HISTORY OF ACCOUNTING:ACCOUNTING IS AS OLD AS CIVILIZATION ITSELF. FROM

THE ANCIENT RELIES OF BABYLON, IT CAN BE WELL PROVED THAT ACCOUNTING DID EXIST AS LONG AS 2600 B.C HOWEVER,IN MODERN FROM ACCOUNTING BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM, WHICH CAME INTO EXISTENCE IN15TH CENTURY. FRA LUKA PACIOLO, A MATHEMATICIAN PUBLISHED A BOOK DE COMPUTICET SCRIPTURIES IN 1494 AT VENICE IN ITALY. THIS BOOK WAS TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH IN 1543 IN THIS BOOK HE COVERED A BRIEF SECTION ON “BOOK-KEEPING” ORIGIN OF ACCOUNTING IN INDIA:

THE ACCOUNTING ON MODERN LINES WAS INTRODUCED IN INDIA AFTER 1850 WITH THE FORMATION OF JOINT STOCK COMPANIES IN INDIA.

Basics of

Accounting

Narasimha

BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTING:

According to Prof. G.A. Lee the accounting system has two stages.

Book-Keeping:

Book-Keeping involves the chronological recording of finance transactions in a set of books in a systematic manner.

Accounting:

Accounting is a concerned with the maintenance of accounts giving stress to the design of the system of records, the preparation of reports based on the recorded data and the interpretation at the reports.

Definition of Accounting:

“Accounting system is a means of collecting, summarising, analyzing and reporting in monetary terms, the information about the business.”

“R.N.Anthony”

BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING:

Financial accounting:

The purpose of Accounting is to ascertain the financial results i.e., profit or loss in the operations during a specific period. It is also aimed at knowing the financial position, i.e., assets, liabilities and equity position at the end of the period.

Cost Accounting:

The purpose of cost accounting is to analyze the expenditure so as to ascertain the cost of various products manufactured by the firm and fix the prices.

Management Accounting:

The purpose of management accounting is to assist the management in taking rational policy decisions. Ex of such decisions, pricing decisions, capital expenditure decisions…….etc. The necessary accounting information about funds, costs, profits, etc.

Inflation Accounting:

It is concerned with the adjustment in the values

of assets and profit in light of changes in the price level. This

type of accounting is also necessary due to the assumption

of stable monetary unit.

Human Resource Accounting:

It is a branch of accounting which seeks to report

and emphasize the importance of human resources in a

company’s earning process and total assets.

USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION:

The users of accounting can be divided in two broad groups:

1) Internal users and

2) External Users.

1) Internal Users:

Managers:

These are the persons who manage the

business, i.e., management at the top, middle and lower

levels.

Accounting information also helps the managers in

appraising the performance of subordinates. As such

Accounting is termed as “ the eyes and ears of

management”.

External Users:

Investors :

Those who are interested in buying the shares of a company are naturally interested in the financial statements to know how safe the investment already made is and how safe the proposed investment will be.

Creditors:

Lenders are interested to know whether their loan, principal and interest, will be paid when due.

Workers:

In our country, workers are entitled to payment of bonus which depends the size of profit earned. Hence, they would like to be satisfied that the bonus being paid to them is correct.

Customers:

They are also concerned with the stability and profitability of the enterprise.

Government:

Government all over the world are using financial statements for compiling statistics concerning business which, in turn, helps in compiling national accounts.

ACCOUNTING

PRINCIPLESClassification of Accounting Principles:

Accounting Principles can be broadly classified into two categories . A) Accounting Concepts. B) Accounting Conventions.

Accounting Principles

Accounting Concepts Accounting Conventions

Business entity concept 1) Disclosure

Dual Aspect Concept 2) Materiality

Going Concern Concept 3) Consistency

Money Measurement Concept 4) Conservation

Objective Evidence Concept

Cost Concept

Accounting Period Concept

Accrual Concept

Matching Cost Concept

Historical Record Concept

DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM

Introduction :

Double entry system is a scientific way of presenting

accounts. As such all the Business concerns feel it convenient to

prepare the accounts under double entry system.

Under dual aspect concept the accountant deals with the two

aspects of business transaction i.e.,

1) Receiving Aspect and

2) Giving Aspect.

Receiving aspect is known as ‘Debit Aspect’ and giving aspect

is known as ‘Credit Aspect’.

CLASSIFICATION OF ASSETS

Assets:

The Valuable things owned by the business are known as assets.

These are the properties owned by the business.

