ABC of Automotive Industry

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ABC of Automotive Industry

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ContentsArticles

Automotive industry 1

Types of vehicles 10

Automobile 10Sedan (automobile) 21Minivan 25Crossover (automobile) 31Commercial vehicle 35Bus 37Truck 46Tractor 53

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 73Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 76

Article LicensesLicense 79

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Automotive industry 1

Automotive industryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells motor vehicles, and is one of theworld's most important economic sectors by revenue.The term automotive industry usually does not include industries dedicated to automobiles after delivery to thecustomer, such as repair shops and motor fuel filling stations.

HistoryThe first practical automobile with a petrol engine was built by Karl Benz in 1885 in Mannheim, Germany. Benzwas granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886, and began the first production of automobiles in 1888,after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved with the first long-distance trip in August 1888 (from Mannheim toPforzheim and back) that the horseless coach was absolutely suitable for daily use. Since 2008 a Bertha BenzMemorial Route commemorates this event.Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be anautomobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited as inventors ofthe first motorcycle, the Daimler Reitwagen, in 1885, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi, of the University of Padua, in1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9 W) 122 cc (7.4 cu in) one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son'stricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile, and first motorcycle;.[1] :p.26 Bernardi enlarged thetricycle in 1892 to carry two adults.[1] :p.26

Until 2005, the U.S.A. was leading the world in total automobile production. In 1929 before the Great Depression,the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, and the US automobile industry produced over 90% of theautomobiles in the world, ie 28,551,500. And over one half the cars in foreign lands were of U.S. make. At that timethe U.S. had one car per 4.87 persons. [2] In 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U.S. in production and held this rankuntil 2008. In 2009, China took the top spot with 13.78 million units produced. With 18.3 million units produced2010, China produced nearly twice the amount of second place Japan (9.6 million units), the U.S. trailed in place 3with 7.8 million units. [3]

EconomyAbout 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars andlight trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 260 billion US gallons ( m3) of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly.[4]

The automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of BostonConsulting Group predicts that, by 2014, one-third of world demand will be in the four BRIC markets (Brazil,Russia, India and China). Other potentially powerful automotive markets are Iran and Indonesia.[5] Emerging automarkets already buy more cars than established markets. According to a J.D. Power study, emerging marketsaccounted for 51 percent of the global light-vehicle sales in 2010. The study expects this trend to accelerate.[6] [7]

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Automotive industry 2

World motor vehicle production

By year

Global production of motorvehicles(cars and commercial vehicles)

Year Production Change Source

1997 54,434,000 [8]

1998 52,987,000 -2.7% [8]

1999 56,258,892 6.2% [9]

2000 58,374,162 3.8% [10]

2001 56,304,925 -3.5% [11]

2002 58,994,318 4.8% [12]

2003 60,663,225 2.8% [13]

2004 64,496,220 6.3% [14]

2005 66,482,439 3.1% [15]

2006 69,222,975 4.1% [16]

2007 73,266,061 5.8% [17]

2008 70,520,493 -3.7% [18]

2009 61,791,868 -12.4% [19]

2010 77,857,705 26.0% [20]

Company relationshipsIt is common for automobile manufacturers to hold stakes in other automobile manufacturers. These ownerships canbe explored under the detail for the individual companies.Notable current relationships include:• Daimler AG holds a 20% stake in Eicher Motors, a 10.0% stake in KAMAZ, a 10% stake in Tesla Motors, a

6.75% stake in Tata Motors and a 3.1% in the Renault-Nissan Motors alliance. They are in the process of sellingback their 40% stake (11% remaining) in McLaren Group. This process will be finalized in 2011.

• Dongfeng Motor Corporation is involved in joint ventures with several companies around the world, including:Honda (Japan), Hyundai (South Korea), Nissan (Japan), Nissan Diesel (Sweden), and PSA Peugeot Citroen(France).

• Fiat holds a 90% stake in Ferrari and a 53.5% stake in Chrysler.• Ford Motor Company holds a 3% stake in Mazda and an 8.3% share in Aston Martin.• Geely Automobile holds a 23% stake in Manganese Bronze Holdings.• General Motors and Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC) have two joint ventures in Shanghai

General Motors and SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile.• Hyundai Kia Automotive Group holds a 38.67% stake in Kia Motors, down from the 51% that it acquired in

1998.

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• MAN SE holds a 17.01% voting stake in Scania.• Porsche Automobil Holding SE has a 50.74% stake in Volkswagen Group. Due to liquidity problems,

Volkswagen Group is now in the process of acquiring Porsche.• Renault and Nissan Motors have an alliance involving two global companies linked by cross-shareholding, with

Renault holding 44.3% of Nissan shares, and Nissan holding 15% of (non-voting) Renault shares. The allianceholds a 3.1% share in Daimler AG.

• Renault holds a 25% stake in AvtoVAZ and 20.5% of the voting stakes in Volvo Group.• Toyota holds a 51% stake in Daihatsu, and 16.5% in Fuji Heavy Industries, parent company of Subaru.• Volkswagen Group holds a 37.73% stake in Scania (68.6% voting rights), and a 53.7% stake in MAN SE (55.9%

voting rights). Volkswagen is integrating Scania, MAN and its own truck division into one division.• Volkswagen Group has a 49.9% stake in Porsche AG. Volkswagen is in the process of acquiring Porsche, which

will be completed in late 2011.• Volkswagen Group has a 19.9% stake in Suzuki, and Suzuki has a 5% stake in Volkswagen.

