Abiodun Aremu OLIYIDE(M.Sc.).docx

8/10/2019 Abiodun Aremu OLIYIDE(M.Sc.).docx

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

In 2010, Omokehinde studied the effect of crude oil contaminated sand on the compressive

strength of concrete and his results showed that the presence of crude oil in sand has a negative

effect on the compressive strength of the concrete made from the sand. The extent of the

reduction in strength is proportional to the percentage of crude oil present in the sand. Regular

crude oil spillage on the surface and subsurface water resources, erosion and drainage problems

of the built environs culminating to incessant failure of buildings and other onshore structures

which has become a regular news item, (Ukoli, 2001).

Since we have to continue building in these oil spill contaminated environment, several work has

been carried out on how to improve the compressive strength of the concrete made from the

contaminated sand. Odufuwa (2010), noted that the strength of concrete made from crude oil

imparted sand can be improved by reducing the water cement ratio. But not much work has been

done on how to improve the compressive strength of concrete cast with uncontaminated sand,

but cured in a crude oil medium.

However, research has pointed to the pozzolanic effect of glass powder. Vijayakumar et al

(2013) established that very finely ground glass may have sufficient pozzolanic properties to

serve as partial replacement of cement, He said the effect of alkali-silica reaction appear to be

reduced with finer glass particles.

The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction in concrete, but the glass

powder could suppress their alkali-silica reaction tendency, an effect similar to supplementary

cementations materials (Vijayakumar et al, 2013).


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1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The aim of this study is to improve the compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil with

waste glass powder

The Objectives of the study include;

1. To monitor the strength of concrete when it is cured in crude oil medium

2. To verify the effect of waste glass powder on concrete properties

3. To improve the compressive strength of concrete using waste glass powder

4. To determine the effect of crude oil on the improved properties of concrete

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

Concrete cubes samples with size 150 by 150mm were produced with 0%, 10% and 20% of the

cement content replaced with waste glass powder in the mix design, the concrete cubes were

cured in crude oil medium and an equal number of cubes were cast and cured in water for control

experiment. The slump test was carried out on the fresh concrete and compressive strength of the

concrete cubes were examined at ages 7, 14 and 28 days after curing. Curing concrete in crude

oil actually modeled the condition in the Niger Delta, area of Nigeria where oil spillage is a

regular occurrence contaminating soil and water. Many oil spill incidents had occurred in the

past (Nwilo and Badejo, 2001) and persist till date due to pipeline vandalisms and seepage of oil

to the surface.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Ramzi et al, 2000 established that the rate of crude oil absorption by concrete is high at early age

and this reduces the compressive strength of such concrete. This findings coupled with the high

degree of oil spillage in the Niger delta region of Nigeria forms the basis for this research. It is

highly essential that every concrete structure should carry out its intended functions such as


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strength and serviceability during its specified service life. It follows that concrete must be able

to withstand the processes of deterioration to which it can be expected to get exposed to.


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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

For over four decades, Nigeria has continued to experience remarkable increase in operational

activities in her oil and gas exploration, exploitation, refining and product marketing which is

concentrated in Niger Delta region, and that the region has been mired by various degrees of

health and environmental pollution problems (Ukoli, 2001). Regular crude oil spillage on the

surface and subsurface water resources, erosion and drainage problems of the built environs

culminating to incessant failure of buildings and other onshore structures have become a regular

news item. Ukoli (2001) also reported on the various control programmes and polices articulated

by government for the mitigation of environmental problems associated with the oil and gas

industry, but the problem remains whether the measures are being implemented efficiently.

Recent research have shown that concrete deterioration and cracking in marine environment is

more severe than in any other terrestrial environment and this has elicited more investigation on

the causes of concrete deterioration in similar environment (Ejeh, et al2009). In their report on

the bond between repair materials and concrete substrate in marine environment, Jonnesari, et al,

in 2005 observed that deterioration occur as result of such factors as physical and chemical

characteristic of repair compound, initial curing periods, environmental conditions among other

factors. Onabolu, (1989) in his work on some properties of crude oil soaked concrete exposed at

ambient temperature observed variations in mechanical properties of the concrete materials with

time.

Ramzi et al, 2000 analysed the compressive and tensile strength of concrete loaded and soaked in

crude oil. Based on short and long term loading, the effect of crude oil on compressive and


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flexural tensile strength of concrete was investigated. He found that the rate of crude oil

absorption is high at early stage of soaking, but later on, the rate decreases.

Study by Matti, (1976) have shown that the factors significantly affecting concrete properties

include conditions of curing prior to exposure, moisture condition of the concrete at the time of

exposure, storage temperature of the crude oil as well as the cement type.

Research findings have shown that concrete made with recycled glass powder have shown better

long term strength and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass

aggregates (Samtur, 1974). The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica

reaction (ASR) in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their alkali-silica reaction

tendency, an effect similar to supplementary cementations materials. (Seung, et.al 2004).

Therefore, glass is used as a replacement or supplementary cementitious materials. Very finely

ground glass has been shown to be excellent filler and may have sufficient pozzolanic properties

to serve as partial cement replacement, the effect of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) appear to be

reduced with finer glass particles (Seung, et.al 2004).

2.2 CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler)

embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space between the

aggregate particles and glues them together. We can also consider concrete as a composite

material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or

fragments of aggregates.


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2.2.1 Fresh Concrete

Fresh concrete is defined as concrete at the state when its components are fully mixed but its

strength has not yet developed. This period corresponds to the cement hydration stages 1, 2, and

3. The properties of fresh concrete directly influence the handling, placing and consolidation, as

well as the properties of hardened concrete.

