English for Academic Study

Frederika GEBHARDT & Geraldine LUDBROOK Dispensa per gli studenti del corso LINGUA INGLESE 2

Laurea SpecialisticaAnno Accademico 2009-2010Facolt di Lettere e Filosofia

INDEX

Introduction p. 3

UNIT ONE SOME GENERAL POINTS p. 4

UNIT TWO WRITING SENTENCES p. 11

UNIT THREE WRITING PARAGRAPHS p. 17

UNIT FOUR CHRONOLOGICAL ESSAY: Writing a biography p. 21

UNIT FIVE DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY: Describing an art work p. 27

UNIT SIX DISCUSSION ESSAY: Arguing for and against p. 36

UNIT SEVEN CRITICAL ESSAY: Writing a review p. 41

ACADEMIC SPEAKING SKILLS p. 48

ANSWER KEY TO EXERCISES p. 60

APPENDICES p. 70Structure and CohesionCiting References

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Introduction

English for Academic Study is intended to provide students with a series of models, techniques and practice to help them begin writing in an academic context at a low intermediate level.

Starting from the sentence level, the work gradually moves to the paragraph and then the simple 4 and 5-paragraph essay.

Further exercises draw attention to specific language needed for each kind of text, as well as useful grammar forms.

The second section of the text contains work to be used to develop speaking skills useful for university students.

An answer key allows students to correct their own work.

Writing in a foreign language requires practice, even using very simple exercises of transformation or extension. We therefore invite students to write out the answers to the exercises, rather than simply inserting information.

We also hope that the general guidelines given throughout the book will enable students to acquire some autonomy when writing, and to develop an understanding of common mistakes made by Italian speakers of English as well as an awareness of their own personal errors.

Frederika Gebhardt Geraldine Ludbrook

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UNIT ONE SOME GENERAL POINTS

When writing in English, it is very important to re-read your work to check for:

1. grammar mistakes2. spelling3. punctuation

Some hints when proofreading:

If you have time, leave the first draft for a day before reading it again.

Remember that the longer a sentence, the more likely it is to contain errors: Keep sentences short.

Use a computer spell-check, but be careful as it may not detect all the errors as some words may be spelled correctly but are in the wrong context (fist instead of first, for example).

Read carefully for common mistakes Italians make when writing in English.

Check also for mistakes you know you make personally.

1.1 CapitalizationEnglish capitalization differs from the Italian system in some ways:

- The pronoun I- Proper nouns: specific people, places, organizations- Titles: Queen Elizabeth; the Queen of England; President Bush- Directions in names: the North Pole, the North of England- Days of the week, months of the year, holidays: Monday, February, Christmas- Names of countries, nationalities and languages: England, English, the English- The first word in a direct quote: He said, Go home.- The major words in titles, but not articles or short prepositions. The Catcher in the Rye- Periods and events: the Victorian Era, the Great Depression

EXERCISE 1Rewrite the text adding capital letters where necessary.

westminster palace, rebuilt from the year 1840 on the site of important medieval remains, is a fine example of neo-gothic architecture. the site which also comprises the small medieval church of saint margaret, built in perpendicular gothic style, and westminster abbey, where all the sovereigns since the 11th century have been crowned is of great historic and symbolic significance. in the 1040s king edward (later st edward the confessor), last of the anglo-saxon kings, established his royal palace by the banks of the river thames on land known as thorney island. close by was a small benedictine monastery founded under the patronage of king edgar and st dunstan around 960 ad. this monastery edward chose to enlarge, building a large stone church in honour of st peter the apostle. this church became known as the west minster to distinguish it from st pauls cathedral (the east minster) in the city of london. unfortunately, when the new

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church was consecrated on 28 december 1065 the king was too ill to attend and died a few days later. his mortal remains were entombed in front of the high altar.

1.2 PunctuationMost punctuation marks are used as in Italian. Here are just a few points.

Full stop: English sentences tend to be shorter than Italian sentences. Check your sentence length and separate into two shorter sentences with a full stop.

Exclamation mark: It is better not to use exclamation marks in formal written English.

Question mark: This is only used in direct questions. What is the time? She asked what the time was.

Colon: In English the colon is used- to introduce lists. He bought many objects: pens, pencils and books.- to explain a point made in the earlier part of the sentence. Queen Elizabeth I: A rare monarch.

Semicolon: The semicolon is generally used to link two sentences which are grammatically independent but related in meaning. Riding was a sport she enjoyed; she felt that she could never give it up.

Comma: A comma is often used before and and or, and usually before but, when these words are used to link sentences together. Finish that job now, and come inside. It is also inserted before and when it introduces the last item of a list. I bought a book, a ruler, and some pens.Commas are also used in relative clauses:

Defining: The line which concludes the poem is longer than the others.Non-defining: The third verse, which concludes the poem, is longer than the others.Connecting: I read the poem, which made me feel sad.

Dash: The dash is a fairly informal stop. It can be used to replace parentheses or commas.

Apostrophe: The apostrophe indicates the possessive of nouns (Saxon genitive), Marys book, and the omission of letters in contractions, cant, wont. Remember that contracted forms are not generally used in formal English.

Hyphen: The hyphen is used to form compound words, dining-room. But there are no fixed rules for its use. Check your dictionary if you are in doubt. It is also used to form compound adjectives. Note the difference in these two forms: the eighteenth century; an eighteenth-century building.

EXERCISE 2 Re-write the sentences punctuating them correctly.

1. Several countries signed the Treaty Britain France Italy and Spain2. English is full of idiomatic expressions Some are so old their origins are lost others have recent easily identifiable roots3. Although mention of the churchs existence was mentioned by the historian in the 1450s its location is still unknown

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4. Hamlet is however a highly developed character5. I look after two year old children [two possibilities; what is the difference in meaning?] while studying twelfth century literature.6. The Tower of London an impressive castle is situated by the Thames7. The age of Shakespeare and of Marlowe Kyd Chapman and Ben Jonson extends roughly from 1590 to 16258. Restoration projects on buildings at risk have been completed at Betchworth Castle Surrey Cowdray House West Sussex and Halswell House Somerset9. The Lord of the Rings was nominated as the British Nations best loved novel in 200710. Occupied since Roman times the site is rich in historic associations.

1.3 GrammarSome points Italian learners often get wrong. Revise the grammar points and make sure you know where you tend to make mistakes.

Articles (use and non-use)

Time and tense (past vs present perfect; present perfect continuous; future time and tenses)

Aspect (simple vs continuous forms)

Word order (S + V + O; adding adjectives and adverbs; final prepositions; indirect questions)

Subject-verb agreement

Dummy subjects (it and there as subjects)

Modal verbs

Conditionals (subjective forms, present and past conditional forms)

Passive (continuous form)

Reported speech (say or tell, other reporting verbs)

Nouns (singular/plural; countable/uncountable)

Relative clauses and pronouns (whom/whose and that/which)

Verb forms (infinitive or gerund)

EXERCISE 3Always check carefully for grammar mistakes in your own writing. There are 20 common grammar mistakes in the text below.

Historical revisionismAll writings of the history are in some way revisionist. If there would be a universally accepted view of history there were no need to research it. Many historians which write revisionist exposs want correct history. Up to now many great discoveries came as a result of the research of men

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and women that have been enough curious to revisit certain historical events and explore it again in depth from a new perspective.Those historians who work within the existing establishment, who have a body of existing work from which they claim authority, have the most to gain by maintain the status quo. This may be called an accepted paradigm. Revisionist historians, such as feminist historians, or ethnic minority historians, contest often the mainstream or traditional view of historical events and raise views at odds with traditionalists, that must be freshly judged. Between the mainstream of accepted beliefs and the new perspectives of historical revisionism, informations are either changed, or solidified and clarified. If over a period of time the revisionist ideas will become the new establishment status quo a paradigm shift said to have occurred.Is the spirit of the times that influences historians. Developments in other academic areas, and cultural and political fashions, all help to shape the model and outlines of history that are been currently accepted (the historiographical paradigm). As time passes and this influences change so did most historians views on the explanation of historical events. The accepted model is revising to fit in with the current agreed-upon version of events. Some of the influences whom features may change over time are language, nationalism, culture and idealogy.

EXERCISE 4Correct the mistakes in the following sentences.

1. You can go out now. It does not snow any more.2. I was cutting my finger while I cooked.3. She not had much to do at all yesterday. 4. How many plays has Goldoni written?5. Italian is an European language.6. We studied the Latin at school.7. If I knew you were coming, I would have come to get you at the station.8. He is doing many researches on the subject.9. The building should be saved because is an outstanding example of industrial architecture.10. The professor will let me to study this topic.11. The French President, accompanied by his new wife, are going to Egypt.12. Look at the ground. It has rained all night.13. What is the world going to be like in 50 years time?14. The ancient town had an intensive economic and social life, that flourished for centuries.15. Is said that he has written 40 novels.