Classification of Assets

Fixed Assets Liquid Assets Fictitious Assets Intangible Assets Wasting

Assets

Fixed Assets:

These assets are acquired for long-term use in the business.

They are not ment for resale. Land, Building, plant and machinery,

vehicles and furniture etc., are some of the examples of fixed assets.

Liquid Assets :

These assets also known as circulating, fluctuating or current

assets. These assets can be converted into cash as early as possible.

Current assets are cash, bank balance, debtors, stock, investments.

Fictitious assets:

Fictitious assets are those assets, which do not have physical

form. They do not have any real value. The examples of these assets are

loss on issue of shares, preliminary expenses etc.

Intangible Assets:

Intangible Assets are those having no physical existence.

Goodwill, Patents, Trademarks, are the examples.

Wasting Assets:

Wasting Assets are those assets which are consumed through being

worked or used. Mines are the examples of wasting assets.

TYPES OF CAPITAL:Capital:

It is the part of wealth which is used for further production and thus capital consists of all current assets and fixed assets. Cash in Hand, Cash at bank, Building, Plant and Machinery, furniture etc., are the capital of the business. Capital is classified as “Fixed capital and Working capital”.

1) Fixed capital:The amount of invested in acquiring fixed assets is called fixed

capital. Plant and machinery, vehicles, furniture and building etc., are some of the examples for fixed capital.

2) Working Capital:

The part of capital available with the firm for day-to-day working of the business is known as working capital. Working capital can also be expressed as under.

Working Capital=Current Assets-Current LiabilitiesWorking Capital=Current Assets-Current Liabilities.

TYPES OF LIABILITIES Liabilities:

Liabilities are the obligations or debts payable by the enterprise in future in the form of money or goods. Liabilities can be classified as fixed, current and contingent liabilities.

Fixed Liabilities:

These liabilities are payable generally, after a long period. Capital, loans, debentures, mortgage etc., are its examples.

Current Liabilities:

Liabilities payable with in a year are termed as current liabilities. The value of these liabilities goes on changing. Creditors, bills payable, and outstanding expenses etc., are current liabilities.

Contingent Liabilities:

These are not the real liabilities. Future events can only decide whether it is really liability or not.

TYPES OF TRANSACTION

Transaction:Any sale or purchase of goods or services is called the transaction.

Transaction are of three types.

1)Cash Transaction:

Cash transaction is one where cash receipts are payment is involved in the exchange.

2) Credit Transaction:

Credit Transaction will not have cash, either received or paid, for something given or received, respectively. Credit transactions give rise to debtor and creditor relationship.

3) Non-cash Transaction:

It is a transaction where the question of receipt or payment of cash does not arise at all EX: Depreciation, return of goods etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS

Personal Accounts:Personal Accounts also includes accounts in the names of firms, companies

or institutions such as Malini & sons account, Nagarjuna finance limited account, Andhra Bank Account etc.

Debit the receiver & Credit the giver

Real Accounts:

Accounts relating to properties or assets are known as ‘ Real Accounts’. Every

business needs assets such as machinery, furniture etc., for running its activities. A separate account is maintained for each asset owned by the Business.

Debit what comes in Credit what goes out

Nominal accounts:Accounts relating to expenses, losses and incomes and gains are known

as ‘ Nominal Accounts’ Examples of Nominal Account Wages, salaries, commission, interest received accounts.

Debit all expenses and losses credit all incomes and gains

JOURNALIntroduction:

The word is “Journal” is derived from the Latin word ‘Journ’ which means a

day. Therefore, journal means a day book where in day-to-day business

transactions are recorded in chronological order.

Ledger:

As stated above, all transactions, irrespective of their nature, are recorded in the

journal in a chronological order. After a certain period, if we want to know whether

a particular account is showing a debit or credit balance it becomes very difficult,

so the ledger is designed to accommodate the various accounts maintained by a

trader.

Sub-division of ledger:

The impersonal ledger, on the other hand, contains all real and nominal accounts.

Credit ledger:

All accounts of credits will be found in this book. It can also be called

‘Suppliers Ledger’

Debtors ledger:

All accounts of debtors will be found in this book. It can also be called ‘Customers

Ledger’.

General ledger:

It contains all accounts other than debtors and creditors. Accounts of

owner’s expenses, incomes, capital, drawings, etc., will be found in this book. It

may also be called ‘Impersonal Ledger’.

Private ledger:Sometimes, the capital account and drawings account of the proprietor may be

separately maintained in another ledger called private ledger.