2.2.1.1 Workability

Workability is a general term to describe the properties of fresh concrete. Workability is often

defined as the amount of mechanical work required for full compaction of the concrete without

segregation (ust.hk lecture note, 2014). This is a useful definition because the final strength of

the concrete is largely influenced by compaction. A small increase in void content due to

insufficient compaction could lead to a large decease in strength. The primary characteristics of

workability are consistency (or fluidity) and cohesiveness. Consistency is used to measure the

ease of flow of fresh concrete. And cohesiveness is used to describe the ability of fresh concrete

to hold all ingredients together without segregation and excessive bleeding.

2.2.1.2 Factors affecting workability

Water content: Except for the absorption by particle surfaces, water must fill the spaces among

particles. Additional water "lubricates" the particles by separating them with a water film.

Increasing the amount of water will increase the fluidity and make concrete easy to be

compacted. Indeed, the total water content is the most important parameter governing

consistency. But, too much water reduces cohesiveness, leading to segregation and bleeding.

With increasing water content, concrete strength is also reduced. The following factors were

identified from the ust.hk lecture note to affect the workability.


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1. Aggregate mix proportion: For a fixed water cement ratio, an increase in the aggregate/cement

ratio will decrease the fluidity. (Note that less cement implies less water, as water cement ratio is

fixed.) Generally speaking, a higher fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio leads to a higher

cohesiveness.

2. Maximum aggregate size: For a given water cement ratio, as the maximum size of aggregate

increases, the fluidity increases. This is generally due to the overall reduction in surface area of

the aggregates.

3. Aggregate properties: The shape and texture of aggregate particles can also affect the

workability. As a general rule, the more nearly spherical and smoother the particles, the more

workable the concrete.

4. Cement: The higher the cement content, the better the workability.

2.2.2 Hardened Concrete

2.2.2.1 Strength of hardened concrete

Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The failure of

concrete is due to cracking. Under direct tension, concrete failure is due to the propagation of a

single major crack. In compression, failure involves the propagation of a large number of cracks,

leading to a mode of disintegration commonly referred to as crushing. The strength is the

property generally specified in construction design and quality control, for the following reasons:

(1) it is relatively easy to measure, and (2) other properties are related to the strength and can be

deduced from strength data. The 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a

standard uniaxial compression test is accepted universally as a general index of concrete

strength.


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2.2.2.2 Factors affecting concrete strength

1. Water Cement Ratio

Odufuwa (2010), noted that the strength of concrete made from crude oil imparted sand can be

improved by reducing the water cement ratio. The strength of concrete depends very much upon

the hydration reaction which is the reaction between water and cement to form a paste that

begins to harden (set). This paste binds the aggregate particles through the chemical process of

hydration (Concrete: Scientific Principles, 2011). Cement + Water = hardened cement paste

(Hydration.) The properties of this hardened cement paste, called binder, control the properties of

the concrete. It is the inclusion of water (hydration) into the product that causes concrete to set,

stiffen, and become hard and once set, concrete continues to harden (cure) and become stronger

for a long period of time, often up to several years. In simple terms, water-cement ratio is the

ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement used in a concrete mix. According to Arum and

Udoh (2006), water-cement ratio of concrete is the single most important factor that influences

the strength of concrete.

2.

Age and Curing Condition

The effect of curing temperature on concrete strength has already been discussed before.

Provided the concrete is properly cured, the strength increases with time due to the increased

degree of hydration.

As a rule of thumb, for type I cement, the 7 day strength can range from 60 80% of the 28 day

strength, with a higher percentage for a lower w/c ratio (ust.hk lecture note, 2014). After 28 days,

the strength can continue to go up. Experimental data indicates that the strength after one year

can be over 20% higher than that of the 28 day strength. The reliance on such strength increase


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in structural design needs to be done with caution, as the progress of cement hydration under real

world conditions may vary greatly from site to site.

3. Aggregates

For the same water cement ratio, mixes with larger aggregates give lower strength. This is due to

the presence of a weak zone at the aggregate/paste interface, where cracking will first occur.

With larger aggregates, larger cracks can form at the interface, and they can interact easier with

paste cracks as well as other interfacial cracks. With the same mix proportion, rougher and more

angular aggregates give higher strength than smooth and round aggregates. However, with

smooth aggregates, a lower water cement ratio can be employed to achieve the same workability.

Therefore, it is possible to achieve similar strength with smooth and rough aggregates, by

adopting slightly different water cement ratios. However, in the development of high strength

concrete, it is important to select aggregates with strength higher than that of the hardened paste.

4. Admixtures

Air-entraining agents decrease concrete strength by incorporation of bubbles. Set-retarding and

accelerating agents affect the early strength development but have little effect on ultimate

strength. Incorporation of mineral admixtures increases ultimate strength through the pozzolanic

reaction.

2.3 SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Supplementary cementitious materials, SCM are materials that can be used to replace cement in

concrete production. SCM, known as Pozzolans are substances that when used in conjunction

with Portland cement contributes to the properties of the hardened cement. According to ASTM

C618, Pozzolans are the siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possesses little


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or no cementitious value but will in the presence of moisture, at ordinary temperature chemically

react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds having cementitious properties.

2.3.1 Pozzolans

Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials that alone possess little or no

cementitious value, but will, in a finely divided form and in the presence of water, chemically

react with calcium hydroxide, such as found in hydrated cement at ordinary temperatures, to

form compounds possessing hydraulic cementitious properties. Pozzolanic materials react with

the calcium hydroxide produced as concrete hardens, this forms compounds with cementitious

properties (American Geological Institute 1997). The pozzolanic and cementitious properties

along with other characteristics make these materials attractive as partial substitutes for Portland

cement in concrete applications or inter-ground with Portland cement clinker to create blended

cements. Pozzolans can counteract adverse effects of undesirable aggregates used in concretes

and help to create a concrete highly resistant to penetration and corrosion (Klaus, et al, 2005).