1.4 False friendsMany words to be found in the English language seem familiar to Italian students, but in fact the meaning is often different. Make a list of the false friends you find and learn to use them correctly.

EXERCISE 5Re-write the sentence replacing the incorrect words in italics with the correct word. Then write sentences using the words in italics in an appropriate context.

1. We went to buy some books from the local library.2. The museum is actually undergoing restoration.3. Admission prices were extremely economic.4. The professor spoke on the argument of archaeology in the Near East.5. The painting was attacked to the wall.6. Damage to the vase was irrelevant.

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7. Have you heard the latest notice?8. Have you seen the curator ultimately?9. Summarise the lecture in this book.10. The number of visitors this year has broken all primates.

1.5 Plagiarism

Plagiarism (using another persons work and pretending it is your own) is a very serious offence in the British and American university systems and can lead to failure of a course or expulsion from university. It is therefore very important to know how to incorporate other writers work into your own writing correctly.

There are three different ways of doing this:

Quoting: Direct quotations must be identical to the original. They should be acknowledged with the correct reference conventions and listed at the end of your writing. (See the Appendix for information on how to cite references in the Bibliography.)

Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing involves using your own words to report someone elses writing, attributing it nevertheless to the original source. Paraphrases are usually shorter than the original passage.

Summarizing: Summaries are much shorter versions of an original text, and generally include only the main points expressed in your own words. The original source must always be acknowledged.

a) Quoting Quotations can be added to your text in different ways. A short quotation can be integrated into a sentence whereas longer quotations can stand alone.

There are different styles for citing sources. The most common one used in the humanities is the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, which will be followed here. Double quotation marks () should be used at the beginning and end of the quotation. Single quotation marks () should be used only when something is being quoted within your quoted passage.

The punctuation of the original should be followed. MLA style requires that a final comma or full stop should come inside the quotation marks, even when you are quoting a single word.

If you abbreviate the quotation by omitting words, put three dots () in place of the missing words.

Always place the name of the author, the date of the publication and the page number(s) after the quotation. This is called parenthetical citation. If you are quoting more than one author, separate the names with a semi-colon.

Examples: As James states: The term utilitarianism is often misunderstood (2000:53).That view () is incorrect, observes Lagrange in his article (2005: 23-4).This is a genre, claims Clark, that seems to have been invented in France (1999:10).

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Some scholars have argued against this idea as it is considered invalid(Healy 2001; Smith 1998).

Longer quotations (more than three lines) are set off from the text:

They are generally indented on left and right margins, single spaced, and should not be enclosed in quotation marks. End the sentence in your text that comes immediately before the quotation with a colon. Be careful to retain the punctuation of the material you are quoting.

Some useful reporting verbs:add, answer, argue, claim, complain, deny, explain, observe, remark, reply, say, state, suggest.

b) Paraphrasing and summarising

Here are some tips on how to write paraphrases or summaries:

1. Quickly skim through the text to get an overall idea of its content.2. Re-read it more carefully, identifying the main points, until you understand its full meaning.3. Make brief notes of the main points, using your own words.4. Write out any important phrases or sentences that you might want to quote. Be careful to

copy them precisely and indicate omitted text with three dots.5. Always cite the name of the author, date of publication and page number in brackets after

the paraphrase or summary.6. Put the original away and write your summary or paraphrase.7. Check the text with the original.8. Edit the text for mistakes.

REMEMBER: Changing around a few words and phrases, or changing the order of the original sentence is not sufficient to avoid plagiarism. You must record the information in the original passage accurately, using your own words, indicate direct quotations using quotation marks, and provide the source of your information.

Look at these examples and identify why they are either correct or plagiarised:

The original passage:Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.

A legitimate paraphrase:In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).

An acceptable summary:Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).

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A plagiarized version:Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

EXERCISE 6Paraphrase then summarise the following passage

Earlier this year the former chief inspector of English schools, Mike Tomlinson, described Britons as "barbarians" when it came to learning foreign languages. Research published this week, which suggested fewer than one in 10 British workers could speak a foreign language, even to a basic level, appeared to show the accusation was well-founded. Recruitment firm Office Angels poll of 1,500 workers found less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language - even though a majority of the respondents said they would like to live abroad. Some 80% said they thought they could get by at work because "everyone speaks English". A European Commission survey in 2001 found 65.9% of UK respondents only spoke their native tongue - by far the highest proportion among the EU countries polled.

(Story from BBC NEWS:http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/uk/3930963.stmPublished: 2004/07/29 08:43:13 GMT)

Paraphrase

Summary

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UNIT TWO WRITING SENTENCES

2.1 Basic syntaxThe basic pattern of the English sentence structure is Subject Verb Object : Hes painting a lion.

This simple sentence can be expanded to form more complex sentences, adding adjectives, adverbs or relative clauses, for example. Adjectives are generally placed before nouns. Adverbs of manner (quickly, slowly), place (here, there, away), and time (today, last week, next year) are placed at the end of the sentence, in this order: Hes painting a huge lion. Hes painting a lion slowly in his studio at the moment.Hes painting a lion which is running in the jungle.

Adverbs never separate the verb and its complement:I love Shakespeares poetry very much. I studied the chapter very carefully.

EXERCISE 1Basic sentence syntax

Put the words in the correct order to form a sentence.

1. a newspaper / reads / every day / John2. meat / dont like / very much / I3. such / beautiful / I / seen / have / never / a / film 4. slowly / Jane / the letter / read5. on / the shelf / he / the book / put6. a lot of / homework / yesterday / did / I7. at the concert / met / some / friends / we8. speak / dont / very well / English / they9. 1996 / we / since / have / worked / here10. a present / her / I / sent

2.2 Emphatic structuresIn written English, emphasis is placed on one element of the sentence by shifting the element to be stressed to the beginning or to the end of the sentence.

Sometimes the Subject Verb pattern remains the same:Im working today. Today Im working, but tomorrow Im on holiday.She ran into the room: Into the room she ran.

Sometimes the Subject Verb pattern is inverted:He had never seen such a lovely painting. Never had he seen such a lovely painting.

Different structures can be used to place focus on one element of the sentence:Paul won the prize. The prize was won by Paul. It was Paul who won the prize.

Participial phrases can create more variety in a sentence. Present Participle: He stood outside the cathedral. He admired the statues.

Standing outside the cathedral, he admired the statues.

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Past participle: The collection is housed in the local museum. The collection is priceless. Housed in the local museum, the collection is priceless.

EXERCISE 2Emphatic structures

Complete each of the following sentences in such a way that it has the same meaning as the original sentence.

1. Christopher Wren designed this church. This church __________________________________________________________________.

2. If the present demographic trend should persist, the population will fall by 20 million. Should the present _____________________________________________________________.

3. Galileo Galilei laid the bases of the modern science of mechanics. It was _______________________________________________________________________.

4. The films strengths are greater than its weaknesses. Greater _____________________________________________________________________.

5. The National Trust, which was founded in 1895, is the largest independent conservation charity. Founded ____________________________________________________________________.

6. The Tower, a famous landmark, can be seen for many miles. A famous ____________________________________________________________________.

7. I have never read such a good book. Never _______________________________________________________________________.

8. The sculpture is again on show, as it has recently been restored. Having ______________________________________________________________________.

9. The radio broadcast an interesting play yesterday. An interesting play _____________________________________________________________.

10. The theory is extremely fascinating. What _______________________________________________________________________.

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Negative sentences are formed by adding not to the auxiliary verb : She isnt a model.In formal English, the contracted form is generally not used: Students must not arrive late.

In English, negative sentences usually contain only one negative element. In formal English, the verb may remain positive and another negative element is added to the sentence:I havent any time for you now. I have no time for you now.I cant see anyone in the room. There is no-one in the room.

EXERCISE 3Formal negative sentences

Re-write the negative sentences in a more formal way.

1. I dont know anybody.2. He didnt go anywhere.3. We havent done anything wrong.4. Some people dont have any respect.5. They dont have any money left. 6. Firm evidence of prehistoric dwellings has not been found.7. They havent said anything new about the subject.8. We wont be able to afford to live there any longer.9. This book by the author is not any better than the last one he wrote.10. The use of the machine doesnt require any prior technical knowledge.

Direct questions are formed with the use of an auxiliary verb:Is he here? Can I come in? Does he like Matisse? Did they study in London?

Wh- interrogative words are also used for content questions:Where is the university? Who did he draw? Where has the Mona Lisa been housed?

Indirect questions retain the Subject Verb pattern:What did you study? He asked me what I studied.Can we help you? They asked us whether we could help them.

EXERCISE 4Direct question forms

Complete the spaces with an appropriate question.

