulf” fit broadly across disciplines, and for my overall degree plan,

was subsequently detrimental to an English essay and reflective of the grade received. I believe

Dr. McFadden’s comments on the last page of the essay are justified and accurate. Although I

believe it is good to explore and stretch out of specific academic areas, I also see why it is

important to follow the guidelines and expectations of specific fields. For me, performing the

research needed to write a successful essay is not the difficult part. However, finding a unique

way to broach a subject often is. When it came to Beowulf, I found that the only interest I had

was in the Social Sciences realm and the connection I saw it had with linguistics. Consequently,

the essay also proved to be a self-evident turning point away from continuing to study English as

a career.

Philosophical Aspects and Implications of Teaching Beowulf

In general, it can be said that I often make the mistake of asserting too much of my own

opinion and not building enough off the research of others. Someone once told me that all the

knowledge in the world is useless if you cannot use it to prove an argument. In both regards, I

believe that I failed to compile an effective essay. The first six pages of the essay were too

ideological and could be condensed and made clearer, and it is also evident that more citation

from Beowulf was needed. But, aside from content, I believe that context was also lacking. As

previously stated, I found it difficult to address the poem in a new light. However, when

discussing a thousand-year-old text that is a representation of modern religion, language and

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Reflection

ideology, what is better to speak about than those specific facts? Had I done so, I believe that

many of the basic elements of my essay, if clarified and expanded upon appropriately, could

have been made into an effective article that would fit in English and the other fields of my

degree.

To make the essay more effective, I could have used Tolkien’s argument of Beowulf

being part historical document and part literary fiction as a springboard to examine the historical

context of Western Europe’s Early Middle Ages, and the use of folklore, oral and written, to

shape the ideas and values of its populations, particularly between those pagan and Christian. By

showing what a good Christian should and, more importantly, should not do, the Dragon episode,

lines 2200 – 3218 of Beowulf, can serve as an accurate Christian example of the Middle Ages

and how the text could have been used as a tool to help the shift from paganism to Christianity.

A Christian reading of the Dragon episode would be consistent with Gwara’s article “Beowulf

Appraises His Reward” and the meaning of Beowulf’s sacrifice for the treasure hoard, and with

Marshall’s article “Goldgyfan or Goldwlance: A Christian Apology for Beowulf and Treasure”

and defense against avarice.

Also, from a historical context, when examining Roman, Merovingian and Carolingian

Christian influence, it is plausible that the Dragon episode, with subjectively strong references to

the New Testament (2596-2601, 2633-2634, 2638-2644, 2677-2687, 2794-2798, 2824-2852,

2855-2859, etc.) and interpreted as depicting Beowulf in similar roles to that of the Christ figure

(2532-2535, 2813-2816, 2866, 2981, etc.), could be an indication that it is a later Christian

addition to an already established pagan tale. There is large amount of evidence showing that the

Carolingian dynasty often extensively rewrote and altered countless texts and, in some cases,

entire libraries in an effort to reflect the world in a more favorable Christian light. Efforts to do

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Reflection

so were not only aimed at modifying the culture of those they had conquered, but those they

wished to conquer as well, effectively acting as a cognitive primer for the concepts and ideals

they wished to introduce, or more accurately convert, populations to. Also, upon further

examination, and as shown by Innes in his book Introduction to Early Medieval Western Europe,

Christian kings, predominantly the Carolingians, used warfare to spread Christianity and placed

high value on plunder and tribute to support their cause, ideals reflected in Beowulf. There was

also a shift, and even conflict, in Christianity in the early Middle Ages between individual piety

and societal piety, a concept that is evident in the duality of avarice and sacrifice performed by

Beowulf. Also, in The Carolingian World, Costambeys, et al. point out that, during the early

Middle Ages, Christian ideals and values were reflected more by external practices and publicly

accepted actions rather than internal contemplation and value in self-justification and self-

efficacy, and the shift, and often conflict, between the two concepts; also clearly evident by

Beowulf in the Dragon episode and my essay pg. 14 paragraph 2.

Altogether, I believe that a “Jungian” reading of the text is appropriate and fits

historically with both the turmoil of the early Middle Ages and the shift from not only pagan to

Christian beliefs but also (i), the shifts and conflict within Christian beliefs (ii), the changes in

ruling doctrine (iii), focus and expression between the self and community and (iv) the changing

psychological concepts between outward actions and inward beliefs and values.

Bilingual/Education Studies

Studies in bilingualism and education proved to me to be the most interesting and held

the greatest propensity to apply knowledge from across disciplines. When I first took classes in

Education and Bilingual Studies, I was expecting to find it a very cross-discipline field.

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Reflection

However, I was soon surprised at how narrow it seemed to be. As I progressed through the

material and course work, I found myself always going back to psychology and sociology and

wondering why concepts and ideas within texts were not being explained at length via more

traditional psychological and sociological means. I initially thought that I would have a hard time

adding to the field of Bilingual Education and was expecting resistance to the addition of more

practical social-psychological ideals. However, I soon came to realize that I was wrong and was

rather surprised and appreciative of the encouragement and support that I received from Dr.

Zenaida Aguirre-Muñoz to pursue and fully develop my ideas.

Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition

I believe that Dr. Muñoz’s comment on page three, number three, “you need to cite those

previous points. In scholarly publications, you need to show that you are building on others’

work”, is the most important and reflective comment on my studies. For me, as previously stated,

it was a learning curve to adjust to the amount of citation needed to construct an effective essay.

Towards the end of my studies, in the last semester, in fact, I was told that scholarly work means

that you cite more than ninety percent of the time, and, every now and then, you get to throw in a

few words of your own. Although the comment was perhaps an exaggeration, it was,

nonetheless, an exaggeration that made a valid point, and a point from which I aimed to learn.

For both papers, “Social and Psychological Implications of Language Acquisition” and “The

Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning”, I have

researched an additional forty sources and twenty-one pages of quotations that I believe

effectively add to the insight and citation needed to make both papers as clear and scholarly as

possible.

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Reflection

The only other changes that I would make, besides the ones noted by Dr. Muñoz, would

be to elaborate a bit more at the end of the Discussion section, particularly the last paragraph on

page 16, by including some of the findings of Garcia and Nanez and M.A.K. Halliday, and

modifying the Conclusion section to more accurately reflect the Discussion section. I would

further elaborate and emphasize the concept of language as being a holistic experience, and one

that requires, to be most effective, a unique approach that must bridge the emotional and

contextual experiences that bilinguals have had in their lives and with all languages. Although

languages can be learned independent from one another, it is more likely that they are learned

together by persons who functionally use the languages in different and simultaneous roles.

Experiences can be shared across linguistic boundaries to effectively create new and richer

concepts that can be used in more than one context or lingual boundary. Although we will never

be able to completely empathize with another person, we can reach them on certain fundamental

and conceptual issues such as economics, culture, family, and self expectations and contextual

understandings. By conjoining such experiences and the ways to express them, we can

effectively grow a person’s mind by working off of what is already known and desired, thus

creating new concepts and ideas that lead to new experiences in the target language(s) that are

not forced or transmitted but that are, as suggested by Dr. Muñoz, constructed at the individual

level and continually augmented by sharing with those around us.