For centuries, many of the natural Pozzolans have been used in concrete or cement. With

increasing fuel costs and environmental concerns over the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

associated with the production of Portland cement clinker, several pozzolanic by-products of

industrial processes are gaining acceptance as admixtures to concrete products. (American

Concrete Institute, 2000).

2.3.2 Chemical principles of the pozzolanic reactions

Pozzolanic reactions take place when significant quantities of reactive CaO, Al2O3and SiO2are

mixed in presence of water (Seco. et al, 2012). Usually CaO is added as lime or cement

meanwhile Al2O3 and SiO2 can be present in the material to develop cementation gels to be

added as cement or, for example, with a pozzolan. In this process the hydration of the CaO


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liberates OH- ions, which causes an increase pH values up to approximate 12.4 (Seco. et al,

2012) Under these conditions pozzolanic reactions occur: the Si and Al combine with the

available Ca, resulting in cementitious compounds called Calcium Silicate Hydrates (CSH) and

Calcium Aluminate Hydrates (Dermatas and Meng, 2003; Nalbantoglu, 2004; Guney et al.,

2007; Yong and Ouhadi, 2007; Chen and Lin, 2009). These compounds are responsible for

improving the mechanical properties of the mix, due to the increasing development of pozzolanic

reactions over time, which some authors indicated this may take place over years (Wild et al.,

1998).

2.3.3 Categories of Pozzolans

Pozzolans fall into two categories, either natural or artificial, depending on their provenance.

Natural Pozzolans are either raw or calcined natural materials such as volcanic ash, opaline chert,

tuff, some shale and some diatomaceous earth that have pozzolanic properties (American

Concrete Institute 2000). The amount of amorphous or unstructured material often determines

the reactivity of the natural pozzolans.

There are three categories of natural pozzolans:

1. Volcanic ash, called tuff when indurated, in which the amorphous constituent is a glass

produced by rapid cooling of magma

2. Those derived from rocks or earth in which the silica is mainly opal, and diatomaceous earth

3. Some clays and shales. Volcanic glass has a disordered structure because of the relatively

quick cooling time and tends to have a porous texture created by escaping gases(Hoffman, 2006).

Hydrothermally altered volcanic glass can become zeolitic, and when finely ground, zeolitic tuffs

become reactive with lime. Deposits of trachyte tuff from a volcanic eruption near the town of

Pozzuoli (Italy) are the source of the term Pozzolans (Hoffman, 2006). Romans used this material


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with lime to form cement for many of their large building projects. Today, volcanic tuffs and

pumicite are still used as Pozzolans throughout the world and are often referred to as Pozzolans

in the literature. Although clay and shale occur naturally, calcinating them enhances their

pozzolanic characteristics. Calcining is necessary to destroy existing crystal structure and to form

an amorphous or disordered alumino-silicate structure. An example is metakaolin which is

derived from high-purity kaolin that undergoes low-temperature calcination and grinding to a

fine particle size. It is a highly reactive product having excellent pozzolanic properties (Hoffman,

2006). Hoffman, 2006 also noted that it is not all clays and shales, however, are suitable as

Pozzolans, even when calcined.

2.3.4 Artificial Pozzolans

Artificial Pozzolans used today are mostly by-products. Silica fume is a by-product of the

reduction of high purity quartz with coal in electric arc furnaces in the production of ferrosilicon

alloys and silicon metal (Hoffman, 2006). The silicon dioxide (SiO2) that vaporizes during this

process condenses to very fine (0.1-m diameter) non-crystalline spheres (Malhotra and Mehta

1996). Use of these pozzolanic spheres in blended cement or as a mineral admixture produces a

high-strength concrete. Rice hull (or husk) ash, when burned in the production of electricity or

milling, produces a high-silica ash. This ash has potential as a pozzolanic admixture in concrete

(Malhotra and Mehta 1996).

2.3.4.1 Silica Fume

Silica fume is a by-product of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys by reduction of high-

purity quartz with coal or coke and wood chips in an electric arc furnace. The silica fume is

condensed from gases escaping from the furnace. During the production of silicon metals and

alloys, baghouse filters collect the silica fume from the furnace gases. The gas has a very high


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content of amorphous SiO2 (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). Depending on the process, silica fume is

94%98% SiO2 from silicon production and 85%90% SiO2 from ferrosilicon production

(Harben 2002). Silica fume is a very fine, gray powder consisting of glassy spherical particles in

the size range of 0.10.2m with surface areas of 2023 m2/g. As a comparison, fly ash is

typically less than 45m in diameter (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). The chemical composition,

size, and surface area of these particles create a very reactive pozzolanic material. The limited

availability of silica fume increases the cost of the finished concrete when added to Portland

cement, limiting its use to projects where cost is not a primary consideration and the improved

performance of silica fume, such as high compressive strength and increased resistance to sulfate

attack, are required in the concrete application (Hoffman, 2006).

2.3.4.2 Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

The iron-making process creates slag during a high-temperature reaction with carbon-reducing

agents and fluxes. The impurities of the iron oxide ores and fluxing agents combine to form a

liquid silicate melt, called slag, which floats on top of the liquid crude iron. The slag is removed

or tapped from the blast furnaces separately. There are several methods of cooling the slag, but

quickly quenching the slag in water creates sand-sized particles of glass, granulated blast furnace

slag, and grinding of this granulated slag increases the surface area and the reactivity of the

Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag product (King 2000).