Journal LedgerJournal is the book of first or original

entry.

The Ledger is the book of second entry

In the preparation of final accounts

journal is not useful.

In the preparation of trail balance and

final accounts ledger is a must.

Transaction in the journal will be

recorded immediately.

Depending upon his conveniences the

trader records the transactions in the

ledger.

Journal may not reveal whether one

customer is a debtor or creditor.

Ledger, however, will reveal whether one

person is a debtor or creditor to the

business.

TRIAL BALANCE

The first step in preparation of Final Accounts is the preparation of

Trial Balance. In the double entry system of book keeping, there will be

credit for every debit and there will not be any debit without credit. The

trail balance generally does not include stock in hand at the end of the

period. All adjustments required to be done at the end of the period,

including closing stock, are generally given under the trail balance.

definition

A trial balance is a list of all the balances standing on the Ledger

accounts and cash Book of a concern at any given data.

“Spicer and Pegler”

Particulars In trial balance Reason

Capital Credit Loan

Opening stock Debit Asset

Purchases Debit Expenses

Sales Credit Gain

Return inwards Debit Loss

Return outwards Credit Gain

Wages Debit Expenses

Freight Debit Expenses

Transport expenses Debit Expenses

Royalties on production Debit Expenses

Gas, fuel Debit Expenses

Discount received Credit Revenue

Discount allowed Debit Loss

Bad debts Debit Loss

Bad debts reserve Credit Gain

Commission received Credit Revenue

Repairs Debit Expenses

Rent Debit Expense

Salaries Debit Expense

Loan taken Credit Loan

Interest received Credit Revenue

Interest allowed Debit Expenses

Insurance Debit Expenses

Carriage out words Debit Expenses

Advertisements Debit Expenses

Petty expenses Debit Expenses

Trade expenses Debit Expenses

Petty receipts Credit Revenue

Income tax Debit Drawings

Office expenses Debit Expenses

Customs duty Debit Expenses

Sales tax Debit Expenses

Provisions for discount on

debtors

Credit Liability

Provisions for discount on

creditors

Debit Asset

Debtors Debit Asset

Creditors Credit Liability

Goodwill Debit Asset

Plant, machinery Debit Asset

Land, building Debit Asset

Furniture, fittings Debit Asset

Investments Debit Asset

Cash in hand Debit Asset

Cash at bank Debit Asset

Reserve fund Credit Liability

Loans and advances Debit Asset

Horses, cars Debit Asset

Excise duty Debit Expenses

General reserve Credit Liability

Provision for depreciation Credit Liability

Bills receivable Debit Asset

Bills payable Credit Liability

Depreciation Debit Loss

Bank overdraft Credit Liability

Outstanding salaries Credit Liability

Prepaid insurance Debit Asset

Bad debts reserve Credit Revenue

Patents & trademarks Debit Asset

Prepaid rent (received) Credit Liability

Motor vehicle Debit Asset

Outstanding rent Credit Liability

FINAL ACCOUNTS

Introduction:

The trail balance marks a definite stage in the preparation of

accounts. It indicates the all the transactions for a particular period have

been duly entered in the book, properly posted and balanced. The

agreement of trail balance proves two things: that

1) The record has been made of both the aspects of each transaction;

and

2) The book are arithmetically accurate.

final accounts

Trading & Profit & Loss A/C Balance Sheet

TRADING ACCOUNT, PROFIT & LOSS ACCOUNT

The first step in the preparation of final accounts is

the preparation of the trading account. The main purpose of preparing a

Trading Account is two-fold :

1) to ascertain gross profit and loss as a result of buying and selling of

goods; and

2) to enable management to make a comparison of gross profit or gross

loss of the current year with that of previous years.

The Businessman is always interested in knowing his net

income or net profit. Net profit represents the excess of gross profit plus

other revenue incomes over sales expense including sales costs and

other expenses. The debit side of P&L a/c shows the expenses and the

credit side the incomes. If the total of the credit side is more, it will be net

profit. And if the debit side happens to be more, it would be net loss.

BALANCE SHEETThis forms the second part of the Final Accounts. It

is prepared after the trading and profit and loss

accounts have been complied and closed . A

Balance Sheet may be described as a statement of

the financial position of a concern at a given date.

The financial position of a concern is revealed by its

assets on a given date and its liabilities on that

date. Excess of assets over liabilities represents

Capital. Such excess may be taken as an indicator

of the financial soundness of a concern.