The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning

My intention for this paper was to show the basis for behavior and emotion that is

associated with language. One of the major comments by Dr. Muñoz was that further elaboration

on the connection to emotion should have been given and weaved in throughout the paper. I

intended to compile a third essay that would have elaborated more on the topic and more

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Reflection

concretely tied together the concepts in the essay with the “Social and Psychological

Implications of Second Language Acquisition”. This would have taken the concepts presented

about the amygdala deeper into neuroscience and the quantum mechanics of hearing and signal

processing, further stressing the amygdala’s strong influence on behavior and further

emphasizing the basic self-organizing principles that exist with all matter, including the human

brain. Although I do not believe the technology yet exists to definitively prove such claims, I do

think that there is enough literature and scientific evidence present to warrant them and to set the

path for continued and future research in the area via a more cognitive and neuropsychological

perspective.

Conclusion

More often than not, I believe that a synthesis of answers is the correct answer. As with

all knowledge and matter in the universe, we must look at everything holistically, but, at the

same time, given the uniqueness of everything, we must give equal attention and credit to each

individual part and event that constructs the whole. To contradict Aristotle, who said that “the

whole is greater than the sum of its parts”, I believe that, since the whole does not exist without

its parts, it is therefore no greater than the sum of its parts, but is, and can ever only be, equal to

them. Knowledge is no different, as we are all no different. Everything is connected via the

virtue of existence. The more we acknowledge the similarities in things and each other, the

closer we will all become and, consequently, will be able to learn and become more enriched.

When the prosperity of knowledge and insight is afforded and inculcated into the human

condition, not only will academia prosper, but more importantly, so will society, allowing us to

continue to build on the foundations of a more just and equitable world. By sticking together, the

whole gets better, by opening our minds to new and unknown things, we, the parts, get better.

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Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition 1

Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition

Ryan Culbertson

Texas Tech University

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Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition 2

Abstract

The intent of this article is to examine, through a cross-discipline approach, the process of

second language acquisition by focusing on the bifurcated aspects and parallel distribution processing of

language that occurs simultaneously to achieve a synergistic effect. Through this examination,

instructors of second languages should become more aware of the dynamic sociocultural properties of a

language. The article will further posit that effective second language teaching does not allow for a rigid

structure or method of teaching but demands a free and dynamic method that is consistent with the

culture that uses the target language.

Introduction

“As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications” (Darwin 114).

The above quote is taken from Charles Darwin’s “The Origin of Species” and serves as an

analogy for the propensity that the human species has for growth and change. Arguably, the most

important aspect of human evolution, both biologically and culturally, has been the development of

language. Language is a tool to communicate, through visual and oral means, but it has also become one

of the major ways in which individuals acquire self and cultural identities. Consequently, our self-

identities affect our cultural identities, and both affect our language; a mutual relationship. Through

modification, update, use and disuse, language, like biological evolution, is constantly changing and so

too are the ways in which we learn it.

When talking about theories of second language acquisition (SLA), it is always important to

remember that we are talking about people and the ways in which humans learn, act, and

communicate. With that said, we must always keep in mind that every person is different and,

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Page: 2Number: 1 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:49:13 AM Since you are the one that is making the case for a dynamic approach, not the article, consider changing the last sentence to: An argument is also presented for a move away from a rigid structure or method of teaching to one that demands a free and dynamic approach that is consistent with language use of the target language. Number: 2 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:51:33 AM you need a citation

Number: 3 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:52:08 AM you need a citation

Number: 4 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:52:55 AM excellent

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Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition 3

therefore, essentially requires a unique approach to acquiring a second language. Like people, the parts

of SLA are dynamic and contingent on both the individual and the society in which they are used.

Therefore, for any theory of SLA to be accurate, or even acceptable, it too must advocate a propensity

for change. For teachers, this is a point that must always permeate any effort at second language

teaching.

Evolution and Language

Many have made the argument that infants are born with a tabula rasa and that there is no pre-

existing mental content present. It is true that children are not born with any formal knowledge, but “no

one argues that the human brain is not hard-wired for the production and perception of spoken

language” (Allen 132). Every single person is a product of their genes and is subject to the coding

therein. In theory of evolution, there is a “dual transmission theory” (Stone 130), which states that there

are two aspects of human evolution, “cultural change”(129) and “biological evolution” (129). These two

aspects are mutually influential and shape both the corpus and the populace, and illustrates that we are

not biological beings or cultural beings alone, but that we are, rather, biologically cultural beings.

When compared across species, the human requires more nurturing than practically any other

animal. Indeed, “the immaturity of human infants requires extensive care giving for their survival”

(Rogoff 102). Essentially, at birth, we are dependent upon those around us and the environment in

which we are reared. Without the opportunity to have such an extensive nurturing process, humans

certainly would not be capable of performing the comparatively advanced cognitive functions that we

do.

We do not know how the predisposition to language specifically developed at cross time, but it

is clear that, over a long period of time and evolution, environmental pressures were able to “mold a

population’s genetic makeup” (Jones 38). Genes, being “the coding region portion of a DNA” (Jones 74),

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Number: 1 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:53:40 AM needs citation Number: 2 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:55:11 AM excellent, it does follow from previous points, but you need to cite those previous points. In scholarly publications, you need to show that you arebuilding on others' work Number: 3 Author: Canas Subject: Sticky Note Date: 5/16/2011 8:56:31 AM cite most prominent authors who have made this claim

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Social and Psychological Implications of Second Language Acquisition 4

are essentially the building blocks of a human being and are preserved and passed down through natural

selection. Although our genes preprogram us for language and give us the ability to communicate, it is

almost meaningless to speak about language without the collectivity of society, as “human language

ability could not have arisen through a selective process acting on the level of the individual” (Stone

163), but rather through the combined effort and survival of society. Simply, the ability to use language

is useless to one person alone, as we must have someone else to communicate with in order to use

language effectively. Therefore, language is just as much of a social construct as it is an individual

construct and is where we can differentiate between “language” and “a language”.

Socioculture and Language

Language is arguably the basis for the performance of almost every action within society. Every

society, no matter how large or small, has a logocratic state (LS) in which the populace is governed by

words. Subsequently, every individual has a concept of this state, a “logocratic consciousness”

(Silverstein 354), which establishes the framework for the linguistic discourse of the society. Language,

being “the foundation for all aspects of cultural creation and its reproduction or transformation”

(Johnson 129), is therefore one of the most important and complicated skills that anyone may ever

learn. Indeed, we spend more time learning our first language than we do anything else. Perhaps it is

even more accurate to say that we never stop learning any language. Because of this, concepts of

language are perpetual and always subject to change, update and modification through all

developmental stages. As with most knowledge, there is a synergistic property to language

development.

It is in this contingency of parts where the pragmatics of language lies. As one learns a language,

he/she is influenced by both his/her own particularistic observations and the demands of the

environment around them. Silverstein divides environmental demands into three parts, “society, polity,

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and language community” (339). These demands operate at micro and macro levels and function

together to form a person’s individual discursive consciousness (IDC).

Figure 1 is adapted from Sameroff (13) and has been revised in order to more clearly illustrate

the levels and effects of society on IDC. There is an overlap in the micro and macro structure, as there is

no clear line as to where micro stops and macro begins. Either way, what is important are the roles that

both micro and macro have on each other and the subsequent effective role that each has on IDC.

Alternatively, the reciprocal effect of LS and IDC can be seen as a spoked wheel. Neither is independent

from the other, and what affects one will ultimately affect the others.

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Nature and Nurture

The term “nature” is used in reference to the physical world; that which is observable through

the senses and to which human beings must adapt. “Nurture” is the expression and formal teachings of

societal standards, ideals, values, etc. From a sociological standpoint, these terms can be alternatively

seen as agency and structure, and, from an evolutionary standpoint, as biology and culture. “Agency” is

the freedom of choice that every individual has, whereas, “structure” implies the ability of society to

frame or influence our actions and choices. “Biology” is our physical and genetic makeup and internal

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predispositions to external stimuli. “Culture” is the cumulative entity of all the individual psyches of a

particular community that form the practices and traditions thereof. Indeed, nature/nurture,

agency/structure and biology/culture are similar terms with mutuality to one another, and can, to a

degree, be used interchangeably.