2.3.4.3 Fly Ash

Fly ash is the major coal combustion by-product of electrical generation from coal-burning

power plants. The amount of coal combustion by-product produced at each power plant varies,

depending on the type of burners and precipitators, and the percentage of ash in the coal source.

The ratio of fly ash to bottom ash produced by coal combustion depends on the type of burner


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and the type of boiler. Electrical or mechanical precipitators collect fly ash from the flue-gas

stream coming from the combustion chamber (Hoffman, 2006). The composition of fly ash is

dependent on the composition of the coal feed and the efficiency of the combustion process.

Most fly ash particles are spherical and glassy, and possess pozzolanic properties with particle

size less than 45m in size(Malhotra and Mehta 1996).

2.3.4.4 Rice Hull Ash

Rice is a primary staple crop in the world, and rice milling produces more than 100 MT of hulls

annually (King 2000). The common practice of burning rice hulls in the field creates a pollution

problem. The combustion of hulls to produce energy or burning hulls to complete the milling

process creates ash. Collecting and grinding this ash creates a product similar to silica fume. Rice

hull ash has the greatest potential in major rice-producing countries such as China and India. The

market for rice hull ash has not developed in the United States to the point of having specific

marketers of the product.

2.3.5 Advantages of Pozzolans

Mineral admixtures have many advantages in Portland cement applications where they can

improve the properties of concrete. Their pozzolanic nature adds a component by replacing part

of the Portland cement in concrete, in general reducing cost. The characteristics of concrete

influenced by adding Pozzolans are discussed in the following paragraphs.

1. The very fine particle size of many of the mineral admixtures can be advantageous when the

aggregate is deficient in sand-sized material (Lohtia and Jodhi 1995). The admixtures act as filler

and are part of the cement paste, reducing the total surface area to be coated with cementitious

material. Adding fine (120m), spherical particles such as fly ash can also refine the pore


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structure in the concrete, which reduces the amount of water needed to produce a concrete of

certain consistency.

2. Workability is the homogeneity and ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported,

compacted, and finished (Ramachandran and Feldman 1995). The spherical shape of the fly ash,

in particular, acts like ball bearings and increases workability of the concrete, decreasing the

need for aggregate fines. Calcined shale and clay also improve the workability of a concrete

pour; silica fume, however, actually decreases workability because of its highly reactive nature.

3. Strength and durability of concrete are improved by the fine grained nature of mineral

admixtures, which decreases the porosity of the concrete (Lohtia and Joshi 1995).

4. Formation of cementitious compounds by pozzolanic reaction causes pore refinement and

reduces micro-cracking in the transition zone between the cement paste and aggregate. This

significantly improves the strength and durability of the concrete.

5. Because of retarded heat of hydration, adding fly ash, or natural pozzolans to concrete lowers

the early strength. Strength increases over time and eventually meets, and can exceed the

strength of concrete made with Portland cement alone (Lohtia and Joshi 1995). Silica fume is

highly reactive, and concrete made with silica fume attains high compressive strength in the

same time as Portland cement concrete and exceeds the norm in 3 days (Lohtia and Joshi 1995).

2.4 RECYCLED GLASS POWDER

Recently, Glasses and its powder has been used as a construction material to reduce

environmental problems. The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction

in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their ASR tendency, an effect similar to

supplementary cementations materials. Therefore, glass is used as a replacement of

supplementary cementitious materials (Federio and Chidiac, 2001).


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Table 2.1 Chemical Composition of glass powder

Source: Vijayakumar, et. al, 2013

S/No. Content % by mass

1 SiO2 67.33

2 Al2O3 2.62

3 Fe2O3 1.42

4 TiO2 0.157

5 CaO 12.45

6 MgO 2.738

7 Na2O 12.05

8 K2O 0.638

9 ZrO2 0.019

10 ZnO 0.008

11 SrO 0.016

12 P2O5 0.051

13 NiO 0.014

14 CuO 0.009

15 Cr2O3 0.022

Today, global warming and environmental devastation have become manifest harms in recent

years and concern about environmental issues is now viewed as significant (Rekha, 2014).

Normally glass does not harm the environment in any way because it does not give off

pollutants, but it can harm humans as well as animals, if not dealt with carefully and it is less

friendly to environment because it is non-biodegradable(Rekha, 2014). Thus, the development of

new technologies has been required. The term glass contains several chemical diversities


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including soda-lime silicate glass, alkali-silicate glass and boro-silicate glass. To date, the

powder of these types of glasses have been widely used in cement and aggregate mixture as

pozzolans for civil works. The introduction of waste glass in cement will increase the alkali

content in the cement the effect of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) appear to be reduced with finer

glass particles (Seung, et.al 2004). It also help in bricks and ceramic manufacture and it

preserves raw materials, decreases energy consumption and volume of waste sent to landfill. As

useful recycled materials, glasses and glass powder are mainly used in fields related to civil

engineering. For example, in cement, as Pozzolans (supplementary cementitious materials), and

coarse aggregate. Their recycling ratio is close to 100%, and it is also used in concrete without

adverse effects in concrete durability (Deshmukh, 2012).


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CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 MATERIALS

3.1.1 Cement

Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 42.5R) brand manufactured by Dangote plc was used in the

experiment. Generally, care was taken in both material procurement and experimental procedure

to ensure test reliability. The typical chemical composition of the cement is given in Table (3.1).