Biography of Ian McKewanIan McEwan was born on 21 June in 1948 in Aldershot, Hampshire, England. (Where?__________) He spent much of his childhood in the Far East, Germany and North Africa where his father, an officer in the army, was posted. (How long?__________) He returned to England and read English at Sussex University. (What?__________) After graduating, he became the first student on the MA Creative Writing course established at the University of East Anglia by Malcolm Bradbury and Angus Wilson. (Who?___________)

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His first novel, The Cement Garden (1978), (When?__________)is the story of four orphaned children living alone after the death of both parents. (What?__________) It was followed by The Comfort of Strangers (1981), set in Venice, a tale of fantasy, violence and obsession. His novels have won several awards, including the Whitbread Novel Award, the Booker Prize for Fiction, W. H. Smith Literary Award and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize. (What?____________) In addition to his prose fiction, Ian McEwan has written plays for television and film screenplays, including The Ploughmans Lunch (1985), an adaptation of Timothy Mos novel Sour Sweet (1988) and an adaptation of his own novel, The Innocent (1993). (Has?____________) He also wrote the libretto to Michael Berkeleys music for the oratorio Or Shall We Die? and is the author of a childrens book, The Daydreamer (1994). Film adaptations of his own novels include First Love, Last Rites (1997), The Cement Garden (1993) and The Comfort of Strangers (1991), for which Harold Pinter wrote the screenplay, (Who?___________ ) and Atonement (2007).

Ian McEwan lives in London. His latest novel is On Chesil Beach (2007), (What?___________) shortlisted for the 2007 Man Booker Prize for Fiction.

EXERCISE 5Indirect question formsReport the following questions.

1. What is the time?, Anne asked.2. Why did you run out of the room so suddenly?, James asked.3. Are we going to visit the castle?, asked the student.4. Did you see the new art exhibition yesterday?, Clare asked.5. What do you think of our new neighbours?, my husband asked.6. Would you do it if you could?, she asked.7. Will nothing be done until tomorrow?, John asked.8. Do you know how many people live in this town?, asked Robert.9. Can we postpone the meeting until next week?, asked Jane.10. Where has the office been moved to?, asked Susan.

2.3 Formal style

2.3.1 Syntax

In informal English, sentences tend to be shorter, and basic punctuation is used (comma, full stop).In formal English, sentences are usually longer are more complex; the full range of punctuation devices is used (colon, semi-colon, quotation marks).

In informal English, personal pronouns (I, we) are used: I think this is correct. You must be right.In formal English, personal pronouns are not generally used and are replaced by impersonal constructions: It is thought to be correct. He was believed to have died in Spain.

In informal English, the active voice of the verb is used: He painted the portrait in three months. In formal English, the passive voice of the verb is often dominant: The portrait was completed in three months.

In informal English, prepositions are placed at the end of the sentence:

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Who are you speaking to? The man he looked at.In formal English, prepositions precede relative and interrogative pronouns: To whom are you speaking? The man at whom he looked.

EXERCISE 6Formal syntaxRewrite the sentences in more formal English.

1. The professor, who I talked to, was very helpful.2. The hotel where we stayed was marvellous.3. They believe he is writing another novel.4. Thats the book Im interested in.5. They completed the restoration of the building in 5 years.6. They will consider the issue of historical revisionism.7. Thats the university Im studying at.8. This studyll help us make connections which we were previously unaware of.9. Hes a person Im really proud of.10. They proved that the statements he had made were false.

2.2.2 Lexis

In informal English, the use of vocabulary is less precise; formal language is generally precise and avoids ambiguities.

In informal English, short, vernacular words are used: to be sorry; to go up; to get. In formal English words of Latin and Greek origin are generally preferred: to regret; to increase; to receive.We were obliged to return earlier than planned due to poor weather conditions. We had to go back sooner than wed planned because the weather was so bad.

In formal written English idioms and slang are generally avoided unless they are introduced to provide colour, especially in titles to articles:

Blakelys arguments do not hold water. A new course is in the pipeline.Blakelys arguments can be shown to be wrong. A new course is being planned.

In informal English, emphasis is added using bold or italics, or CAPITALS, or an exclamation mark! Formal language avoids such devices. Other emphatic words such as great, terrific, amazing, awesome, should also be omitted.

EXERCISE 7Formal lexis

Substitute the informal words in italics with the formal words below.

demonstrated consequence comprehension investigating initially repeatedly incorrect decrease raised producing

1. The question of taxes was brought up at the students meeting.

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2. The people have no understanding of what the issue is about.3. At first the scientists were sceptical about the results of the experiment.4. It would be wrong to suggest that the vaccine is harmless.5. The lecturer showed that the impact on climate change was inevitable.6. The death of the patient was a direct result of negligence.7. The newspapers bias has been proved again and again. 8. There has been a noticeable drop in the number of museum visitors. 9. The staff is looking into the problem.10. The University is turning out an online catalogue of ancient manuscripts.

2.3 Cautious languageIn academic writing, particularly when research is being undertaken, cautious language is adopted to show the writers position on the subject. Various forms can be used to convey caution:

Cautious verbs: The presence of insects suggests / implies that food was consumed in the area.

Hedging with modal verbs: Food could / may / might have been consumed.

Impersonal statements: It is believed / It is alleged that food was consumed.

It could be the case that / It might be suggested that / It may be said that food was consumed.

Cautious adverbs: The presence of insects seems to be / is probably / is possibly / is perhaps the result of food consumption.

EXERCISE 8Rewrite the sentences using more cautious language.

The Portland Vase at the British Museum1. The Portland Vase is the most famous and influential piece of ancient glass in the world. 2. Its blue and white cameo appearance served as a source of inspiration for the potter Josiah Wedgwood.3. The scenes on the vase are Roman and it is of Roman date.4. The Vase was made by the skilled glassmakers of Renaissance Venice.5. In 1845 the Vase was permanently damaged by a visitor to the Museum who was mentally unstable.

EXERCISE 9Re-write the text, inserting the phrases below in the appropriate spaces..

imply probably used perhaps could have been used may also have displayed believed to be suggest appears to be might also be suggested probably displayed

Ancient moon computer revisitedThe delicate workings at the heart of what is 1) __________a 2,000-year-old analogue computer have been revealed by scientists. The Antikythera Mechanism, discovered more than 100 years ago in a Roman shipwreck, was 2) __________by ancient Greeks to display astronomical cycles. Using advanced imaging techniques, an Anglo-Greek team probed the remaining fragments of the complex geared device. The results, published in the journal Nature, show it 3) _________to predict solar and lunar eclipses. The elaborate arrangement of bronze gears 4) __________

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planetary information. The mechanism is 5) __________ as important for technology as the Acropolis is for architecture. Although its origins are uncertain, the new studies of the inscriptions 6) __________ it would have been constructed around 100-150 BC, long before such devices appear in other parts of the world. Writing in Nature, the team says that the mechanism 7) __________ "technically more complex than any known device for at least a millennium afterwards". It 8) __________ that the device was used for teaching or navigation. Inscriptions mention the word Venus and the word stationary which would 9) __________ that it was looking at retrogressions of planets and it also 10) ___________ Mercury.

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UNIT THREE WRITING PARAGRAPHS

Paragraph structure

1. Topic Sentence: - the first sentence in a paragraph- it summarises the main idea of the paragraph

2. Supporting Details:- make up the body of the paragraph- provide supporting facts, details and examples

3. Closing Sentence:- the last sentence in a paragraph- restates the main idea of the paragraph, using different words- or leads on to the next point

ExampleThe apparent realism of much Dutch art can be deceptive. Many floral still lifes, for instance, show combinations of flowers that do not bloom at the same time of year. Likewise, some lavish banquet tables are set with partially uneaten meals, interrupted in mid course. And the landscapes may stress the hopeful light of a new dawn or the dark threat of an approaching storm. These incredible illusions of space, solidity, texture, and light often assume the role of memento mori (a memento of mortality)a reminder that life is fleeting and that God is good, but his judgment is stern.

ExampleEnglish staff at the University of Michigan have just published preliminary results of their research on student writing. The educators used student surveys delivered to first-year students three times during the year. The surveys asked questions about past writing experiences, enjoyment of the writing process, and how much time students have for homework. The project was initiated in hopes of improving the quality of instructing writing and the actual process of writing at the University and at area high schools. The study found that many high school teachers are unaware of the college writing process and what is expected of students, and the goal of the research is to change this problem.

EXERCISE 1Re-write the jumbled sentences to create well-structured paragraphs with a topic sentence, supporting details and a closing sentence.

Paragraph 1- In addition, artworks are highly susceptible to light.- The provision of a suitable environment for cultural artefacts can make the difference between preservation and destruction.- The environment of art and artefacts has a major impact on their preservation.- Therefore, preventive conservation is the most direct and uncomplicated way of caring for works of art.- It includes the effect of differing levels of relative humidity and temperature, the presence of insects and mould.

