Abidi itAgrobiodiversityand EtE cosystem SiS ervices · Biodiversity in agroecosystems • Ai lt...

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A bi di it dE t S i Agrobiodiversity andEcosys t em Services Reevaluating the benefits of agricultural landscapes Charles Perrings ecoSERVICES Group, Arizona State University The Seventh Nekudat Hen Seminar 3 November 2009

Transcript of Abidi itAgrobiodiversityand EtE cosystem SiS ervices · Biodiversity in agroecosystems • Ai lt...

Page 1: Abidi itAgrobiodiversityand EtE cosystem SiS ervices · Biodiversity in agroecosystems • Ai lt lAgricultural bi di itbiodiversity (agrobi di itbiodiversity) – the variety and

A bi di it d E t S iAgrobiodiversity and Ecosystem ServicesRe‐evaluating the benefits of agricultural landscapes

Charles Perrings

ecoSERVICES Group, Arizona State University

The Seventh Nekudat Hen Seminar3 November 2009

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Biodiversity in agroecosystemsBiodiversity in agroecosystems

A i lt l bi di it ( bi di it )• Agricultural biodiversity (agrobiodiversity)– the variety and variability of plants, animals and micro‐organisms that 

are useful in managed ecosystems, and h l i l l f hi h h i l di i– the ecological complexes of which they are part, including genetic, species, population, ecosystem and landscape interactions  (McNeely & Scherr 2003)

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Declining agrobiodiversityDeclining agrobiodiversity

7 000 l t i h b d• 7,000 plant species have been used as food (Hammer et al. 2003), but just 15 crops now provide 90% of the15 crops now provide 90% of the world's food energy intake

• Traditional medicines from natural sources provide health care for 80% of the world’s population (WHO 2003)

• 28% of livestock breeds (3237 breeds at present) have become rare or 

i i h l 100 (Ti d llextinct in the last 100 years (Tisdell2003)

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Threatened species (IUCN)Threatened species (IUCN)

1% f ll i• <1% of all species are globally threatened, but 24% of mammal and 12% of bird species are threatened

• Agriculture affects 92% of mammal 70% of bird andmammal, 70% of bird and 49% of plant threatened species (Dirzo & Raven 2003)2003)

mammal bird reptile amphibian fish

insect mollusc crustacean other

moss gymno dicot monocot

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Biodiversity and functioning of ecosystemsBiodiversity and functioning of ecosystems

• Higher plant diversity increases productivity of grasslands• Higher plant diversity increases productivity of grasslands (Tilman et al. 2002, Loreau et al. 2004)– Functional complementarity: different species function in different waysFunctional complementarity: different species function in different ways

– Spatial heterogeneity: favors coexistence of different species

– Redundancy: number of species is less important for ecosystem services than the presence of  functional groups

• Resilience: persisting and adapting to change• Resilience: persisting and adapting to change– Adaptive capacity: options for

reorganization followingchange that reduce vulnerability

– Insurance value: risk mitigationespecially at the landscape scaleespecially at the landscape scale

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Habitat complexity can enhance biodiversity and ecological functioning• Moderately disturbed agricultural habitats support more 

speciesIntermediate disturbance hypothesis (Connell 1978)– Intermediate disturbance hypothesis (Connell 1978)

• Crop mixtures decrease arthropod herbivoresCrop mixtures decrease arthropod herbivores– Natural enemies and resource concentration hypotheses (Root 1973)

• Soil biodiversity and activity may reduce disease– General and specific suppression hypotheses (Cook & Baker 1983)

• More heterogeneity within and between vegetation fragments i fl d bi di itincreases gene flow and biodiversity – Metapopulation theory (Soulé 1987)

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Landscape level agrobiodiversityLandscape level agrobiodiversity