Table 3:1 Typical Chemical Composition of Grade 42.5R Cement

Source: ASTM C-150 2014

COMPOUND COMPOSITION ABBREVATION % By Weight WEIGHT

Calcium Oxide CaO 65.60

Iron III Oxide Fe2O3 3.30

Silicon II Oxide SiO2 21.00

Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 5.30

Magnesium Oxide MgO 1.10

Potassium Oxide K2O 0.71

Loss on ignition (%), LOI 0.90

Insoluble residue (%), IR 4.7

Specific surface area (m /kg) SSA 358

Setting Time (sec) 105

Lime saturation factor LSF 86.3

Silica ratio SR 2.70

Tricalcium Aluminate C3A 8.05

Free Lime F/CaO 0.95


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3.1.2 Glass Powder

Broken Louvre glasses were gotten from a local construction site in Ibadan and were grinded at

Bodija market in Ibadan. The grinded glass powder was passed through the 150 microns sieve

for effective pozzolanic effect. The typical chemical composition of the glass powder is given in

Table (3.2).

Table 3.2: Typical Chemical Composition of glass powder

Source: Vijayakumar et. al, 2013

S/No. Content % by mass

1 SiO2 67.33

2 Al2O3 2.62

3 Fe2O3 1.42

4 TiO2 0.157

5 CaO 12.45

6 MgO 2.738

7 Na2O 12.05

8 K2O 0.638

9 ZrO2 0.019

10 ZnO 0.008

11 SrO 0.016

12 P2O5 0.051

13 NiO 0.014

14 CuO 0.009

15 Cr2O3 0.022


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Plate 3.1: Glass Powder during Sieving

3.1.3 Fine aggregate (Sand)

The fine aggregate was naturally occurring clean sand obtained from a local construction site in

Ibadan. The fine aggregate was supplied to the Materials laboratory of Segun Labiran and

Associates, Ibadan, Nigeria for experimental purposes. Sieve Analyses were conducted in

accordance BS EN 1097-8:2000.

Plate 3.2: Fine aggregate (sand)


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3.1.4 Coarse aggregate (Gravel)

The coarse aggregates were continuously graded irregular shaped gravel of 20 mm maximum

size. They were obtained from a local construction site in Ibadan. Sieve Analyses were

conducted in accordance to BS EN 1097-8:2000

Plate3.3: Coarse Aggregate (Gravel)

3.1.5 Water

Potable water obtained from a local bore-hole at the Segun Labiran and Associate Materials

Laboratory was used in mixing the concrete.

3.1.6 Crude Oil

The Crude Oil was obtained from Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company. A chemical

analysis of the crude oil was carried out by the WRPC laboratory and its properties rated using

the American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity scale degree which is widely used in expressing

quality of crude oil and this is shown in Table 3.2. Matti (1976) had established that the main

properties of the crude oil do not change significantly after contact with hardened concrete.


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Table 3.3: Chemical Properties of the Crude Oil Used in the Investigation

Source: WRPC, 2014

Parameters Magnitude

Gravity Degree, API 33.7

Specific Gravity 0.86

Sulfur, wt % 0.16

Nitrogen, ppm 1190

Pour Point F 26.6

Pour Point C -3

Acid Number, mg KOH/g 0.52

Back-Blended acid, mg KOH/g 0.48

Viscosity @ 40 C, cSt 4.19

Viscosity @ 40 C, cSt 3.32

Asphaltenes, C7, % 0.03

Nickel, ppm 4.55

Vanadium, ppm 0.51

Characterization Factor, K 11.74


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3.2 METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 Sample Preparation

The aggregate samples, fine and coarse were spread out on concrete floor to dry out, so as to

obtain a saturated surface dry condition to ensure that water-cement ratio is not affected (BS EN

933-3:1997). After air drying, the fine aggregate was passed through a sieve to remove the lumps

in the fine aggregate.

3.2.2 Concrete Specimens

The cube sizes of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm were used to conduct the compressive strength

test. The specimens were differentiated with respect to percentage of the added recycled glass

powder content by weight of cement (0%, 10% and 20%). Specimens without glass powder were

used as the control specimens.

3.2.3 Concrete Mixtures

A mix design is used for the appropriate concrete mixture determination. It is the process of

selecting suitable components of concrete and determining their relative quantities for producing

concrete of certain minimum properties such as strength, durability consistency etc. as

economically as possible. Compressive strength is, in general, related to durability. The greater

the strength the more durable the concrete. To satisfy the required compressive strength, a value

for water/cement (w/c) ratio is estimated for an appropriate test age (generally 28 days) and

cement type. Tables in the BRE mix design handbook are consulted relating aggregate: cement

content, workability and water: cement (w/c) ratio for the different aggregate particle shapes and

maximum size. A desired level of workability is chosen. The ratio of sand to coarse aggregate is

chosen to produce a satisfactory concrete.


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3.2.4 BRE Method of Concrete Mix Design

fm= fk+ (K * S)

fm= Target mean strength

fk= Characteristic strength

K = Statistical coefficient known as tolerance factor, using K = 1.6

S = Standard deviation, using S = 8 N/mm2

Cement TypeOrdinary Portland cement

Aggregate Type: Coarse - crushed

Finecrushed

Targeted characteristic strength = 40 N/mm2

Targeted mean strength fm= fk+ 1.6 (8)

Using a standard deviation of 8 at 5% defective

fm= 40+12.8

= 52.8N/mm2

Slump = 30 - 60mm

Free water content (for 20mm aggregate) = 210Kg/m3

Free water/cement ratio = 0.46

Cement Content = 210/0.46

= 456.52 Kg/m3

Saturated surface dried relative density = 2.6

Concrete density = 2400 Kg/m3

Aggregate Content = Concrete densityCement ContentFree water content

= 2400456.52210


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= 1733.48 Kg/m3

Proportion of fine aggregate = 30%

Fine aggregate content = 1733.48 X 0.3 = 520 Kg/m3

Coarse aggregate content = 1733.48520 = 1213.48Kg/m3

Mix ratio (per m3) = 456.52: 520: 1213.48

= 1: 1.14: 2.66

3.2.5 Mould preparation

The moulds used for the casting of the concrete cubes were made of soft wood with internal

dimensions of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm (plate 3.4). Firstly, the moulds were inspected to

ensure that they were clean and in general good order. The alignment as well as the precision of

the faces were also checked. The internal surfaces of the mould were coated with a thin layer of

oil. In order to prevent the development of bond between the mould and concrete so as to ensure

easy de-moulding.