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Paragraph 2- Their conception of their role in the discovery of America is profoundly religious: it is inseparable from the biblical metaphors of the Apocalypse and the coming of the millennium.- Their destination, both spiritual and geographical, is America, the new Israel that marks the beginning of the millennium. - For many Puritans, Christopher Columbuss passage in America was one of the most important historical events as the sign of a bigger historical destiny.- Indeed, their historical and geographical position in America is closely related to their biblical definition of themselves and of America.- In the bigger divine plan, the Puritans are Gods chosen people.

Paragraph 3- Our legal system is unique in that it embodies our concept of the individuals freedom.- The latter has been adopted, in various forms, by the other English speaking nations, notably the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Ireland and Malta.- However, these ancient rights are now under imminent threat from Brussels under a proposal known as Corpus Juris.- Many people see Britain as being the home of freedom as we created our unique system of parliamentary democracy backed by our common law.- Hence, it makes our laws quite different to those of our friends in Continental Europe.

Formal paragraphs: Writing an abstract

An abstract is a paragraph that is a formal summary of a piece of academic writing such as an article or a thesis. You need to write an abstract when you submit an article to a journal or when you make a conference proposal.

1. The topic sentence (or two) of an abstract provides a summary of the main point of the paper and introduces the problem the paper discusses. It also says why the work is important.

2. After a summary of the main topic/problem/point of the paper, the abstract provides some detail on how the project was carried out.

3. The abstract ends with what conclusions were reached.

The information provided in the abstract should follow the organization of the paper/report itself, almost like providing an outline for the reader in text form. There is generally a word limit, so your writing will have to be very compact.

Example 1Susan Faludi and Molly Ivins: A Feminist CritiqueThe paper describes the importance of gender communication research and continues with biographies of two best-selling authors: Susan Faludi and Molly Ivins. Speeches by these women were examined using Campbells theory that womens rhetoric is a genre to determine their similarities to or differences from male rhetorical styles. The substance, style, tag questions, qualifiers, vocabulary, and disclaimers of the women suggested that both reflect a male perspective while Faludi follows a feminist rhetorical pattern.

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Example 2Masculine Pleasures: Metropolitan Identities and the Commercial Sites of Dandyism, 1790-1840 This article examines the relationship between urban space, fashion and the changing forms of masculine identity presented by the figure of the dandy in the West End of early nineteenth-century London. It uses the evidence of biographical accounts, popular journalism and printed satire to demonstrate the ways in which the city provided both a supportive framework, a physical resource and a symbolic stage for the performance of a new version of fashionable masculinity. The article complements those accounts of dandyism which stress the symbolic associations of the dandys stance by insisting on a reading of consumption practices which acknowledge their material co-ordinates, highlighting the role played by the physical context of the metropolis in defining the dandys attitudes and appearance.

Example 3

A Survey of the Coin Finds from the Antonine Wall

This is an up-to-date catalogue of the stratified and stray coin finds from the vicinity of the forts on the Antonine Wall and its related outpost of Camelon. The evidence is taken from a variety of sources, some nowadays of restricted availability, and compiled as a single list for the first time. Extant coins have been rechecked where possible and their identifications updated to modern references.

As a single-period site the Antonine Wall is highly unusual for Roman Britain. However, in contrast to the more coherent pottery evidence, the body of coin finds carries within it background noise from a minority that are either modern losses or deposits made by post-occupation activity. By looking at the assemblage as a whole the article attempts to: draw the evidence back into focus and reconcile it with the currently accepted chronology while considering whether the coins might contain any shadow evidence of other periods of activity; and, if not, what such simple archaeological sites reveal about coin use and loss in Roman forts.

Separating paragraphsThere are two ways of separating paragraphs: either indenting or leaving a blank line between paragraphs. Although the Modern Language Association prefers indented paragraphs (see example 1 above), the convention is increasingly moving towards blocked paragraphs separated by a blank line (see examples 2 and 3 above). Whatever style you choose, make sure you are consistent.

WRITING TASK

1. Read the notes given below.

2. Write a paragraph for each set of notes.

3. Proofread your work for:a) spelling mistakesb) grammar mistakesc) clear paragraph structuring

Artists and Craftsmen in the Late Bronze Age of China (eighth - third centuries BC): Art in TransitionPaper describes major social changes in China in Late Bronze Age (particularly 4 cent. BC)Mirrored in organization of workshops and artistic production

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Bronze and lacquer different media with specific propertiesBut both media played significant role in development of arts in ancient ChinaSpecifically, respective styles interacted on several levels Interactions explored to understand role of artists and craftsmen in art history of this particular period

The Quadro da Portego: A Genre of Venetian Paining?Lecture examines development of quadro da portego in 16th cent.Explores how intention to hang painting in room influenced size and shape also subject and content Portego - long salon-like space of Venetian home - extended from front to back of houseMost important display areaSeen as precursor of the galleryOriginal purpose to house weapons and armour of noble ancestorsBy sixteenth century room chiefly used for display, entertaining, and banquetingBut continued to be associated with family identity and civic virtueLecture uses quadro da portego as exampleLecture considers how location within house is significant in impact on both production and interpretation of works of art

Celtic Origins: The Western and Eastern CeltsFirst part of lecture discusses concept of Celtic (primarily linguistic but also non-linguistic uses)Second part refers to various Celtic movements and settlementsAncestors of Celts as speakers of Indo-European dialect came from EastBut established in Western EuropeLater from 5th cent. BC onwards Celtic groups migrated eastwards againSettled in Noricum and PannoniaPresentation of linguistic evidence for Eastern CeltsConsists mainly of personal and tribal namesInferences drawn as to survival of Celtic speech social structures and cultural habits into Roman times.

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UNIT FOUR CHRONOLOGICAL ESSAY: Writing a biography

Biographical accounts combine narrative and descriptive techniques. They are very often written following chronological order, giving equal weight to different periods of a persons life.

Before you begin to write the biography, be sure you have taken an inventory of the persons background, accomplishments, influence, and works. Always take notes to avoid copying information from your source by mistake.

StructureA chronological biography may have the following structure:

1st Paragraph:Introduction that clearly defines the person and their work.

2nd Paragraph:Early life, studies and worksInfluence of teachers and other people

3rd ParagraphLater life and mature worksDevelopment of style/technique/themes

4th Paragraph:Influence on other peopleBest known works

5th Paragraph:Conclusion: Legacy

Grammar reviewNarrative tensesNarratives in chronological order generally use the past simple and past continuous tenses.He was born in London and later studied in Paris. (sequential actions)He was studying in Paris when he met Picasso. He was painting and she was writing. (parallel actions)

The past perfect is used to refer to a previous action in the past:After he had finished the novel, he started writing poetry.

The present and present perfect tenses are used when the artist is still alive and working.His work is housed in many galleries and has been described as being very avant-garde.

Some useful time expressions and prepositions:In 1900 in June in the 20th century in the 1800sOn June 20th on Monday At 5 oclock at ChristmasBy the end of the century

At first / in the beginningIn the end / finallyEventuallyAt lastAfter that time / afterwards

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Less than a year later/earlierAt the age of 18All his/her lifeWhen / while /as soon as

While s/he was at universityAfter s/he had finished her/his studiesDuring the World War/the 1660sWhen s/he was only 25

EXERCISE 1TensesRe-write the sentences, putting the verb in brackets in the correct form. 1. Go on, I _________ (to listen) to you.2. He _________ (to live) in India since he was ten.3. Call me when you __________ (to get) home.4. -You look tired. Yes, I __________ (to garden) all day.5. -What __________ you (to do)? Im a lawyer.6. I went to bed early last night. I __________ (to have) a long day at work.7. We __________ (to listen) to the radio when someone knocked on the door.8. The phone is ringing. I __________ (to answer) it.9. At this time tomorrow they __________ (to travel) on the train.10. She __________ (to finish) all her exams by next February.

EXERCISE 2Time expressionsMatch the time expressions.

1. Two decades a. 1958/592. By the early 1450s b. 19133. Spanning two centuries c. 1550s4. Between 1960 and 1997 d. 20 years5. From 1457 to 1459 e. 200 years6. Prior to WWI f. 14537. In the middle of the 16th century g. for 2 years8. In the late 1950s h. for 37 years

EXERCISE 3Time expressionsComplete the sentence with an appropriate time expression. More than one answer is possible in some cases.

when he was a child at the moment twice this year on Sundays by tomorrowtwo years ago yet next week this week prior to

1. Were reading War and Peace __________.2. They bought the house __________.3. We always have a late breakfast _________.4. Theyre studying 18th century philosophy _________ Kant.5. You have been late every day __________.6. Im seeing my professor __________.7. Shes been to Paris __________.