HomeTraditional

extensive

Shifting

high

HomeGarden

Compound Farm

ShiftingCultivation

Nomadic Rotational Inter-Pastoralism Fallow

Compound A ib i

cropping

Plantations, O h d

Species Diversity

Agribusiness

IntensiveCereal

P d ti

Orchards

intensive

Production

Multiple Singlelow Field System

p gMcNeely and Scherr 2003

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Landscape Configuration and Ecosystem Services

“Land sparing” agriculture:coarse grain, abrupt change

“Wildlife‐friendly” agriculture:fine grain, spatial continuity

Tradeoff model Synergy model

(Slide due to A. Power, from Fischer et al. 2008)

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From ecological functioning to ecosystem services

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Synthesis Island pressand Human Well‐Being: Synthesis. Island press, Washington D.C.

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Ecosystem Services statusRegulating Services

Provisioning services

Ecosystem Services status Air quality regulation

Climate regulation – global

Climate regulation – regional andg

Food crops

livestock

Climate regulation – regional and local

Water regulation +/–Erosion regulation

capture fisheries

aquaculture

Erosion regulation

Water purification and waste treatment

Disease regulation +/q

wild foods

Fiber  timber +/–

Disease regulation +/–Pest regulation

Pollination

cotton, silk +/–wood fuel

Genetic resources

Natural hazard regulation

Cultural Services

Genetic resources

Biochemicals, medicines

Fresh water

Spiritual and religious values

Aesthetic values

Recreation and ecotourism +/–

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well‐Being: Synthesis. Island press, Washington D.C. 

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Ecosystem services in agroecosystemsEcosystem services in agroecosystemsPriced in Affects 

Supporting services Provisioning

the marketmean output

Supporting services‐Nutrient recycling

‐Photosynthesis‐Pollination

Provisioning services‐Foods, fuels, fibers‐Water yields

Regulating services‐Soil erosion control

‐Genetic material

Cultural services‐Recreation

AgroecosystemsSoil erosion control

‐Pest control‐Hydrological control‐Pollution buffering

Mi li i l

Recreation‐Spiritual renewal‐Aesthetic pleasure‐Sense of placeS i ifi i f i‐Microclimatic control ‐Scientific information

Not priced in the

Affects the variance of in the 

marketvariance of output

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Biodiversity, ecological functioning and ecosystem services

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Agrobiodiversity and ecosystem services: the economic problem

• Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.

• Since the value of any asset is the discounted stream of benefits it produces the discounted stream of ecosystembenefits it produces, the discounted stream of ecosystem services defines the value of ecosystems.

• In some circumstances (well‐defined property rights, complete markets, perfect information etc) the market pricescomplete markets, perfect information etc) the market prices of ecosystem services will be good measures of their value.

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Agrobiodiversity and ecosystem services: the economic problem

• Many ecosystem services are not priced in the market, or if they are their market prices are not good measures of their valuevalue.

• To understand the social value of agroecosystems we need to• To understand the social value of agroecosystems, we need to understand the value of the ecosystem services they produce.

• This requires identification and valuation of off‐site benefits or costs that lie outside the market……..or costs that lie outside the market…….. 

• …..plus mechanisms to internalize those benefits or costs (to…..plus mechanisms to internalize those benefits or costs (to ensure that farmers are compensated or penalized).

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Spatially distributed  agricultural externalities: the downside

L S l R• La Sepultura Reserve– 167 000 ha; buffer zone another 

150 000 ha 

Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico:Deforestation and erosion

– Tropical forest: deciduous → evergreen cloud forest

– Buffer zone: Heavy extraction of

Deforestation and erosion

Buffer zone: Heavy extraction of forest products

• Agriculture– Slash and burn for maize‐bean‐

squash– Pasture– Rustic coffee

• Landslides and flooding due to deforestation and slash anddeforestation and slash and burn agriculture.

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The ‘dead zone’ in the Gulf of MexicoThe  dead zone  in the Gulf of Mexico

• N and P run‐off cause seasonal oxygen levels to be too low to support life in bottom and near‐bottom waters.bottom waters. 