3.2.6 Casting of Concrete Specimens

The objective of mixing the ingredients (casting) was to ensure that each particle of aggregates in

fresh concrete will be coated with the cement paste. In order to achieve uniform consistency

throughout the process a potable mechanical mixing machine was used for the mixing.

The fine and coarse aggregates were generally dried to laboratory room temperature before use;

this was done to bring the aggregates to a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition (BS EN 933-

3:1997) prior to mixing. Batching was by weight to the nearest 1gm. Mixing was done in a 1m3

mechanical mixer and the slump was taken immediately after mixing.


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3.2.7 Mixing Equipment

The equipment used in mixing of the concrete was:

Portable mixing machine

Weighing balance

Head pans

Hand trowel

Shovels

Slump cone

Steel tamping rod (with straight, end rounded, 16mm and 600mm length)

3.2.8 Procedure

1. The materials were weighed out in accordance to the mix proportion for each batch of

concrete.

2. The concrete making materials were poured into the portable mechanical mixer and mixed

thoroughly to form a homogeneous material

3. The oiled cube moulds were placed on a level, rigid, horizontal surface, free from vibration

and other disturbances, and near as practicable to storage location.

4. After mixing, the concrete was placed in the slump cone and the slumps of each batches was

measured in turn.

5. After taking the slump, the concrete was placed in the moulds with a hand trowel and even

distribution of the concrete was ensured.

6. The concrete was filled one-third of the cube mould. This was followed by compaction of the

layers 25 times using the tamping rod.


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7. More concrete mixture was added to the two-third mark of the mould. Then rodding 25 times

was repeated. Rodding was done just barely into previous layer.

8. The moulds were then filled up with the concrete mixture with some excess concrete coming

out, then rodding 25 times was repeated.

9. Excess concrete mixture was removed and the surface of it is properly leveled with a hand

trowel.

10. The concrete was then left undisturbed for 24hrs before de-moulding.

Plate 3.4: Wooden Mould (dimension: 150 x 150 x 150 mm)


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Plate 3.5: Mixing machine during mixing

3.2.9 Method of Curing

The objective of curing is to maintain proper moisture and temperature to ensure continuous

hydration (Somayaji, 2001). After de-moulding, the specimens were cured in water and crude oil

respectively in different curing tank (Plate 3.12 and 3.13) before testing for compressive

strength. The compressive strengths of concretes were determined at ages 7, 14 and 28 days

according to BS EN 12390-2:2000. Plate 3.8 shows the compression machine used to conduct

this study.


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Plate 3.6: Curing of concrete cubes in water

Plate 3.7: Curing of concrete cubes in Crude Oil

3.2.10 Concrete Compression Test

The compression test was conducted using the compression machine (Plate 3.8) at the materials

laboratory of Segun-Labiran & Associates as specified in the test method (BS EN 12390-

2:2000). The concrete cubes to be tested were first removed from the curing tanks, five (5) cubes

per batch for both curing media at 7, 14 and 28 days and allowed to drain off moisture from the

surfaces for some minutes. The concrete cubes were then put in the compression machine, and


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then an increasing compressive load was applied to the specimen until failure occurred to obtain

the maximum compression load (Plate 3.9).

Plate 3.8: Compression Machine


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Plate 3.9: Failure of Concrete Cube in a Compression Machine

Plate 3.10: Slump Test


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3.2.11 Modified Chapelles Test

The chapelles test is one of the physical methods employed in determining the pozzolanic

activity of material. The test is defined based on the amount of Calcium oxide (or calcium

hydroxide) consumed by a specific amount of the pozzolan.

PROCEDURE

One (1) gram of glass powder was added to a clean and dry conical flask. Two (2) grams of

Calcium oxide was added to the flask. 250ml of distilled water was added to the flask and the

mixture was heated and kept in a water bath at a temperature of 855C for 16 hours with

continuous stirring.

A control mixture was prepared without the glass powder and subjected to the same

environment. The mixtures was cooled down to room temperature.

60g of sugar was dissolved in 250ml of distilled water and this solution was added to the mixture

in the conical flask and stirred for 15 minutes.

The mixture was filtered and about 25ml of the solution was taken with a calibrated pipette. The

sample taken was then titrated with 0.1M HCL solution using 2 drops of Phenolphthalein as

indicator.


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Plate 3.11: Set up of Modified Chapelles Test Experiment

3.2.11.1Modified Chapelles Test Calculations

Let V1 be the volume of the HCL necessary for the 25ml of solution obtained from the control

Let V2 be the volume of the HCL necessary for the 25ml of solution obtained from the solution

The titration reaction equation is given as

CaO + 2HCl CaCl2+ H2O

Ca(OH)2+ 2HCl CaCl2+ H2O

The amount of CaO fixed =

The result is expressed in mg Ca(OH)2 consumed by the glass powder. The result is checked

against the minimum value of 660mg per 1g of pozzolanic material for it to be regarded as a

pozzolan.