8. He used to have a dog __________.9. He hasnt completed his thesis, __________.10. Theyll have painted the room __________.

EXERCISE 4Rewrite the text below, noting the way it is divided into paragraphs.a) Insert the time expressions in the correct place; b) Write the verbs (active and passive) in the most appropriate form.

while currently since 2004 lately at the 1993from early 1970s 1969s over the course four years later

ROBERT WILSON (1941- )IntroductionRobert Wilson (to be) an avant-garde stage director and playwright. 1) __________of his eclectic career, he (to work) as a choreographer, performer, painter, sculptor, video artist, and sound and lighting designer. He (to be know) best for his collaborations with Philip Glass on Einstein on the Beach, and with numerous other artists, such as William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, Tom Waits, and David Byrne.

Early life early works teachers Wilson (to be) born in Waco, Texas, and (to study) Business Administration at the University of Texas 2) __________ 1959 to 1962. He (to move) to Brooklyn in 1963, (to receive) a BFA in architecture from the Pratt Institute in 1965. He also (to explore) painting under George McNeil, and architecture with Paolo Soleri in Arizona.

Later life mature works 3) ___________ , Wilson (to found) an experimental performance company, the Byrd Hoffman School of Byrds, (to name) after a dancer who (to help) him (to overcome) a speech impediment 4) __________he was a teenager. With this company, he (to create) his first major works, (to begin) with 5) __________ The King of Spain and The Life and Times of Sigmund Freud. He (to start) to work in opera in the 6) __________, (to create) Einstein on the Beach with Philip Glass, which (to bring) the two artists world-wide fame.

Development of style best-known works Wilson works (to be note) for their austere style, very slow movement, and often extreme scale in space or in time. The Life and Times of Joseph Stalin was a 12-hour performance, while Ka Mountain and Guardenia Terrace (to be stage) on a mountaintop in Iran and (to last) seven days. Wilsons use of language (to be) highly innovative, often (to mix) different registers, and he visually (to show) language on his set designs. Light (to be) another highly important element on stage, according to Wilson, as he (to feel) that lighting design (to enhance) a production. 7) __________, works like Black Rider, Alice and Woyzeck (to draw) heavily on the visual style of German expressionism and also on its often apocalyptic view of mankind and his future.

Current period and legacy today In addition to his work for the stage, Wilson (to produce) sculpture, drawings, and furniture designs. He (to win) the Golden Lion 8) ___________ Venice Biennale for a sculptural

installation. 9) __________Wilson (to work) on dozens of high-definition videos (to call) the Voom Portraits. Subjects (to range) from royalty and celebrities, (to include) Brad Pritt, to animals, Nobel Prize winners and homeless people. He 10) __________ (to work) on the European continent and (to appear) soon in a documentary (to entitle) Absolute Wilson by Katharina Otto-Bernstein.

Look at the following examples of biographies.

VAN GOGH, Vincent 1853 1890 DutchVan Gogh is today one of the most popular of the Post-Impressionist painters, although he was not widely appreciated during his lifetime. His works are characterised by expressive and emotive use of brilliant colour and energetic application of impastoed paint.

Van Gogh was born in Holland, the son of a pastor. He became an apprentice at an art dealership, but was fired in 1876. Over the next decade he was employed in various ways, including as a preacher. By 1883 he had started painting. In 1885-6 he attended the academy in Antwerp. On his return to Paris in 1886 he met artists such as Degas, Gauguin and Seurat.

In 1888 Van Gogh settled in Arles in Provence, where he was visited by Gauguin and painted his now famous series of Sunflowers. In the following year a nervous breakdown brought him to a sanatorium at St Remy; it was during this period that he painted A Wheatfield, with Cypresses.

In 1890, in the final days of his life, his work became more muted in colour and his line became more tense, as can be seen in his late landscapes. That year, suffering from a new bout of depression, he shot himself in the chest and died two days later.

Goghs revolutionary approach to painting had a strong influence on the next generation of artists, beginning with Matisse and the French Expressionists. His innovative and radical use of unnatural colour, his angular, heavy line, his compression of three- dimensional space into two-dimensional discreet pictorial elements (like brushstroke and pattern), and particularly, his stylized distortion and exaggeration of reality, often to grotesque ends, all appealed to the Expressionist artists.

FREUD, Lucian (1922- )Freud was born in Berlin in December 1922, and came to England with his family in 1933. He studied briefly at the Central School of Art in London and, to more effect, at Cedric Morriss East Anglian School of Painting and Drawing in Dedham.

Following this, he served as a merchant seaman in an Atlantic convoy in 1941. His first solo exhibition, in 1944 at the Lefevre Gallery, featured the now celebrated The Painters Room 1944. In the summer of 1946, he went to Paris before going on to Greece for several months. Since then he has lived and worked in London.

Until the mid 1950s, Freud worked in a tightly focussed style, which he had begun to use at the East Anglian School of Drawing and Painting, run by Cedric Morris. Around 1956 Freud exchanged his finely pointed sable brushes for stiffer hogshair and began to loosen his style, gradually amplifying his touch. Also in the late 1950s Freud, who had until then always painted sitting down, began to work standing up. This injected his work with a more athletic, energetic feel.

As a painter, Freud works extremely slowly and deliberately, wiping his brush on a cloth after every stroke. Great piles of these rags lie on the floor of his studio, and have featured in several of his

paintings from late 1980s onwards. Often Freud will take several months to complete a painting, and it is not unusual for works to be scrapped in the early stages. He usually has two or three paintings on the go at once, and will work on them in shifts of two or three sessions a day. His working day often starts early in the morning in his top-lit Holland Park studio, and ends in his night studio where he works under artificial light.

Freuds subjects are often the people in his life; friends, family, fellow painters, lovers, children. As he has said The subject matter is autobiographical, its all to do with hope and memory and sensuality and involvement really. I paint people, Freud has said, not because of what they are like, not exactly in spite of what they are like, but how they happen to be.

WRITING TASK

1. Read the notes given under the headings below.

2. Write a paragraph for each heading.

3. Proofread your work for:a) spelling mistakesb) grammar mistakesc) clear paragraph structuring

Introduction: Definition of person and work

Jacopo Bellini / Italian painter / born c. 1396 / died c. 1470 / worked Venice & northern Italy

two sons / Gentile & Giovanni / also painters / also son-in-law Andrea MantegnaParagraph Two: Early life early works teachers

Bellini / born Venice / pupil Gentile da Fabriano

1411-1412 worked Foligno / painted frescoes in Palazzo Trinci with Gentile

1423 moved Florence / saw new works by Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masaccio

1424 opened workshop Venice / until deathParagraph Three: Later life mature works development of style

Many greatest works disappeared / eg. Crucifixion in cathedral of Verona (1436)

c. 1430 painted panel with Madonna and Child / now in Accademic Carrara / once attributed to

Gentile da Fabriano

1441 Ferrara / service of Leonello dEste

With Leon Battista Alberti / portrait of L dEste / now lost

Madonna dell'Umilt / probably commissioned by one of Leonellos brothers

Influence of Masolino da Panicale / more modern, early Renaissance themes visible / eg

Madonna with Child (1448) / Pinacoteca di Brera

First time used perspective / more monumental figures

Paragraph Four: Best-known works influence on other people

Later works in Venice now lost / for churches of San Giovanni Evangelista (1452) and St. Mark

(1466)

1459 / painted Madonna with Blessing Child in Gallerie dellAccademia / use gold pigment /

elements from Byzantine art / higher decorative style (International Gothic) seen in Child's rich

robes and patterned background of angels

Soon after in Padua / trained Andrea Mantegna / perspective and classicist themes

Late phase / Crucifix (ruined) in Museum of Verona / Annunciation in Sant'Alessandro - BresciaEnding: Final period and legacy today

Few paintings survive

Most important legacy / surviving sketch-books / British Museum and Louvre

Depict interest in landscape / elaborate architectural design

Drawings show variety of scenes

Used by artists as models for compositions until 16th century

Experiments with linear perspective

Was first to make figures diminish in space using rules of perspective / formerly applied only to

depictions of architecture.

UNIT FIVE DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY: Describing a work of art

1. Writing a captionWhen you are writing a caption for an artwork, the following information should be included:

ArtistTitle (in italics)datemedium on supportdimensions in inches (h. x w. x d.) followed by dimensions in centimetres (1 inch = 2.54 cm)Name of collectionCity of collection

ExamplesSandro Botticelli, Primavera, ca. 1482, tempera on panel, 6 ft. 8 in. x 10 ft. 4 in. (2.03 x 3.15 m). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

Attributed to Cherubino Alberti, Piet, engraving after Michelangelo, ca. 1572. Albertina, Vienna

Follower (or workshop) of Jan Polack, Intercession of Christ and Mary before God to Halt the Plague (Pestvotivbild), ca. 1517. St. Peters, Munich.