Historically, there has been a propensity to treat nature and nurture separately, and with the

ascription to which is more dominant over the other often made in error. This has been done especially

with regard to the lives of children. Too often, society takes for granted the mentally immature states

that children possess and juxtaposes standards upon them that simply do not apply. This is not to say

that children are incapable of learning from and adapting to societal demands and pressures. However,

society should not take this for granted and expect to shape the minds of its youth too much, as this can

become stifling and hinder learning. As role models, teachers, parents, and society as a whole, we

should value and support our naturalistic qualities. However, nurturing qualities should not be ignored,

as there is need for appropriate amounts of both and is why “neither nature nor nurture will provide

ultimate truths and neither can be an end in itself” (Sameroff 20). What is best is a synthesis of the two,

a mutually fostering environment that allows freedom of self-exploration and expression but that also

provides the wisdom and guidance of the overall governing system.

Collectively, we are capable of achieving much more than we could ever imagine alone. The

process of learning and the acquisition of knowledge should never be hindered, as “learning gives rise to

new enduring mental states” (Hurford 65) and improves both the quality of the individual and society.

Learning language is certainly no exception to this. Through language, oral and written, society is

capable of producing and maintaining immense amounts of knowledge. But knowledge is not achieved

without effort. Indeed, it takes discipline on the part of the teacher and the learner to effectively and

efficiently contribute knowledge. Therefore, learning is as much of a social undertaking as it is an

individual undertaking. This is true for all types of knowledge, including SLA, and is reflective of all

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learning styles and the long nurturing process that every human requires. To better understand the

dynamic function of learning, we need to understand how the brain physically performs this faculty.

Psycholinguistics and Evolution

The synergy that is achieved by all of the previously mentioned bifurcated states can be defined

as parallel distribution processing (PDP), which is “the receiving, storing, or recalling of information at

several levels of attention simultaneously” (Salzmann 387). PDP is present at birth and functions

throughout a person’s entire life, consciously and unconsciously. Through observation and subjective

understanding, neurons are connected in ways that are most conducive to the transmission of

information. Keating points out that, “the most rapid and most radical period of brain growth takes

place during the early years of life” (8). Because of this, it is most beneficial to begin teaching children a

second language as soon as possible, thus incorporating the second language into neural proliferation.

Early learning is most important with respect to hearing and sound recognition. It is “during the course

of the first year that discriminatory abilities become increasingly shaped by the language input

experienced” (Keating 10) and reflects why people who pick up languages later in life often have

difficulty discerning the finer sounds of another language. This is not due to a lack of effort or

determination but is often caused by the inability of the ear to physically pick up the sound, as there are

no neural connections to perceive the sound.

Biologically, the brain functions by the connection of billions of microscopic neurons that

transmit electricity from one region to another. The better organized the neurons are, the faster the

transmission and processing of information is. Through the early stages of life, as axonal connections are

being made, the “axons that appear in the developing brain grow in a largely axon-free environment.

These early axons… lay down the path followed by later growing axons” (Tessier 143). The initial axonal

connections that are produced create a form of neurological patterning. These patterns reflect the deep

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meaning upon which future knowledge is based. As we age and gain new information, the brain will

rearrange connections and even make new ones, but it will always use the general patterns that are

acquired in early development. Here, too, is a synergistic effect. New knowledge gives insight into old

knowledge, which, in turn, continues to provide new insight to all subsequent knowledge.

Through subsumption, we neurologically develop and connect ideas and concepts. Either

implicitly or explicitly, the brain will make connections in a way that is, normally, consistent and logical.

In optimal learning conditions, this is the case, but sometimes we encounter the situation where

information is not consistent or logical. Referring back to nature and nurture, the conflicting interests of

the two can be caused by discrepancies of alter concepts and the way the brain tries to most

appropriately form and arrange neurological connections. Such discrepancies can, on occasion, cause

conflict between neurological connections and may easily stifle leaning, as neurological connections

cannot be made. Other times, there is no conflict and the learning process is facilitated, and brain

plasticity is achieved.

As with all of the previously mentioned reciprocal properties, there is also a reciprocal

relationship between the scope of neurological connections and brain plasticity. Brain plasticity, the

ability of the brain to undergo the changing of connection and the formation of new connections, is

essentially a learned ability. It is a function the brain acquires from continually being presented with

new and novel information. Children who are exposed to multiple languages are shown to be more

cognitively receptive and maintain a higher degree of plasticity. In Europe, for example, it is not

uncommon for many persons to speak three or more languages. The ability to learn multiple languages,

being taught at a young age, is then easy to transfer into adulthood. Often, the failure to acquire a

second language, particularly in adulthood, is a result of a failure to connect the cultural and linguistic

aspects of language. It is never easy to learn another language but, the sooner SLA is introduced, the

easier it is to learn language later on in life, as cognitive patterns that are established in connecting

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cultural and linguistic elements are not forgotten. It is true that there is a point where learning a

language is simply learning a language, but, prior to this point, the plasticity that is formed will have

positive effects on subsequently subsumed knowledge no matter what the subject. Partially, this is due

to a propensity to learn, but is also due to the fact that there are more and deeper neurological

connections upon which to form new connections.

It was once believed that the ability to play chess was a key way to make a person more

intelligent. However, we now know that being an expert at chess simply means being good at chess. But,

what is important is the willingness to learn; the willingness to expend the cognitive energy to think in

new and novel ways. Like the body and cardiovascular training, so too can the brain be trained to be

more cognitively efficient, a process that reflects the increased cognitive ability of children who have

developed a second language.

Language and a Language

Human communication and language learning can be broken down into two parts, language and

a language. Simply stated, language is “the complex of potentialities for vocal communication with

which all humans are genetically endowed”, and a language is “any one of the several thousand systems

of vocal communication used by members of different societies” (Salzmann 375). Aspects of language

are learned, but they are done so based upon the individual’s own subjective interpretation. A language

is formal language that has strict structure and a lexicon, is contingent upon a society, and must be

learned in the context thereof.

In many disciplines, there is usually no distinction between language and a language. Often,

many make the mistake of using the term “language” when they should in fact be using “a language”.

However, it is not entirely wrong to lump the two together. As Salzmann points out, “the mention of

language is, strictly speaking, redundant because any particular language is a form of learned behavior

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and therefore a part of culture” (57). However, albeit redundant, in order to better understand SLA, it is

important to note how language develops separately from a language. Like nature and nurture, agency

and structure, and biology and culture, language and a language create a synergistic effect.

Language is a part of each individual’s subjective consciousness. It is learned through

observation and is cognitively subsumed in a way that makes sense to an individual’s unique perception

of reality. Language is essentially our own private construct of how to express our thoughts and feelings.

As knowledge is learned, there is linguistic meaning that comes with it, and that represents how each

individual understands such knowledge. Quite simply, language is how communication is performed and

not how it is supposed to be performed. Through observation and use, we obtain comprehension and

form a deep and meaningful structure of language. Deep structure is formed and used without us

necessarily being consciously aware of it and is displayed through competence of speech. Language can

be influenced and modified over time, but it will always retain a base level of deep meaning that is

acquired early in life when “axon specifications” (Tessier 190) are actively being made.