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Plate 3.12: Titration of the mixture against 0.1M of HCl


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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 RESULTS

In the previous chapter, the experiments performed were briefly explained. In this chapter, the

results of those experiments are presented; and findings from the analyses of the results are

presented, followed by discussions on the results. The experiments carried out were slump and

compressive strength tests. Presented in the following sections are results of the slump test as

well as the compressive strength test of the concrete cubes.

4.1.1 Modified Chappelles Test

The results for the test for Pozzolanic activity of glass powder samples of particle size 150m

and 300 m are shown against the amount of Ca(OH)2taken by 1g of glass powder in Table 4.1

Table 4.1: Modified Chappelles TestResult

Sieve size m Average titre value Amount in mg of CaO consumed by 1g of glass

150 4.03 1203.99

300 4.43 1090.98

4.1.2 Slump Test

Table 4.1 below shows the values obtained for the slump test performed on the fresh concrete

with 0%, 10% and 20% addition of glass powder.

Table 4.2: Slump Test Results

% of glass powder Slump test result

0 % 30mm

10 % 26mm

20 % 17mm


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4.1.3 Compressive Strength Test

The compressive strength test was carried out in the materials laboratory of Segun-Labiran &

Associates, Ibadan and the results are summarized as shown below, See appendices for full

details of the compressive strength results.

Table 4.3: Compressive Test Results

Concrete

AgeCompressive Strength (N/mm )

0% Water 0% Oil 10%

Water

10% Oil 20%

Water

20% Oil

Day 7 23.11 14.96 22.96 21.48 18.81 18.52

Day 14 26.81 17.78 23.26 22.37 21.19 20.89

Day 28 31.41 20.44 25.33 25.33 22.52 22.81

Figure 4.1a: Compressive Test Results

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0% Water 0% Oil 10% Water 10% Oil 20% Water 20% Oil

ValueinN/mm2

Percentage replacement and curing media

Compressive Strength Result

Day 7

Day 14

Day 28


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Figure 4.1b: Compressive Test Results

4.2 DISCUSSION

4.2.1 Modified Chappelles Test

This test was performed to confirm the Pozzolanic activities in glass powder before an attempt

was made to use it to improve the compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil in the

experiment. . According to the French standard (NF P 18-513 Annexe A, 2010), the minimum

amount of Ca(OH)2to be fixed by the glass powder for it to be considered a pozollan is 660mg/g

and the result gave values of 1203.99 and 1090.98mg for 150m and 300m respectively

showing that glass powder is pozzolanic.

From the test result, it can be seen that the average titre value gotten from glass powder with

particle size 300m is higher than that of 150m particle size, this shows that the rate of reaction

is affected by the particle size. According to the law of chemical kinetics, the rate or chemical

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

0% Water 0% Oil 10% Water 10% Oil 20% Water 20% Oil

Compressive Test Results

Day 7 Day 14 Day 28


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reaction increases with increase in surface area i.e. the finer the particle, the faster the rate of

chemical reaction.

4.2.2 Slump Test

The result of the slump test showed that all the concrete samples gave slump values within the

range specified for the mix design (30-60mm). However, the test result shows that the

workability of the concrete mix decreases with increase in the percentage of glass powder in the

mix, this was due to the fact that the unit weight of cement is more that the unit weight of glass

powder. This means that there is an increase in the volume of cementitious material in the mix

and since the water/cementitious materials ratio is kept constant for all the mixes, there is a

decrease in the workability evident in the lower slump value.

4.2.2 Compressive Strength Test

The results of the compressive strength test carried out on the cubes cured in water are presented

in table 4.3. For the control experiment (i.e. 0%), 10% and 20% replacement of cement with

glass powder. As expected, the result of the compressive strength of the cubes irrespective of the

percentage replacement of cement with glass powder increased with curing age as noted in in

Table 4.3. The test results demonstrates that the compressive strength of reference concrete is

increased as the time of continuous curing in water increase, this is due to continuous hydration

of cement paste, which increases the bond between cement paste and aggregate (Shetty 2000)

and (Neville 2010).

An average compressive strength of 31.5N/mm2was recorded for the 28 day crushing of the 0%

control experiment in water. It is important to note that the characteristic compressive strength of

40N/mm2 was not achieved, this could have resulted from the quality control on site, not


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perfectly smooth and inconsistent material for form work which might have affected the proper

consolidation of the concrete thereby affecting its compressive strength. However, these factors

pose the same effect on all the batches of concrete and as such; a basis for comparison is still

maintained.

From the test result, it was observed that the compressive strength of the pure concrete (0%

glasss powder) cured in crude oil has a reduction of about 35% in strength when compared to the

concrete (0% glass powder) cure in water. The decrease in strength may be attribute to the

absorption of crude oil into the microstructure of the matrix of concrete which may have caused

dilation of the gel and weakening of the cohesive forces in the paste thus, resulting to a low

strength development (Ejeh and Uche, 2009). Also, the decreased in compressive strength of

concrete cured in crude oil may be attributed to the weakening in the bond strength between

cement paste and aggregate and concrete matrix during curing process. (AL-Saraj 1998) and

(Francis et al., 2010).

From test results it can be seen that the compressive strength of the cubes cured in oil with the

addition of glass powder is increase when compared with the concrete without glass powder also

cure in crude oil. The glass powder when added enable the concrete to react with Ca(OH)2 to

form additional calcium silicate hydrate which increases the density , fill the pores properly,

refine the pore structure and the permeability which leads to the better durability (Folagbade et

al.,2012). As the percentage of replacement of cement with glass powder increases strength also

increases up to 10% and it decreased at 20%. The percentage increase in the compressive

strength was about 30% at 10% replacement with glass powder. The increase in strength by the

addition of glass powder is due to the pozzolanic reaction of glass powder in the concrete due to


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high silica content. Also, the glass powder effectively fills the voids and gives a dense concrete,

early curing strength was slow due to pore filling effect. (Nathan, 2008)


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CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

The project monitored the pozzolanic effect of glass powder on the strength development of

concrete cured in crude oil and water. Based on the tests carried out, observations, analysis and

discussions on the pozzolanic effect of glass powder, the following conclusions are made:

1. There is an increase in the strength of concrete cured in crude oil when glass powder is

added to the concrete mix.