Sometimes, this information is included in a short text describing the artwork in more detail.

2. StructureA description of a work of art may have the following structure:

1st Paragraph:Details of the work: Title, artist, materials, shape & size, location.

2nd Paragraph:Description: subject matter and structure

3rd ParagraphTechnique and colours.

4th Paragraph:Interpretation: symbols, mood, theme.

Grammar reviewTensesNote that, unlike biographical texts, when we are describing a work of art (or a book or a film), we generally use the present simple tense: The play describes the love story between Romeo and Juliet. The Mona Lisa smiles at the viewer enigmatically.

AdjectivesAdjective position and formation

Adjectives generally precede the nouns they modify: a magnificent painting

When more than one adjective precedes the noun, there is generally a precise order:

number opinion age shape colour origin material purpose a magnificent old square brown French mahogany coffee table

It is unusual, however, to find so many adjectives in the same sentence.

EXERCISE 1Write out the phrases, putting the adjectives in the correct order.

1. shawl / a / wonderful / Spanish / old / silk / black __________________________________________________________________________

2. French / a pair of / silver / candlesticks / 15th century __________________________________________________________________________

3. sofa / hideous / a / plastic / modern / pink __________________________________________________________________________

4. abstract / a / oil painting / bizarre / 20th century __________________________________________________________________________

5. marble / delicate / Roman / white / two / statues __________________________________________________________________________

Compound adjectives may be formed with a noun, adjective or adverb and a present participle or a past participle: square-shaped plates long-lasting fame a well-preserved triptych

EXERCISE 2Complete the sentences to form compound adjectives.

1. The artist is known very well. He is a ___________________________________ artist.

2. His face looks worn by time. His has a __________________________________ face.

3. Attendance at the museum this year has broken all records. This year there was __________________________________.

4. Leonardo painted himself dressed well. He was a _____________________ man.

5. The vase is painted by hand. It is a _______________________________________ vase.

Many compound expressions contain numbers. The tower is 90 feet high can also be written as It is a 90-foot high tower.The walls are 15 feet thick can also be written as They are 15-foot thick walls.Note how the adjective form does not retain the plural of the noun form.

EXERCISE 3Complete the following sentences as shown above.

1. The castle was built in the 12th century. It is a _______________________________________

2. The bridge is 400 years old. It is a _______________________________________

3. The table is 2 metres long. It is a _______________________________________

4. The wall is 5 metres thick. It is a _______________________________________

5. The project will continue for 5 years. It is a _______________________________________

MorphologySome common suffixes used to form adjectivesnoun + -ic(al): history historic/historical (note y change to i)noun + -y : sun sunny (note double consonant)noun + -ous: fame famous (note dropped e)noun + -ful: beauty beautiful (note y change to i)noun + -less: colour colourlessverb + -ive: to attract attractiveverb + -able/-ible: to enjoy enjoyable; to flex flexiblepast participle of verb: to bore bored; to grow grown; to break brokenpresent participle of verb: to interest interesting

EXERCISE 4Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the nouns in italics with adjectives.

1. The painting was of great value. The painting was __________.2. The design was in the form of a circle. The design was __________.3. The upper part of the canvas has an illumination. The upper part is __________.4. The sight of the statue filled me with astonishment. The sight of the palace was __________.5. The fresco made a great impression on her. She found the fresco __________.6. The mask has many different colours. The mask is __________.7. The texture of the surface has a kind of roughness. The texture seems __________.8. The use of glass in this work has a lot of imagination. The use of glass is __________.9. The landscape is very similar to reality. The landscape is __________.10. The flowers provide decoration to the panel. The flowers are __________.

DefinitionsA descriptive text may also require the definition of a term. This can be done in several ways:

1. by function (what the thing does or how it works):

A panel is a thin wooden board, used as a surface for an oil painting.

2. by structure (how the thing is organised or put together):Tempera is a painting medium in which pigment is mixed with water-soluble glutinous materials such as size or egg yolk.

3. by analysis (comparing the thing with another, illustrating the differences):Unlike baroque music, classical music was secular; it was non-religious and it resided more in the homes of nobles or in public works rather than in the church.

4. by derivation or origins:The word baroque probably derives from the ancient Portuguese barroco, which is a pearl that is not round but of unpredictable and elaborate shape.

4. by what the term does not mean:Free software does not mean non-commercial.

Whatever kind of definition you use, it is important that the explanation is clear to the reader.

EXERCISE 5Write a definition for each of the following:

1. Sculpture______________________________________________________________________.

2. The Renaissance _______________________________________________________________.

3. Trompe l'il ___________________________________________________________________.

4. A colour palette________________________________________________________________.

5. An art patron __________________________________________________________________.

Describing a work of artRead the sample essay

Primavera or The Allegory of Spring, by Alessandro Filipepi known as Botticelli in about 1482, is painted in tempera on panel measuring 6 ft. 8 in. x 10 ft. 4 in. (2.03 x 3.15 m). It is currently housed in the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence. The painting was probably painted as a wedding gift for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de Medici, possibly from his cousin Lorenzo the Magnificent.

The painting is set in the garden of Venus, who is in the middle of the painting. Above her head is Cupid, who is aiming a bow and arrow at the Three Graces. Mercury, wearing a helmet and carrying a sword, is on the left of the painting. The right-hand side shows the metamorphosis of the nymph Chloris - following her rape by the wind god Zephyr - into Flora, the goddess scattering flowers.

The painting reflects Botticellis original style: highly detailed ornamentation, and a rich palette of light colours evoking spring. The figures are slender and elongated, with a soft sensuous line. The drapery of their translucent clothing is graceful and elegant. The figures float on the forward plane of the picture against a decorative landscape backdrop.

Although Giorgio Vasari described the painting as Venus, the symbol of Spring, being adorned with flowers by the Graces, a further level of meaning is derived from contemporary philosophical views of ideal love and beauty. Spring heralds the awakening of human emotions and desires, and Mercury drives the dark clouds of melancholy away with his staff. The group of Zephyr, Chloris and Flora visually represents the conflict between lust, chastity and beauty. The elegantly clad figure of Venus is highly reminiscent of a Virgin, and thus embodies the synthesis of earthly and heavenly love. She is a typical "Venus humanitas", a symbol of spiritual, moral, divine love, an example of perfect humanity.

VocabularyBefore you write your description, you will need to gather your ideas and think about the vocabulary you will need.

Some of the questions you might like to ask yourself are:

1. What art form, or type of art is this?

Painting: portrait, self-portrait, land/sea/cityscape, still-life, abstractPrint: engraving, etching, lithography, silkscreen, woodcutSculpture: statue, bust, statuette, equestrian statue, monumentPhotograph: daguerreotype, digital imaging, montage, negative Ceramics: earthenware, porcelain, stoneware, china, terracottaInstallation: site-specific, indoors/outdoors, temporary/permanent

is defined asis an example of

2. What materials are used?

Painting: oil on canvas, watercolour, pastel on paper, chalk, tempera on board, on wood panelPrint: ink, paper, textile, mezzotintSculpture: clay, marble, stone, woodPhotograph: telephoto lens, wide-angle lensCeramics: clay, bone ash, glazeInstallation: wood, metal, glass, rubber, fibreglass, video

is made ofis painted inis carved inis formed of

3. What size and shape does it have?

It measures by (inches, cm)It is long/wide/high/deep

4. Where is it located?

is housed inhangs instands inis located in belongs to . permanent / temporary collection

5. What period is it from?

Pre-historic, Art of Antiquity, Medieval, Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, Classicism, Romanticism, Modern Art, Impressionism, Symbolism, Art Nouveau, Cubism, Futurism, Surrealism, Contemporary Art, Post-modern Art,

dates frombelongs toearly, mid, late-16th centurythe early, mid, late-1900s

6. What technique is used?

Painting: perspective, sfumato, trompe loeil, imprimatura, glaze, fresco

Print: engraving, etching, lithography, silkscreen, woodcutSculpture: carved, modelled, constructed, cast, assemblage, in the round, relief, Photograph: blow-up, close-up, double exposure,Ceramics: glazing, majolica (tin glaze), biscuit, burnishingInstallation: video, computer, performance, environment, concept

The artists uses / makes use of / employs .