A language is usually the official (in the case of the U.S., unofficial) and formal form of

communication used by all the societies/cultures around the world. A language is learned, in varying

degrees, throughout one’s entire life. A language carries with it strict semantics and structure and is

contingent upon the culture that uses it. Because a language functions for a specific purpose, it is

composed of elements that work at the surface. Surface structure elements are performance-based and

do not usually account for comprehension. Thus, it is possible to use a language without being aware of

or understanding the reasons for it. In fact, many people often use grammar and syntax incorrectly and

are completely unaware of it. Also, there are many who use grammar and syntax correctly but do so

only because it is deemed correct and not because it is actually how their brain cognitively processes

language.

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A language can be taught, but language must be experienced. Although, as stated before, it is

“redundant” to mention language and not add culture into the equation, which is why the synthesis of

the two is so important. Figure 3 illustrates the relationship that language and a language have on each

other. Both influence the other and are also influenced by other aspects of an individual and

socioculture.

Discussion

To be human means many things, some of which we may take for granted. Certainly language is

one of the great abilities that “sets humans apart from other animals” (Lopes 231) and is one ability that

society often takes for granted. Too often, as we move up the hierarchy of needs, it is easy to

disassociate ourselves from the rest of the world and forget how it is we came to be. While it is true that

we may no longer live in a state of survival of the fittest, we cannot forget the links that we have to the

environment around us and the processes that have kept us in it. It is important to remember that the

physical world supersedes the linguistic and that the environment and the objects in it exist without our

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ability to speak about them. When teaching and learning, we must always remember that “the linguistic

ability of a native speaker then includes knowledge of how language relates to a non-linguistic reality”

(Hornstein 13). This not only reflects upon us biologically but culturally and cognitively as well. Certainly

we possess a much greater ability to acquire and use knowledge than any other creature and must

always keep in mind how and why this ability came to pass, as this development will help us to

understand the “beautiful ramifications” of the present and the future.

In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), there has been a push to develop robots that are

linguistically more user-friendly. Part of this effort is to develop a robot that can perform in practical

situations and that can function linguistically in such situations. To do this, a robot must be able to be

dynamic in both its ability to take commands and to provide responses. This means that developers

must focus on both social and personal aspects of language. Robots must, therefore, be able to

accurately interpret action and events that are around them and respond with meaningful language

appropriate to the immediate situation. This means a robot must actively learn language and cannot

appropriately function with a given preprogrammed pattern of language production. This fact is

particularly impactful because the study of “robots can be used as simulation models for the empirical

study of language origins, evolution and acquisition” (Lopes 234), and the study of such origins have

direct results in the current AI lingual development. Similarly, we can make an easy comparison to the

development of SLA in children and adults and the processes that must occur in order for SLA to take

place.

Speech, being a cognitive and motor response, reflects both metal and environmental

perception and organization. Therefore, to accurately understand language, humans, like robots, must

understand language in the context of the spatial world that it exists in. In his study, Miller emphasizes

that “individual’s daily activities consist of a variety of different dynamic interactions with events” (349)

and that “people of all ages use temporal properties of events…to anticipate how events unfold in time”

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(349). Just as language can provide a new source of insight into the nature of spatial representation”

(Napoli 167), so too can spatial representation give insight into the nature of language. The two are

simply contingent upon each other. What is important to both is the rhythm that is created between

time and space and an individual’s subsequent interaction and interpretation of events. If language is to

be the most productive tool of society, it must be learned in the appropriate time and space. If a person

does not experience the events that represent language, then how should he/she be expected to

accurately use the language that he/she is presented? Here, the term “accurate” must be stressed.

Certainly, we can all learn the surface structure of a language and attempt to use it in the culture in

which it belongs. But often, such attempts are futile, as the aural reproduction simply makes no sense

contextually to native speakers. This flaw can be contributed to the classical methods of language

teaching (translation and vocabulary memorization). The classical methods may be easier to implement

and grade, but they require a learner to transpose his/her own cultural ideals and understandings into

the target language. Philipsen points out that across cultures, “speaking is assigned different purposes,

valued differently, linked to distinctive cultural themes and conceptualized by a different metacognitive

vocabulary” (124). Therefore, with such a large cultural difference between languages, it is certainly

taking much for granted to expect one culture’s ideology to transfer to another. Unfortunately, this is a

mistake that many make, both when teaching SLA and when interacting with other cultures.

The ability to effectively communicate has given rise to large amounts of knowledge and

subsequently given birth to complex and global social interaction and communication. With global

communication has come a constant striving for greater and more mutual understanding. Differences in

language inevitable occur based upon the structure in which they are used, cultural conditioning by

government, cohort, individual groups, intended purpose, etc. But, as our ability to communicate

becomes greater, the social distance that separates us conversely becomes smaller. Thus, with greater

interaction, the language pool is becoming larger and more diverse, but, at the same time, efficiency is

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demanding the elimination of such diversity and, thus, the desire and need for global communication

has created a demand for the teaching of languages more effectively. This creates a problem. Like

society, language has no practical theory that can be applied uniformly. To have such a structure, either

implicit or explicit, is to say that “a theory exists which permits the prediction of outcome on the

presentation of certain information or stimuli” (Kessen 81). But given the dynamics of the human mind

and the dynamics of society, to hold to a particular structure with such expectations or even to propose

a theory for such a complex and dynamic entity as language and the learning thereof is futile. Instead,

what we need is not a unified one-size-fits-all theory but an example that will “guide our observation

and to stimulate our own inventions” (Kessen 81). As a result, teachers and administrators should focus

their SLA efforts on fostering intellectual growth through a form of free association and not rigid forms

of indoctrination. Language requires something more than a formula; it needs something as fluid and

dynamic as the subject itself.

Language use does change over time and from generation to generation. And, since language

will always reflect the uniqueness of those who use it and will always be dependent on the context in

which it is being used, there is often difficulty and debate within cultures as to what is grammatically

correct and what is not. In a true democratic society, language is determined by use and is one of the

main reasons why there is no official language in the United States. But, as previously mentioned,

mutual understanding requires speaking the same language, realistically and figuratively. This is

especially true with specific topics and fields. Turner found that there is “a synergistic relationship

between art and language” (159) and that language is not transparent across disciplines but is rather

discipline-specific and culture-specific. This again shows that the deep structure of language is learned

over time and is functionally specific to the culture that uses it. Further, it illustrates that there are more

intercultural linguistic differences than there are intracultural linguistic differences. Therefore, with so

much discrepancy in language, we must always ask ourselves if it is better to critique on performance

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surface structure or on more meaningful and deep understandings of language. Certainly there is no

easy answer as this must be determined by the individual and the teacher together based upon the

desired goals of the student. Such evaluation must also be dynamic and change with time, and since

“the strength of competence-assessment motivation appears to wax and wane depending on various

other goals or conditions” (Frey 550), re-evaluation should be undertaken whenever practically feasible.

Language goals should not be set apart from other goals in the environment but should be incorporated

and adapted to them in order to keep the learner interested, thus creating an atmosphere where deep

and meaningful structure is learned by the attachment of more important goals and objectives.

Often, necessity and learning go hand-in-hand. Learning a second language later in life is usually

of no use unless it is to be used in the culture to which it belongs. This often means that a person is

displaced from his/her own natural environment and subject to another. When put in such situations, it

is often easier to acquire a second language. Clearly, then, the best way for a person to learn a language

is to be in the setting in which it is used, i.e. total submersion. When in a classroom setting, especially in

the learner’s native culture, speaking only the target language can be highly beneficial. Because of our

biological disposition for communications, the need to communicate and to express one’s self is often

very strong. Classical translation methods have their uses but are largely ineffective alone. Like playing

chess, one does not learn a language from translation or memorization but rather merely becomes

adept at translating and memorizing words. For children and adults, instruction should always reflect

the desired SLA outcome. It is certainly easier to teach and grade based upon rote methods, but

language, like life, must be experienced as much as it is learned. This idea requires more effort by those

who are teaching foreign language. Not only does it require them to know the culture of the language

they teach, but it also requires them to be more open-minded and dynamic to the minds of those they

teach. As with everything in life, the outcome of SLA is measured by the effort put into it.