2.

The 28

day compressive strength of concrete cured in crude Oil reduced by 35% when

compared to concrete cured in water

3. The deteriorating effect of the crude oil curing medium on the compressive strength of

concrete was reduced to 19% when 10% of the cement is replaced by glass powder as

against the 35% reduction in compressive strength when glass powder was not added.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

With the analysis provided in this project, the following recommendations are hereby made for

future work.

1. The experiment should also be carried out with the use of plasticizer for further

improvement in the compressive strength.

2. Curing should be done for a longer duration to study the long term effect of the crude and

glass powder on the concrete samples.

3. Durability test should be conducted to verify the permeability of the concrete cured in

crude oil.


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Arum, C., and Udoh, I. (2005). Effect of dust inclusion in aggregate on the compressive strength

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ASTM C150: Standard Specification for Portland Cement. 49 CFR 571.108.

BS EN 933-3:2012 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates. Determination of particle

shape. Flakiness index

BS EN 1097-8:2000 Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates.

Determination of the polished stone value

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for strength tests

Chen, L., Lin, D-F., Stabilization treatment of soft subgrade soil by sewage sludge ash and

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Deshmukh P. S and Deshmukh R. Y. (2012), Comparative Study of Waste Glass Powder

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Ejeh, S.P and Uche, O.A.U (2009). Effect of Crude Oil Spill on Compressive Strength of

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Federio.L.M and Chidiac S.E, (2001) Waste glass as a supplementary cementitious material in

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Folagbade et al. (2012). Effect of Fly ash and Silica fumes on the sorptivity of concrete,

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Francis, R.A, Mattioli, A. and Smith, S. (2010) "Relining of Potable Water Tanks for

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Hoffman, G.K., 2006, Pozzolans and Supplementary Cementitious Materials:

Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, CO, p. 1161-1172

Jonnesari, H. and A. Mosharaf, 2005. The Bond Between Repair materials and Concrete

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR AGGREGATES

SIEVE ANALAYSIS FOR FINE AGGREGATES

SIEVE

SIZE

MASS

Of

SIEV

E

(gram

s)

MASS

OF

SIEVE

+

SAMPL

E

(grams)

MASS OF

SAMPLE

RETAINE

D (grams)

PERCENTA

GE

RETAINED

CUMMULATI

VE MASS

RETAINED

(grams)

PERCENTA

GE FINER

6.3mm 412 412 0 0 0 100

4.75m

m

390 390 0 0 0 100

2.36mm 350 352 2 0.4 0.4 99.6

1.18mm

362 398 36 7.2 7.6 92.4

600m 356 459 103 20.6 28.2 71.8

300m 332 490 158 31.6 59.8 40.2

150m 340 486 146 29.2 89 11

75m 348 390 42 8.4 97.4 2.6

Receiv

er

314 326 12 2.4 99.8 0.2

TOTAL 499 99.8


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SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES

SIEVE

SIZE

MAS

S OS

SIEV

E(gram

s)

MASS

OF

SIEVE +

SAMPLE

(grams)

MASS OF

SAMPLE

RETAINED

(grams)

PERCENTA

GE

RETAINED

CUMMULATI

VE MASS

RETAINED

(grams)

PERCENTA

GE FINER

25mm 390 390 0 0 0 100

20mm 388 590 202 10.1 10.1 89.9

12.5m

m

414 1470 1056 52.8 62.9 37.1

10mm 396 646 250 12.5 75.4 24.6

6.3mm 412 754 342 17.1 92.5 7.5

Receiv

er

314 464 150 7.5 100 0

2000 100


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APPENDIX B: MODIFIED CHAPPELLES TEST RESULT

SIEVE SIZE TITRE VALUES AVERAGE TITRE

VALUE

4.5

300m 4.4 4.43

4.4

4.0

150m 4.1 4.03

4.1


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APPENDIX C - COMPRESSIVE TEST RAW DATA

RAW DATA

Day 7 LOAD

0% Glass powder 10% Glass

Powder

20% Glass

Powder

Water Crude Water Crude Water Crude

520.00 330.00 500.00 490.00 400.00 320.00

460.00 320.00 600.00 400.00 320.00 390.00

500.00 200.00 520.00 460.00 450.00 440.00

540.00 260.00 560.00 530.00 380.00 450.00

540.00 360.00 530.00 500.00 420.00 420.00

Day 14

0% Glass powder 10% Glass

Powder

20% Glass

Powder


620.00 400.00 520.00 500.00 580.00 460.00

630.00 450.00 400.00 300.00 500.00 520.00

600.00 420.00 500.00 490.00 470.00 480.00

560.00 380.00 570.00 520.00 430.00 410.00590.00 380.00 550.00 380.00 460.00 470.00

Day 28

0% Glass powder 10% GlassPowder

20% GlassPowder


710.00 480.00 560.00 570.00 500.00 510.00750.00 500.00 570.00 510.00 480.00 550.00

680.00 460.00 580.00 560.00 500.00 510.00

650.00 430.00 410.00 555.00 520.00

730 00 440 00 500 00 580 00 520 00 430 00

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