• Hypoxic conditions results in an overgrowth of algae, which decomposes and sinks to the seafloor where bacteria break it down and release carbon dioxide. 

Th d d h d d• The dead zone reached a record size of nearly 9,000 square miles in 2008

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Origins of the dead zoneOrigins of the dead zone

Watersheds from which nutrient run‐off most affects the dead‐zonedead zone

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…which maps in areas of intensive agriculture

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Solutions to the N pollution problem

• The impacts of nitrate pollution on aquatic systems (esp marine systems) is an externality of agricultureis an externality of agriculture

• May be internalized with a tax on N fertilizer to reflect the external cost of nitrate pollution

M i l

Tax rate equal to the marginal external cost of fertilizer

Costs, benefits of N

Marginal net private

Marginal external costs of N

C*

external cost of fertilizer applications (red line)

Constant unit tax rate equal to the

private benefits

C Constant unit tax rate equal to the marginal external cost of fertilizers at the socially optimal level of fertilizer applications (blue line)

N application

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Spatially distributed  agricultural externalities: the upside

• Positive off‐site externalities from on‐farm land management strategies include a number ofstrategies include a number of cultural services– Provision of habitat for beneficial 

species

– Maintenance of valued landscape

R i d i ( k– Recreation and tourism (markets exist)

– A sense of placep

– Satisfaction of cultural need for association with the land

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Spatially distributed  agricultural externalities: the regulating services

• Many of the most important off‐site externalities relate to the regulatingexternalities relate to the regulating services:– Regulation of water quality and 

quantity

– Regulation of soil erosion

Regulation of pest predation– Regulation of pest predation 

– Regulation of disease transmission

– Reduced vulnerability to invasive yspecies

– Biocorridor provision mitigates risks to metacommunitiesmetacommunities

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Payments to internalize positive off‐site environmental externalities

( )• Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes address the market failures involved where ecosystem services are ‘public goods’ or‘externalities’ of market production.externalities  of market production.

• PES schemes are designed to stimulate transactions in which a an gecosystem service is bought by users from providers.  

• The payments involve a positive incentive to the provider, and are conditional on performance.

• Because of the difficulty in measuring many environmental services directly, payments may be based on either the actions of the y, p y yservice providers or on indirect ecological indicators.

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Current status of PES schemesCurrent status of PES schemes

H d d f PES h b i i l d d h• Hundreds of PES schemes are being implemented around the world covering four main ecosystem services: – water provisioning,water provisioning,– carbon sequestration,– landscape amenity, and

bi di i i– biodiversity conservation.

• Most current PES schemes are local level arrangements and• Most current PES schemes are local level arrangements and involve spontaneous, private markets. 

• Large PES schemes tend to be government driven, working at the state and provincial level (e.g. in Australia, Brazil, China d USA) t ti l l l ( C l bi C t Ri Chiand USA), or at national level (e.g. Colombia, Costa Rica, China 

and Mexico). 

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Payments for ecosystem servicesPayments for ecosystem services

• If l d d t i• If land users do not receive compensation for the production of valuable ecosystem services they willecosystem services, they will not provide them.

PES t lik th• PES systems, like other market mechanisms, induce land managers to incorporate the economic value ofthe economic value of ecosystem services into their financial decisions.

• Their principal attraction is that they enhance efficiency. 

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PES schemes for water provisionPES schemes for water provision

• PES schemes for water provision exist in all countries shaded green.

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PES schemes for agrobiodiversityPES schemes for agrobiodiversity

• Countries implementing schemes for agrobiodiversity are shaded yellow.

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Evaluation of the effectiveness of PES schemes

Arriagada R. and C. Perrings (2009) Making Payments for Ecosystem Services Work, Working Paper, UNEP, Nairobi.

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Agrobiodiversity conservationAgrobiodiversity conservation

• While there are agrobiodiversity PES schemes, and while agrobiodiversity is a recognised target for some payments under the CAP and other major agricultural policiesunder the CAP and other major agricultural policies, agrobiodiversity has a generally low priority.