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Conclusion

The quality and quantity of both nature and nurture are most important in the first years of life,

as they will set the precedent for the rest. This is not to say that SLA cannot ever be accomplished later

in life, as the brain is an immensely powerful and adaptive organ. Certainly there is truth to the saying

“mind over body”, or in this case, “mind over mind”, as it is possible for an adult to learn a new language

with near native-like performance. This goes back to the notion of brain plasticity and essentially

learning the ability to learn. Where there is a will, there is a way, and learning is certainly attainable

throughout our entire lives. Psychologically, a person may convince themselves that they cannot learn

and, therefore, will not learn. But, when open-minded enough, many can achieve higher linguistic goals.

As with all knowledge, there is an upward spiral. The belief in one’s ability to learn and the belief in

one’s self are two of the greatest abilities of all. “Not only does education make a man superior…It even

has the wonderful power of raising him above himself” (Allen 121). This is certainly true with SLA.

True command of a language comes when our cognitive construct fully encompasses both

elements of the PDP. When we wish to consider how to more effectively teach a language, whether it be

the second or subsequent language, we must always keep PDP in mind. The social world that a society

constructs is not independent from the social reality that each individual constructs. Therefore, in order

for an adult or child to fully be able to effectively learn a second language, both aspects must be

stressed. Language, as the mediation between our metal cognition and society, functions as a tool and

must be thought as such, actively and with consideration of all parts and parties involved. The earlier

this is achieved, the better the outcome will be. In regards to SLA, there must be a connection between

the learner and the instructor. Both must be open and receptive to the other in order for the

transmission of knowledge to be facilitated. As every individual is different, instructors of SLA must be

dynamic in presentation in order to appropriately and more accurately suit the socioculture of the

language and different learning behaviors of each student.

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Figure 4. A Model of Child Language Development from Birth

Environment

Nature Nurture (PDP) (PDP) Language a Language

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Language Acquisition

Mental Construct of

Language System (discursive -

consciousness)

Observation (Deep Structure)

Competence (Comprehension)

Principles

Formal Instruction (Surface Structure)

Performance (Production) Parameters

Stag

e I

Stag

e II

Phonetics (individual sounds)

aaa, ooo, etc.

Morphemes (individual words)

milk, cat, etc.

Syntax (two word utterances)

Pivot grammars “I milk”.

Syntax continued (three- four word utterances)

Telegraphic stage “We go Chinese”.

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Brown, Douglas, H. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Pearson Education, 2007.

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Darwin, Charles. The Origin of Species. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 2004. Print

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Personality and Social Psychology 48.3 (1985): 550-562. PsycARTICLES. EBSCO. Web. 9 Mar.

2011.

Hornstein, Norbert. Logic and Grammar. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984. Print.

Hurford, James. The Origins of Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.

Johnson, Doyle Paul. Contemporary Sociological Theory. New York: Springer, 2008. Print.

Jones, Byron C., and Pierre Mormede, eds. Neurobehavioral Genetics: Methods and Applications.

New York: CRC Press, 2011. Print.

Keating, Daniel P., ed. Nature and Nurture in Early Child Development. New York: Cambridge

University Press, 2011. Print

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 1

The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning

Ryan Culbertson

Texas Tech University

Ryan, very thorough review of the relevant literature on the subject. Two important considerations is emphasizing the connection to emotion and more specifically bias of the other. You don’t introduce this implication till the very end, but is your main claim so you need to weave it in throughout or hint at it, anyway.

The second general comment is related to implication for learning, much of the literature uses a behaviorist explanation for learning, which makes sense for this highly subconscious function of the amygdale. But you final implications about potentially ‘training’ youth to have better positive associations for other races and cultures, some discussion about its relationship to other theories for learning may be needed.

Excellent work, and should have a place in an applied journal of neuroscience.

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 2

Abstract

The amygdala plays an important role in the formation of memory and event schemas. By

actively and passively encoding memories with emotion, the amygdala sets the tone for many

cognitive thought processes and reactions in life. The broad depth of amygdala functioning is not

at present absolutely clear, as much research still needs to be performedconducted, however, it is

becoming more increasingly evident that the amygdala is crucial to cognition, social functioning

and learning. By actively and passively conditioning the mind to experiences, the amygdala can

influence how a person perceives and functions in the environment around them. Implications of

this potential impact of the amygdale are discussed.

Introduction

We like to think of ourselves as conscious beings that are always in control of our

actions. However, with close examination of the processes of the brain, it is evident that this is

not always the case. The human brain is a very diverse and complex organism that has many

regions and performs many functions. When observed, it is evident that each region of the brain

“is functionally specialized for solving a different adaptive problem that arose during hominid

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 3

evolutionary history” (Cosmides & Tooby 2004, p. 91), and when compared to its evolutionary

past, it would make sense then that much of the brains ability would come from and be attributed

to passive and automated processes rather than consciously controlled processes alone. Since

“the objects and events that make up our everyday experience provide us with a constant flow of

sensory signals in multiple modalities” (Lewkowicz 2011, p. 115), it is then apparent that passive

unconscious processing is required to manage the copious amounts of information and stimuli

present in the world, as there is simply too much information present for a person to be

consciously astute to it all.

However, as the brain evolved, it evolved to include many actively conscious processes

as well, and the human brain’s seemingly high levels of intelligence in due to a concourse of

many passive and active processes taking place simultaneously. It is precisely the brains ability

to quickly and accurately perform both passive and active processes that makes the richness of

human existence possible, as “our ability to integrate the information available in different

modalities enables us to have coherent and meaningful perceptual experiences” (Lewkowicz

2011, p. 115). But, this richness can lead to problems, as the brains extraordinary ability to

perform simultaneous function in simultaneous modalities can become stifling and, at times,

hinder social functioning.

The Amygdala

At the heart of the brain lies the

amygdala, a highly affective and effective

collection of eight nuclei (four per hemisphere).

Because of its copious ramifications, the

amygdala nuclei, and surrounding areas, are

Comment [C1]: Good point

Comment [C2]: Needs citation

Comment [C3]: Needs citation

Comment [C4]: Figure needs caption and source

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 4

continually deserving of more attention and research. Like the heart and other vital organs in the

body, the amygdala is centrally located with other key processes of the brain, and also like the

heart, may be so extensively connected to other parts of the brain that it plays a vital part in how

we perceive and store our perceptions of the world around us. In fact, “the close proximity of the

amygdala and hippocampus, and the abundant neural interconnection between them, hint at their

important functional interactions-particularly in the domain of declarative memory” (Hamann

2009, p. 178). But, as promising as the amygdala is, its location appears to be a double edged

sword, as “understanding the amygdala has been hindered by the difficulties in scientifically

probing this small subcortical region buried deep within the medial temporal lobe” (LaBar 2009,

p. 155). But, although current technology cannot exactly explain the precise functions of the

amygdala and all its ramifications, recent advances in brain scanning imagery such as functional

magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans have made

it possible to investigate the amygdala with more clarity and precision then previously possible,

and “have provided important insights into emotional functions” (LaBar 2009, p. 166). By

observing amygdala activation with other brain processes such as the hippocampus and the pre-

frontal cortex, researchers can reasonable deduce what function the amygdala performs and how

it effects emotions, memory construction and overall affective cognition.