7. What is the subject matter? Name the figures and objects in the work.

Religious: Madonna and Child, Christ on the Cross, saint, apostle, angel, devil, heaven, hellLandscape: scenery (mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, forests, sky)Portraiture: family portrait, ancestor, nudeStill-life: flowers, books, fruitHistory: mythology, ancient history, hero, soldier

To depict, to show, to represent, to illustrate, to interpret, to portray

8. What structure does the work have?

Foreground, middle ground, background. Lines: straight, curvingSpace: flat, three-dimensional, deep perspectiveLighting/shading/shadowsBrushstrokes: broad, loose, fine, blendedShapes: geometric, organic, spherical, linearPatterns: motifs, decoration, symmetrical/asymmetrical, balanced/unbalanced, Textures: rough/smooth, glossy/opaque,

9. What are the major colours? Is a warm or a cool palette used?

Black and white, monochromaticPrimary coloursWarm colours: yellow, orange, redCool colours: blue, purple, greenPale/bright, brilliant/soft, light/darkHarmony / contrast

10. What interpretations can be made?

Symbols: mirror (vanity), book (learning), coral (blood of Christ), dog (fidelity), burning candle (faith in God)Mood: passionate, exciting cheerful, peaceful, gloomy, sad, violent, sereneTheme: myth, ritual, life and death, the natural world, domesticity

To symbolise, to be a symbol of, to represent, to stand for, to mean.

WRITING TASK

1. Read the notes given under the headings below.

2. Write a paragraph for each heading.

3. Proofread your work for:a) spelling mistakesb) grammar mistakesc) clear paragraph structuring

Details of the workTitle: The Dance ClassArtist: Edgar Degas Signed: Degas (lower left)Dated: 1874Materials: Oil on canvasShape and Size: 32 3/4 x 30 1/4 in. (83.2 x 76.8 cm)Location : The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Bequest of Mrs. Harry Payne Bingham, 1986

DescriptionSubject matter- dance class conducted by famous ballet master Jules Perrot- one girl dancing- other girls seem to be waiting, sitting, standing- background, right, dancers mothers- foreground, dancer adjusting skirtsStructure- vertical structure emphasised by music stand and reflection in mirror- one dancing ballerina is focus, not central but to right - asymmetrical, fluid composition

Technique - Impressionist

- complex articulation of forms- unusual perspective- not quick brushstroke of Impressionists

Colours and light- use of light and reflection contrelumire light through colour- middle ground, wall, left, mirror reflects other dancers - mirror also reflects city outside, right- unlike other Impressionists (Monet, Renoir) outdoor settings, natural light- Degas depicted human figures un movement interior setting- white of girls dresses- colour red is flower, dance masters shirt, shawl of one of the mothers

Interpretation

Symbols- figures reflect interest in psychology of movement and expression- ballet dancers ideal subject for this- athletic physicalityMood- modern, unstructured composition- intimate, spontaneousTheme- scenes of Parisian life- real life not traditional mythological or historical paintings- dancers shown without artifice, in awkward moments eg dancer biting fingernails

UNIT SIX DISCUSSION ESSAY: Arguing for and against

A discussion essay should present a balanced view of the topic under discussion, although the concluding paragraph should contain your own personal views.

As with the other kinds of essays, the first step is to take notes under the heading of For and Against so as to organise your thoughts. This is also a useful phase in which to review the vocabulary you will need to develop your argument.

Then you will need to decide what your opinion on the topic is.

A discussion essay may have the following structure:

1st paragraph:Introduce the debate, contextualise the issue by giving background information. If necessary, define any key words.

2nd paragraph:Present the argument in favour of the issue: advantages, improvements, benefits.

3rd paragraph: Present the argument in opposition to the issue: disadvantages, problems.

4th paragraph:Conclusion. In the last paragraph, you might sum up the two sides to the discussion before expressing your own opinion.

Some useful phrases (also see Appendix)First of all, To begin withFirstly, Secondly, ThirdlyA first pointA second pointAn additional point

In addition,What is more, Moreover, Furthermore,

However,Nevertheless,Although / While (+ clause)On the one hand on the other (hand)

In conclusion,To sum up,

In my opinionIn my viewFrom my point of view,I firmly believe that

Many people feel.Others believe

It might be argued that This essay will examine / discuss

2. Planning the essay

First of all, read the topic carefully and identify the key terms:

Topic: Should governments spend public money on the arts?

Next, brainstorm for useful vocabularyThen take notes on ideas For and Against.Finally make notes about your own opinion.

Read the sample essay.

Many peoples lives are richer because of the arts - music, paintings, pictures, sculpture, poetry and dance, for example. However, some people feel that governments should be spending money on housing, medical care, or defence, instead of on the arts. This essay will discuss whether governments should or should not spend money on the arts.

There are several reasons why governments should not finance artists. First of all, artists should have to follow the same rules as the rest of the market. If there is a demand for their music or sculpture, then they will be successful without public subsidy. Secondly, politicians generally do not have good taste. They will waste public money on popular art or on their own preferences. But the main reason why governments should minimize spending on the art world is that there are more important areas like housing, roads, hospitals, and factories which need the money first.

However, it would be wrong to say that governments should not spend any money at all on art. Everybody needs some beauty in their life, but not everyone can afford a Picasso or a piece of music. Governments should provide money for museums or concert halls for everyone. Another point is that art allows people to express themselves, and this is good for society, culture and thought. Thirdly, artists can be good for the economy by producing music, films, and attracting tourists.

To sum up, I think governments should prioritize their spending carefully, but they should also allocate some of their budget for the arts. I firmly believe that spending money on the arts is a vital part of a governments responsibility to support organisations and activities that are part of our cultural heritage. I also consider that public sponsorship can make the arts more accessible to more people in more places.

WRITING TASKRead the texts below on the debate regarding whether works of art should be returned to their original owners.

GreekpupilsdemandElginMarbles

GreekschoolchildrenhavedemonstratedattheAcropolisinAthenstodemandthattheUKreturnsmarblesculpturestakenbyLordElgin200yearsago.

Wearingorangejacketsbearingcampaignlogos,about2,000pupilsformedahumanchainaroundthemonument.

ThemarblesarepartoftheParthenon,a2,500yearoldtemple.

Greecehaslongcampaignedforthemarblesreturn.ButtheBritishMuseumsaystheyarebetteroffinLondon,safefrompollutiondamageinAthens.

OrganiserssaidthemarbleswereGreecesprideanddignity.TheysaidthesymbolofGreekdemocracyhadlainmutilatedfortwocenturies.

Campaignershavecollected65,000signaturesandsent900lettersofprotesttotheheadoftheBritishMuseuminLondon.

ThemarbleswereremovedbyBritishenvoyLordElginatthebeginningofthe19thCentury.

TheGreekgovernmenthasforyearscampaignedfortheirreturn,sayingtheywereillegallyremoved.

Themuseumsaysitisnotatlibertytogivethemback,andbelievestheyarewelllookedafterandavailableformillionsofvisitorstoseeinLondon.

ItsaysthemarblesaresafefromAthensspollutionthathasdamagedthosestillthere.

AnorganiserofTuesdaysprotestsaidcampaignerswouldsoonstageasimilareventattheBritishMuseum.

OthercitieswhichholdpiecesofthetempletothegoddessAthenaincludeParis,Vienna,PalermoandMunich,accordingtotheGreekcultureministry.

StoryfromBBCNEWS:http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//2/hi/europe/6313953.stm

Published:2007/01/3016:26:19GMT

RomanringhandedbacktoTurkeyAnhistoricRomanringwhichwasillegallyimportedintotheUKfromTurkeyhasbeenreturned.

Theironandsilverband,whichdatesbacktobetweenAD161andAD169,isthoughttohavebeentakenfromanarchaeologicaldigatEphesus,Turkey.

ItwaseventuallyseizedbyHMRevenueandCustomsafteritwastakentoDerbyMuseumforavaluation.

TheringwashandedovertoTurkishEmbassyofficialsatEastMidlandsAirportonTuesday.

ThefindhasagemstoneengravingofLuciusVersuscoemperorwithMarcusAurelius.

ItwasseizedbycustomsofficialsafteritwastakenfromDerbytotheBritishMuseum.Noonehasbeenprosecutedforstealingthering.

Significantproblem

SerminOzduran,fromtheTurkishEmbassy,whocollectedtheringonbehalfoftheTurkishgovernment,saiditwas"animportantpiece"ofTurkishhistory.

JohnMacmillan,detectionmanagerforHMRevenue&Customs,said:"WearedelightedtobeabletoreturnthisimportanthistoricalringtotheTurkishGovernment.

"Theinternationaltradeinillicitculturalartefactsisasignificantproblemandincreasinglybeinglinkedtootherformsoforganisedcrime.

"WewillcontinuetoplaceahighprioritytostopthoseattemptingtobringhistoricalartefactsintotheUKillegallyandrestoreseizedculturalobjectstotheirrightfulowners."

TheringwillbesenttoTurkeysMinistryofCultureandTourismandlaterbedisplayedinamuseuminthecountry.