• In situ conservation of land‐races, wild crop relatives and traditional livestock strains attracts little support.pp

• In situ conservation of associated species attracts even less.In situ conservation of associated species attracts even less.

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Biodiversity conservation priorities by society at present

Hi h P d l/ ildl d• High: Protected natural/wildland areas– Existence value of species threatened by extinction

• Moderate: Agricultural production systems– Direct use value from ecosystem goods and services– Option value for the future, e.g., gene banks

• Low: Agricultural landscapes• Low: Agricultural landscapes– Complex mosaic of ecosystems and biota: how do they interact?– Human‐induced environmental change: Does a biodiverse landscape 

provide resilience and risk mitigation?

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Protected areasProtected areas

11% f ll l d i i d• 11% of all land is in protected areas, e.g. parks and reserves (IUCN 2000)

• Agriculture occurs in 29% of the protected reserves (McNeely and Scherr 2003)

• Agrobiodiversity objectives:– Widen conservation`boundaries’ to include 

forest‐agriculture ecotones as an inclusive landscape unit

– Increase income from off‐site ecosystem service flows from agricultural landscapes

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What should motivate conservation of crop genetic diversity

• Homogenization of production agriculture increases the spatial correlation of riskscorrelation of risks

• In Vavilov megadiversity areas• In Vavilov megadiversity areas farmers are able to manage risk through conservation of crop g pgenetic diversity 

• In genetically depauperate areas risks are highly correlated spatially

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What should motivate conservation of crop agrobiodiversity more generally

• Agrobiodiversity has an important regulatory function – not just for crop production – but for a range ofcrop production – but for a range of off‐site ecosystem service flows.

• Arobiodiversity also supports important cultural services, and p ,these grow as communities become more urbanized

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Optimal conservationOptimal conservation

• There is a simple test for the conditions under which it is optimal to conserve any resource (whether stocks of oil or agrobiodiversity) The test is due to Harold Hotellingagrobiodiversity). The test is due to Harold Hotelling.

• It will be optimal to refrain from converting a resource to• It will be optimal to refrain from converting a resource to some alternative use so long as its in situ social value is rising at least as fast as the return to be had from its conversion.

• This supposes that the resource is valued at its socialThis supposes that the resource is valued at its social opportunity cost, and not its market price – i.e. at its value to society and not its value to the private individual.

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Investing in agroecological assetsInvesting in agroecological assets

I f ll h i h ld i i h• It follows that it should pay to invest in the agroecosystemsthat yield services whose value is rising faster than the return on the land if converted to some alternative use.

• If the value of ecosystem services can be realized through the market it may be sufficient to support establishment of a market.

• If the value of ecosystem services cannot be realized through the market (because the services are, e.g., public goods) itthe market (because the services are, e.g., public goods) it may be necessary to implement a PES scheme funded through taxation.

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The consequence of underinvestment in agroecosystems:  Adjusted Net Savingsin Poor Countriesin Poor Countries

25

10

15

20

gs Rate %

High income countries

0

5

10

ed Net Saving

Heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC)Low income countries

-10

-5

Adjuste

Middle income countries

-15

http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ENVIRONMENT/EXTEEI/0,,contentMDK:20502388~menuPK:1187778~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:408050,00.html 35

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Concluding remarksConcluding remarks

Whil i d l d i b i• While agroecosystems in developed countries are not being degraded in the same way, there is still a significant gap between their market value and their value to society.y

• To assure the efficient use of agroecological resources it is important to identify and value off‐site ecosystem service flows

• Increasing urbanization means increasing demand not just for the core provisioning services, but also for many culturalthe core provisioning services, but also for many cultural services, and for the regulating effects of farm systems on water quality and quantity.

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AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

• DIVERSITAS Agrobiodiversity Network (Louise Jackson)

• Alison Power

• NSF BESTNet Project