The amygdala plays a mostly passive function that allows a person, via defensive

mechanisms, to more safely interact with their surroundings. It does this by being “specialized

for emotion, and its interaction with processes of cognition and awareness” (Phelps 2005, p. 54).

By having a functional process with emotions and memories, the amygdala makes it possible for

the human brain to achieve higher levels of consciousness by effectively conditioning events so

that they can be relied upon for later affective use. Or, as Buchanan (2008) puts it, “although the

Comment [C5]: Needs citation

Comment [C6]: Not ideal word choice, perhaps influences or potential reach???

Comment [C7]: Its unconscious to the individual, or involuntary, but I wouldn’t say it’s passive. If it’s as important as you later show, it is very active in most situations.

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 5

amygdala is not essential for the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of memories, it does play

a modulatory role. Specifically, the amygdala participates in the enhancement of memories for

emotionally arousing material” (p. 291). And, it is precisely the enhancement of memories that

gives the amygdala its connection with other parts of the brain and its corresponding brain

functions, such as emotion. Buchanan (2008) also points out that “data, and more recent research

indicate that the amygdala has a modularity influence on other areas of the brain during

processing of social and emotional stimuli, as it receives processed information via pathways

from cortical regions” (Buchanan 2008, p. 293). Therefore, via emotions, the amygdala has a

function in almost every cognitive process. The implications the scope of its modulation function

is staggering for understanding how bias and its more bane correlates can be minimized.

One of the most important emotions any human feels is fear, and one of the best was to

observe and test fear is via classical conditioning. In fact, amygdala research and classical fear

conditioning often go hand-in-hand, as “fear learning depends critically on the amygdala” (Blair

et al 2008, p. 299). Classical fear conditioning “is a form of associative learning in which

subjects are trained to express fear responses to a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) that is paired

with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US)” (Blair et al 2008, p. 299). Through such

conditioning, “the CS comes to elicit behavioral, automatic, and endocrine responses” (Blair et al

2008, p. 299), and consequently, “fear conditioning has emerged as an especially useful

behavioral model for investigating the neurobiological mechanisms of learning and memory”

(Blair et al 2008, p. 299), as, againindicated previously, “this type of learning is dependent on the

amygdala (Tottenham 2009, p. 107). And, as Phelps (2005) points out, “instructed fear studies

demonstrate one method by which cognition and awareness can influence amygdala function. In

everyday human life, many of our fears are the result of our interpretation of the significance of

Comment [C8]: Need to tie to the most interesting part of your conclusion relating to parenting, bias, even stereotyping and hate crimes….just a thought.

Comment [C9]: Need to cite

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 6

events” (p. 57) (Figure 2.). By interpreting events based upon the memories of previous events

and future beliefs and hopes, each of us affectively reacts to the world around us.

Figure 2. Schematic outline of three contributions to event appraisal, illustrates ways in which events can be appraised by an individual to memory.

Memories and Emotional Knowledge

It goes without saying that human beings are emotional creatures. Emotion, defined as

“the conscious perception of bodily states” (Niedenthal 2005, p. 23), is what helps to make each

of us unique and gives particularistic meaning to everything we sense. It was previously believed

that the amygdala was primarily responsible for fear and conditioning to it, “although it is now

clear that the amygdala is not specialized only for fear, but processes a broader range of

emotions” (Buchanan 2009, p. 303), and “is not limited to making judgment about basic

emotions, but includes a role in making social judgment (Buchanan 2009, p. 304) as well. Such

emotion, and the context in which it is felt, becomes ascribed, via the amygdala, to our

memories. When we think of memories, it is perhaps best the to think of them as snap shots of

events in time. Every memory, like a photograph, carries with it certain conditions, such as the

Comment [C10]: Need to cite source

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 7

weather, lighting, expressions on people’s faces, and everything else that helps portray the

overall context under which the photograph was taken. Memories too carry such context in the

form of emotion, either positive or negative, and every shade in between, emotions help to lay

the foundation for which memories are made. Hamann (2009) points out, that “empirical

research and intuition both point to emotion as one of the most potent factors that can influence

the strength and subjective quality of memories” (p. 177), and effects “declarative memory,

encompassing memory for facts and world knowledge (semantic memory) and events (episodic

memory) that can be brought voluntarily to mind from the past” (Hamann 2009, p. 178). But,

“rather than encoding and storing emotional declarative memory itself, the amygdala facilitates

ongoing memory-encoding processes in other memory systems” (Hamann 2009, p. 178).

In fact, the facilitation of ongoing memories is not only what gives humans the ability to

have high levels of cognition, but also sets the base basis for social interaction. Therefore, social

interaction and emotion go hand-in-hand, as a person’s interaction with the social world around

them is contingent upon the ability to appropriately recognize and assimilate bodily social cues.

But it also means that we must be aware of how our social cues appear to others, in fact “emotion

in the self or other-involves the embodiment of emotional states, and the use of emotional

knowledge involves the reenactment of those same states” (Niedenthal 2005, p. 22). Every being

has emotional knowledge and every being uses it whether they are aware of it or not, as “the

bodily states, or embodiments of emotion, can be, and often are, unconscious” (Niedenthal 2005,

p. 23), therefore leading to reliance on the amygdala.

Evolution

When considering the current states of human development, it is important to also

consider the evolutionary past of human development. If we are to understand that “the

Comment [C11]: cite

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 8

amygdala is important for drawing attention to potential social threat” (Heberlein 2005, p. 170),

then it is obvious, and makes sense, that “a memory system that enhances emotional memories

has clear evolutionary advantages” (Hamann 2009, p. 177). Indeed, “emotions have an

evolutionary function precisely because they allow the individual to adapt to environmental

contingencies” (Kemper 2004, p. 46). By ascribing emotion to memories, the amygdala is

making automatic responses to social and external stimuli possible, as it “is recruited for cues

that signal safety in addition to those that signal danger” (Tottenham 2009, p. 109), and not only

helped to insure the survival of our species in past primitive states, but also helps to insure

survival at current crucial states such as in childhood, when critical thinking skills are not at their

peak, and all throughout life when advanced cognition is not possible or ineffective do to the

time needed for certain cortical processes to occur.

When we consider that the cortex is forming during the early stages of life, then it makes

sense that the amygdala would be relied on during this time. As the cortex grows, less emphasis

is placed on the amygdala and more on other cognitive functions. Tottenham (2009) notes that,

“emotion processing early in life relies more heavily on subcortical structures, and that

increasing maturity involves a shift from subcortical to cortical processing during adolescence

and adulthood” (p. 112). However, the environment and events that a person is subjected to early

in life, and the processes produced by the amygdala via emotions, effect functioning later in life

if they become conditioned affective elements of cognition. Again, from an evolutionary stand

point, this makes sense, as “emotions facilitate interaction in recurring situations such as

courtship, fighting, and fleeing predation, and allow for very fast, automatic appraisals of

complex situations” (Heberlein 2005, p. 163), as it is precisely the ability to automatically react

to complex situations that has insured human survival. For any organism that lives on such a

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 9

diverse and dynamic planet, the ability to quickly react has not only been, but is still, the very

crux of existence.