StoryfromBBCNEWS:http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//2/hi/uk_news/england/leicestershire/6680191.stm

Published:2007/05/2212:00:23GMT

BBCMMVII

Planning the essay

Read the topic carefully.Brainstorm for useful vocabulary and ideasWrite notes under the headings below

Topic: There are numerous great works of art and antiquity taken during the Age of Imperialism and held today by European and American museums. The Elgin Marbles are the most famous example, but there are thousands of others. The nations of origin, supported by UNESCO, want these cultural treasures returned, while the museums unsurprisingly prefer to keep them.

Should such works of art and antiquity be given back to their original owners?

Step 1: Brainstorming for useful vocabulary

Works of art and antiquity

Cultural treasures

To return

Step 2: Ideas for and against

For

1.

2.

3.

Against

1.

2.

3.

Step 3: My own opinion. Other solutions?

Re-read your notes and write five paragraphs for and against.

UNIT SEVEN CRITICAL ESSAY: Writing a review

A review is a critical evaluation of an event, object, or phenomenon: books, films, plays, opera, ballet, for example.

Unlike a descriptive text, a review makes an argument. As this is an analytical reading of the work, after giving the reader initial information of the work and its context, you are able to express a personal opinion and distinguish positive and negative aspects of the work.

Reviews are generally not long, but follow the same structure as other academic texts: a statement of your thesis backed up with supporting body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

1. Writing a book review

1st Paragraph:Give all relevant information about what you are reviewing: title, author, publisher, year of publication etc. The introduction may also give a brief overview of the contents of the book, its overall purpose, and the audience for the book. Specify the genre (for example, fiction, non-fiction, biography, autobiography).

2nd Paragraph: Give the reader some brief background information that helps place the book in context and discusses criteria for judging the book. You also might like to give a short biography of the author, and mention other examples of his or her work.

3rd Paragraph:Give a summary of the main points of the book. If it is a novel, give a short summary of the plot and the main characters.

4th Paragraph: Then give your opinion on the book: if the book has achieved its purpose (and if not, why not), how the book compares to others on the same subject or by the same author, and what aspects of the book are not convincing.

5th Paragraph: The conclusion should bring together all the issues raised in the review, and provide a concise comment on the book.

Planning the essay

Vocabulary

What genre of book is it?Narrative: Non-narrative: Short story Essay Novel Debate Biography Speech Diary PlayMystery Poetry Science fiction Reference book

Who are the characters in the book?Main characters: hero/heroine/villain Minor characters

How is the work divided up?Chapters, books, parts (novel)Line, verse, couplet (poetry)

Positive adjectivesInteresting, fascinating, riveting, charming, delightful, humorous, impressive

Negative adjectivesBoring, lengthy, disappointing, unconvincing, unstructured, superficial

2. Planning the reviewTake notes on the various aspects of the book you are reviewing.Finally make notes about your own opinion.

Read the sample text.

A Life of Picasso. Volume 3: The Triumphant Years 1917-1932by John Richardson, with the collaboration of Marilyn McCully 608pp, Jonathan Cape, 30

This is the third volume in John Richardsons fascinating biography of Picasso. The previous volume, published ten years ago, looked at the Cubist period, and this one opens with Picasso's journey to Rome in February 1917 to work on Parade, his first ballet for Diaghilev, and closes with the massive retrospective exhibitions held in Paris and Zurich in 1932, which sealed his triumph as the artist of his generation.

John Richardson got to know Picasso in the 1950s, and gives a personal interpretation of the artist and his first wife, Russian dancer Olga Khokhlova. Thanks to his friendship with her grandson, Richardson has been given access to personal effects, and this volume is filled with fascinating, mostly unpublished, family photographs.

Like the previous volumes, this bulky book (608 pages) follows a chronological path and is divided into short, fast-moving chapters. Richardson presents the array of classical styles Picasso explored during the ballet period and the highly abstracted, decorative Cubist-style still lifes he simultaneously produced.

Richardsons style is deliberately non-academic and he draws widely on his own friendship with Picasso to express opinions in a more informal manner than in the previous volumes. Often his comments on other artists who were close to Picasso in this period, such as Cocteau and Clive Bell, are extremely harsh. Nevertheless, he examines their private letters for revealing scraps of information that nobody has picked up before.

The general impression is on an agreeable sense of complicity between author and reader. The mass of information is carefully documented, and there can be no question of Richardsons profound knowledge of Picassos entire oeuvre. The one obstacle to following his narrative here is that many of the works discussed are not illustrated at all. Hopefully this might be corrected in a second edition.

WRITING TASK1. Read the notes given under the headings below.

2. Write a paragraph for each heading.

3. Proofread your work for:a) spelling mistakesb) grammar mistakesc) clear paragraph structuring

Title of book: If not now, when? (Se non ora, quando)Author: Primo LeviTranslator: William WeaverYear of publication: original 1984 translation 1995Genre: NovelOverall purpose: Description of Jewish partisans in Germany

Background information- based on authors own experience in Auschwitz and after the war- also on stories of partisans he met

Biography of author- escaped Turin 1943 because of anti-Semitic laws- was partisan in Resistance movement- 1944 arrested and deported to Auschwitz- liberated 1945, but long period as displaced person

Other examples of novels- 1947 If This is a Man (Se questo un uomo)- 1978 The Wrench (La chiave a stella)

Summary of plotJuly 1943- Russian Jew Mendel, behind German lines - meets up with other partisans - joins a Jewish band led by the violin-playing Gedaleh.- families killed and home communities destroyed -nothing left but to fight for survival and, where they can, against German supply lines and camps. - journey takes them across Byelorussia and Poland into conquered Germany- ends in Italy before

Evaluation- fast moving novel- a key war novel of the post-war era- an important contribution to the literature of the Holocaust

Conclusion and concise comment- simple but powerful story of human endurance- human struggle in hostile world- won both the Premio Campiello and the Premio Viareggio

2. Writing a performing arts review

In addition to the information needed to write a book review, a performing arts review might also require you to add some information about the original (book) form of the film/play/opera/ballet.

You might like to point to differences in plot, mention whether the new version meets your expectations given your knowledge of the original, note whether symbols and literary devices have been successfully transferred to the new medium.

You might also want to make a comment on the actors and their performance. Was the cast well chosen? Have they given better performances in other films?

When looking at a film, you might mention any special effects and film techniques used, and whether these techniques and the sound track enhanced the setting and themes of the film.

When looking at a play/ballet/opera, you should also mention how well the event has been staged: stage design, costumes, choreography etc.

Your closing paragraph should also be more persuasive than in a book review; you should advise the reader whether he or she should go and see the event.

Vocabulary

Films and plays Scriptwriter/playwrightDirector/producer Soundtrack - composerSpecial effectsSet designLightingCostumes

Audience

CharactersCastActor/actress/starSupporting actor.. stars inThe star of the film is

Play/Opera/BalletStage - On/off stage - BackstageWingsOrchestra pit

DivisionsActs / scenes

OperaSinger

Soprano / contralto / tenor / baritone / bassChorusComposer conductor - score

BalletDancer / soloist / principalBallerina / ballerino / male dancerCorps de ballet / ballet company / troupeLeading role / minor roleChoreographer / composer

EXERCISE 1

FILM CLASSICSRead the short synopses of famous classic films and insert a genre from the box. Then try to match the synopsis with a film title.

sci-fi war epic comedy romanceanimation science-fiction musicals horror/thrillerWestern sentimental drama epic drama adventure filmsfictional biography

1) Sweeping, surreal, still-controversial Vietnam___________. A masterful, thought-provoking film about the nightmarish, moral madness of the Vietnam War, inspired by the novella Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad.

*******2) Moody futuristic, __________noirish thriller, with stunning, visually-dazzling effects and a brooding atmosphere, about a detective hunting near-human "replicants." Based on the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick.

*******3) Quintessential, definitive __________of the 30s, with absurd physical gags, high-speed humour, and witty dialogue. A non-stop profusion of comic disasters, coincidences and misunderstandings ensue when an absent-minded, unfortunate palaeontologist encounters an uninhibited, accident-prone heiress.

*******4) Perennially at the top of every all-time greats list, and indisputably one of the landmarks of the American cinema, although an accidental Hollywood masterpiece. Critically-acclaimed, bittersweet, popular, much-loved, __________of ill-fated lovers.

*******5) This is a landmark of cinema history - often voted the greatest film ever made. An expressionistic, __________of the rise to power (and tragic fall) of a larger-than-life newspaper tycoon/publisher.

*******6) This film is a classic silent masterpiece (with sound effects). Critically acclaimed for its blend of __________, pathos, slapstick, and comic pantomime.

*******7) One of the best-loved, appealing films of all time and one of filmdom's greatest cinematic achievements and blockbusters, based on Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel. The star-studded Civil War __________traces the South's tragic history during the war and the Reconstruction period.

*******

8) The greatest, most influential __________ever made and the progenitor of the modern Holly-

wood horror film, based on Robert Bloch's novel. A classic, low budget tale that includes the most celebrated