Memories, Emotions and Schemas

By adapting emotions to memory and coupling the knowledge gained from it with

conscious cognitive processes, the human being can then ideally effectively interact affectively

in the environment around them. Or, as Hofmann (2010) puts it, “arguably the most adaptive

function of the human brain, is its capacity to monitor its own processing outputs” (p. 408) i.e.

self-awareness. Self- awareness can be defined as “the ability to consciously represent the self as

a social being and to mentally project a representation of the self through time and the self-

schema is knowledge of one’s personality, relationships with other people, and so forth” (Geary

2005, p. 130). Part of being truly self-aware is knowing that we exist in a society, that our

thoughts, feeling and actions all have consequences on others and vice a versa, which is, in

effect, having social judgment. As Sabin (2008) points out, “the amygdala and insula are heavily

interconnected and are believed to play a concerted role in the regulation of autonomic

responses, processing negative affective experiences, and making social judgment” (p. 301). Part

of having social judgment is having theory of mind. Theory of mind “represents the ability to

make inferences about the intentions, beliefs, emotional states, and likely future behavior of

other individuals” (Gear 2005, p. 131) and allows us to not only be more competent individuals

but functional members of a society as well.

However, with the abilities of introspection and social judgment also comes great

complexity. Complexity arises when the brain must make sense of multiply signals and processes

simultaneously, when it must cross the boundary between sensed and perceived information and

between conscious and subconscious cognitive processes. Every instance, every interaction,

Comment [C12]: So it seems that you can emphasize connection to bias. What happens when social judgment is biased?

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 10

word uttered, word heard, moment witnessed, etc. that is worth remembering is so because it is

meaningful. For some reason or another, an external stimulus evokes cognitive attention and

causes the brain to devote cognitive resources to specifically noting the event. As the information

surrounding events and stimuli is subsumed, it is packaged via schemas for later use. According

to White (2004), “schema models represent emotion as process-as embedded in social and

psychological scenarios that not only contextualize emotion, but define it in relation to sequences

of thoughts and actions” (p. 39). Like a picture taken to remind us of past events, memories and

their schemas provided invaluable information on how to deal with current and future situations,

as it is via schemas, the “unit which, together with other such units, forms a network at the

mental level” (Arbib 1996, p. 17), that information is arranged in the most relevant way to help

us interact and survive in our own unique surroundings and relationships.

As Geary (2005) points out, “although there are motivational and affective differences

associated with different forms of one-on-one relationship, they all appear to be supported by the

same suite of socio-cognitive competencies, including the ability to read nonverbal

communication signals, facial expressions, language, and theory of mind” (p. 131). However,

what is perceived and what actually occurs makes little difference in the mind. This is perhaps

best evident when we continue to analyze the emotion fear, as “humans can use imagination and

interpretation to induce a fear response” (Phelps 2005, p. 57), and “that instructed fear results in

a similar psychological expression of fear” (Phelps 2005, p. 56). That is, the mind can manifest

fear, and other emotion, even when they do not exist in the external world, as the appraisal of

threat and reward is subjective to everyone. Such emotions are then displayed via signals and

expressions and “depending on the context, both an involuntary expression and a voluntary

modulation of that expression may play roles in the shaping of that expression” (Heberlein 2005,

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 11

p. 163). As stated before, “the process of learning through pairing an initially neutral stimulus

with an emotionally significant stimulus is the basis of classical conditioning” (Tottenham 2009,

p. 107), and, as stimuli are recognized, processes take place that evaluate such stimuli, either

through the amygdala (automatic subconscious processes), cortical areas (controlled conscious

processes), or through both. Once the amygdala has been activated and an emotion felt, such

emotions can still be checked via cortical processes and do not automatically elicit an immediate

action. Also, through either path, perceived actions and outcomes can be evaluated before taking

place, thus possibly changing the perception of the stimuli. Tottenham (2009) points out that “the

amygdala is particularly engaged by these learning paradigms when the association is

ambiguous” (p. 107), and that “ambiguity in learning contexts exists when stimuli have more

than one possible interpretation, leading to more than one prediction of subsequent biologically

relevant events” (Tottenham 2009, p. 107). In this model (figure 3), the prediction of subsequent

relevant events is one way that can lead to loops in the cognitive thought process. The presence

of multiple modalities can create a situation where such modalities are influenced by one

another, thus causing the evaluation process to be extended as each modality is compared against

one another and together based upon desired outcomes.

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Figure 3. Event feedback loop, illustrates both the open and closed loop of memory making.

Figure 4. Affective cognitive loop created by the constant appraisal and modification of knowledge and belief schemas.

Comment [C13]: Cite sources

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 13

Findings/Implications for XXX

Given the possibility of multiple paths for which event appraisals may take, there is then

a chance that dissonance can occur. Such forms of dissonance would be similar to, and part of,

cognitive dissonance. However, unlike cognitive dissonance that is a conflict between two

concepts in the same modality, i.e. in the cortex (figure 4), conflict between the amygdala and

the cortex is a conflict between two modalities that are not immediately congruent. Such

dissonance, as with all dissonance, if not resolved, has the possibility of becoming stifling and

even detrimental. If a path for appraisal is not chosen, or if event appraisal occurs too often for

the same event, then there is the chance that effective action does not occur. It makes sense then

that the inability to perform an appropriate action can lead to distress through the formation of

frustration, stress, depression and perhaps other negative states such as attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder (AHDA) and schizophrenia. Needs citation

When speaking strictly about the amygdala and event appraisal, there is also the

possibility for dissonance to occur. If we understand that “the amygdala responds most strongly

to extremes on both ends of the trustworthiness scale” (Said et al, 2008, p. 526), i.e. negative and

positive emotions, and that “most stimuli feared by human beings occur in situations containing

potential reward” (DeYoung 2010, p. 405), i.e. in possible positive situations, then, as Ibáñez et

al (2011) point out, it is possible for the existence of “interference between routes of

divergent/convergent emotional information, such as an Emotional Stroop Effect” (p. 1) to occur.

Such interference would then require cognitive resources to be enacted, as Ibáñez et al (2011)

also point out that “in certain situations, the incompatibility of emotional cues regarding

semantic information in an associative context requires cognitive processes in order to solve this

conflict” (p. 1). Certainly such interference is not limited to sematic information alone, but is

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 14

possible across all forms of knowledge and senses. In the event that such appraisals are not

effective, then stress can occur do to the loss of potential perceived rewards. Gilbert & Gilbert

(2003) state that, “stress has been related to experience of losing control over key rewards and/or

aversive events” (p. 173). By relying on cognitive processes to clarify amygdala functioning,

there is then the potential for cognitive dissonance to occur as well, thus potentially creating a

very detrimental loop. What are some examples?

When cognition becomes part of the amygdala cortical loop, there is also undoubtedly a

significant lapse in time that is needed for such processes to occur. As previously noted, to be

effective, processes and responses need to arise as quickly as possible, and if they are not able to

occur in such a manner as to be effective or perceived as effective, then there can be further

distress do to loss of potential reward or prolonged exposure to threat. Hofmann (2010) points

out that “conscious experience takes time to be generated” and also that there is a “lateness-

problem of controlled processing” (p. 408). Because of the lengthened amount of time that such

cognitive processes can take, there is then the possibility that heightened activation of the

amygdala can occur. From an evolutionary perspective, heightened amygdala activation makes

sense, as stimuli that are deserving of extended attention must obviously be of importance, i.e.

because of threat or reward. Just as actions and reactions to responses to stimuli can be

conditioned by the amygdala, so to can the amygdala be conditioned by such stimuli and actions,

and the amygdala is not only capable of being recruited longer, but also quicker. Blackford

(2009) points out that “more rapid engagement of the amygdala processing may lead to faster

triggering of limbic mediated or modulated processes, including heightened orienting responses

and vigilance for potential threat” (p. 5).

Comment [C14]: Of the Stimulus-Response is deeply engrained would this be automatic and thus not require time? Or is this always a controlled process?

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However, the amygdala is also capable of being heightened without previous experience

to a stimulus at all. Baumgartner & Strayer (2007) point out that “those high in behavioral

inhibition tend to experience novelty as threatening” (p. 23). Effectively, when presented with a

truly novel stimulus, a person can become inhibited by having no recollection of previous

responses to call upon. Thus, because no previous actions have been associated with a stimulus,

the amygdala can be heightened and basic evolutionary responses triggered in order to disengage

or confront the event. Gilbert and Gilbert point out that “the fight/flight system has long been

recognized to be a basic evolved defense system” (p. 173), as “both engagement and

disengagement serve as functional regulatory responses to impositions from the external world”

(Baumgartner & Strayer 2007, p. 17). These types of actions can then, become conditioned

responses. Ein-Dor et al (2011) states that most “avoidant individuals possess accessible and

well-organized knowledge about a sequence of behaviors that includes rapid efforts to preserve

themselves by either fight or flight” (p. 90), i.e. persons can effectively be conditioned not to

effectively handle a situation that has potential reward by either fleeing from it or fighting

against it. Because of the perceived loss of reward, there is then a greater chance for distress.

But, things can also become more complicated. When such fight/flight conditioning occurs, it

can then become distressful for persons who are unable, depending on the situation, to perform

such responses. Ein-Dor et al (2011), further points out that “it has been suggested that if

defenses are aroused but cannot be executed, individuals can feel trapped and are vulnerable to

becoming chronically physiologically stressed, and depression is more likely” (p. 174), and

furthermore that “inhibited aggression was especially marked in endogenous depression” (p.

175). Therefore, distress can be caused and compounded by multiple modalities of the same

situation.

Comment [C15]: Does this explain phobia of new things? Initial reaction to foreigners or people from other ethnicities?

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Discussion

Based on evolutionary knowledge, it makes sense that the amygdala would be more

astute to facial recognition. Prior to language development, the primary way in which emotion

was effectively communicated was via vision and the embodiment of emotion through facial

expressions. However, as the human species has evolved, other senses have become just as

important as vision. Indeed, now “speech is the central medium of conscious communication”

(Lipovetsky 2010, p. 21), and audition, because of language, has in many ways come to trump

the sense of sight for the expression and communication of emotion. And, in fact, as Ibáñez et al

(2011), point out, language often “modulates the information presented in facial expressions, and

in turn, emotion modulates semantic understanding” (p. 1). Certainly an ability that not only

provides richness but also clarity and further introspection.

Through types of vocal modification, such as frequency, pitch, tone and length, there is

almost an infinitely different number of ways to express cognition and emotion. Also, through

audio perception, we are capable of receiving many cues within the environment that are not part

of our immediate attention or field of vision. However, the sheer number of cues present in the

environment makes it impossible for any person to be astute to them all. Therefore, most cues are

perceived passively and are perhaps, like other stimuli, capable of having “a direct route to the

amygdala not involving the cortex” (Whalen & Phelps 2009, p. 147). Iidaka (2010) points out

that “an emotional voice… is sufficient to cause conditioning and modulate amygdala response”

(p. 2082). Consequently then, as Lipovetsky (2010) points out, “our knowledge of language can

readily interfere with the perception of the sound of speech” (p. 21), thus effectively creating a

situation where what is said, what is heard, and what is felt can all create interference with what

was meant. Certainly this is possible when we consider that there are “about 6,000” (Salzmann

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2007, p. 189) languages in the world being communicated by 7 billion individuals who can

create an infinite number of variations thereto.

For infants, the auditory system is perhaps the most important. As Rathus (2011) points

out, “young infants are capable of perceiving most of the speech sounds in the world’s

languages” (p. 82). The ability to perceive, coupled with the fact that there is “increased

amygdala activation in adolescents versus adults” (Guyer et al 2008, p. 1571), illustrates that

auditory acuity, together with neuron proliferation, makes audition one of the most influential

and important senses in the early stages of development and perhaps throughout the entire life

span.

In regards to second language acquisition, based on research of the amygdala, it seems

that most institutions of education have the timing of instruction wrong. If a second language is

to be taught, it is optimal that such instruction should start as early as possible from the time of

conception. Early emotional and conceptual development is important as, “human perceptual

functions undergo canalization as a function of early experience” (Lewkowicz & Ghazanfar

2011, p.113). In their research, Lewkowics & Ghazanfar (2011) found that “responsiveness to

non-native faces can be maintained in older infants by providing them with additional experience

with such faces” (p. 114), showing that it is possible for impressions made in the early stages of

life to continue into later stages and either positively or negatively influence perception, and are

crucial for shaping how we see the world.

Piaget once stated that “any piece of knowledge is connected with an action…to know an

object or a happening is to make us of it by assimilation into an action schema… namely

whatever there is in common between various repetitions or super-positions of the same action”

(Arbib 1996, p 15, taken from Piaget 1971, pp. 6-7). Because of the strong this association the

Comment [C16]: This is an entirely different learning paradigm how is this connected to behaviorism

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amygdala is capable of creating with such conditioned responses, to change them and relieve

dissonance, new events and appraisals must take place in ways that are just as deep and

meaningful as the ways in which the associations were initially created. This, of course, does not

usually happen quickly or easily, with many simply coping. Coping according to Lazarus and

Folkman (1984) is defined as “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage

specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources

of the person” (p. 141), and can lead to adverse effects such as stress and other psychological

conditions. When learning is desired, to prevent maladaptive associations to stimuli, either

positive or negative, and to prevent neutral stimuli from being perceived as being threatening, as

much stimuli should be presented to all sense as early as possible, and should be done so in as

unbiased a way a possible thus creating an atmosphere where free associations and effective

schemas can develop.

Limitations

As with most advanced research, findings of the amygdala come with mixed results.

Although it is clear that the amygdala is linked with emotion and memory, it is not yet fully

transparent as to what the more complex causes and ramifications of such arerelationships or the

outcomes of these interaction. Much research on the amygdala has unfortunately been done on

animal subjects. Through lesion experiments, amygdala functioning of mice and monkeys has

been compared to that of humans, with inferences being drawn between the two. Although there

is progress to be made and knowledge to be learned from animal research, the complex nature of

the human brain makes it inherently its own and therefore deserving of its own particularistic

research. Although, as previously stated, this can be difficult as there are limitations to such

human research. Either way, the amygdala will certainly be an area of continued interest,

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 19

especially as technological innovations emerge y increase and makes brain scanning more

efficient and cost effective. But at present, there is still not enough evidence to know precisely

what the amygdala’s full impact on human affective cognition is. Therefore, it is not uncommon

for many researchers to recommend caution on behalf of their own findings. A sign that although

we are making advances, research is limited and should be used as a guide for future research

and not presently for definitive answers.

Conclusion

Although more research needs to be done, it is clear that the amygdala plays a critical

role in the shaping and implementation of emotion, memory and general cognition. Through this

function, the amygdala influences how a person perceives and interacts in their environment and

also has implications on how individuals and societies learn. The goal of successful parenting

and teaching is to prepare youth to develop into the best possible persons that they desire to

become and not to hinder such development by the creation of negative associations via biased

interpretations. All stimuli, cognitive or physical, should be presented in such a manner that it is

meaningful and without predilection or negative connotation. By introducing children to stimuli

as early as possible, we can better prepare them to be more astute to all other subjective

experiences and information in regards to cultures, languages, faces, food, music etc., thus giving

them the best possible advantage at life.

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The Amygdala: Implications on Emotion, Memory, Social Interaction and Learning 20

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