Top vehicle manufacturing groups (by volume)The table below shows the world's largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the marques produced byeach one. The table is ranked by 2010 end of year production figures from the International Organization of MotorVehicle Manufacturers (OICA)[21] for the parent group, and then alphabetically by marque. Joint ventures are notreflected in this table. Production figures of joint ventures are typically included in OICA rankings, which canbecome a source of controversy.[22] [23]

Marque Country oforigin

Ownership Markets

1. Toyota Motor Corporation (  Japan)

Daihatsu Subsidiary Global, except North America and Australia

Hino Subsidiary Asia Pacific, North America and South America

Lexus Division Global

Scion Division North America

Toyota Division Global

2. General Motors Company (  United States)

Buick Division North America, China, Israel, Taiwan

Cadillac Division North America, Europe, Asia, Middle East, Africa

Chevrolet Division Global, except Australia, New Zealand

GMC Division North America, Middle East

Holden Subsidiary Australia, New Zealand

Opel Subsidiary Global, except North America, United Kingdom

Vauxhall Subsidiary United Kingdom

3. Volkswagen Group AG (  Germany)

Audi Subsidiary Global

Bentley Subsidiary Global

Bugatti Subsidiary Global

Lamborghini Subsidiary Global

Scania Subsidiary Global

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SEAT Subsidiary Europe, South America, North Africa, Middle East

Škoda Subsidiary Global, except North America, Japan and South Africa

Volkswagen Subsidiary Global

Volkswagen CommercialVehicles

Subsidiary Global

4. Hyundai Motor Group (  South Korea)

Hyundai Division Global

Kia Division Global, except Mexico

5. Ford Motor Company (  United States)

Ford Division Global

Lincoln Division North America, Middle East, Japan, South Korea

6. Nissan (  Japan)

Infiniti Division Global, except Japan, South America and Africa

Nissan Division Global

7. Honda Motor Company (  Japan)

Acura Division North America, China

Honda Division Global

8. PSA Peugeot Citroën S.A. (  France)

Citroën Subsidiary Global, except North America, South Asia

Peugeot Subsidiary Global, except North America, South Asia

9. Suzuki Motor Corporation (  Japan)

Maruti Suzuki Subsidiary India, Middle East, South America

Suzuki Division Global

10. Renault (  France)

Dacia Subsidiary Europe, Latin America, Africa, Asia, except Japan

Renault Division Global, except North America, South Korea

Renault Samsung Subsidiary South America, Asia, except Japan and China

11. Fiat S.p.A. (  Italy)

Abarth Subsidiary Global

Alfa Romeo Subsidiary Global, except North America

Ferrari Subsidiary Global

Fiat Subsidiary Global

Fiat Professional Subsidiary Global, except North America and Japan

Lancia Subsidiary Europe and Japan (except UK and Republic of Ireland)

Maserati Subsidiary Global

12. Daimler AG (  Germany)

Freightliner Division North America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand

Master Subsidiary Pakistan

Maybach Division Global

Mercedes-Benz Division Global

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Mitsubishi Fuso Subsidiary Global

Orion Subsidiary North America

Setra Subsidiary Europe

Smart Division North America, Europe, Japan, South East Asia, SouthAfrica

Thomas Built Subsidiary North America

Western Star Subsidiary North America, Australia, New Zealand

13. Chrysler Group, LLC (  United States)

Chrysler Division Global, UK and Republic of Ireland, except Europe

Dodge Division Global, except Europe

Jeep Division Global

Ram Division North America

14. BMW AG (  Germany)

BMW Division Global

MINI Division Global

Rolls-Royce Subsidiary Global

15. Mazda Motor Corporation (  Japan)

Mazda Division Global

16. Mitsubishi Motors Corporation (  Japan)

Mitsubishi Division Global

17. Chana Automobile Company, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

Chana Division China, South Africa, Europe

18. Tata Motors, Ltd (  India)

Hispano Subsidiary Europe

Jaguar Subsidiary Global

Land Rover Subsidiary Global

Tata Division Global, except North America

Tata Daewoo Subsidiary South Korea

19. First Automotive Group Corporation (  People's Republic of China)

Besturn Division China

Freewind Subsidiary China

Haima Subsidiary China

Hongqi Division China

Jiaxing Subsidiary China

Vita Subsidiary China

Xiali Subsidiary China

20. Geely Automobile (  People's Republic of China)

Geely Division China, Russia, North Africa

Maple Division China

Volvo (Cars) Subsidiary Global

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21. Chery Automobile Company, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

Chery Division China, Africa, South East Asia, Russia

Riich Division China

Rely Division China

22. Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd (  Japan)

Subaru Division Global

23. Dongfeng Motor Corporation (  People's Republic of China)

Dongfeng Division China

24. Beijing Automotive Industry Holding Corporation, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

BAW Division China

Foton Subsidiary China

25. OAO AvtoVAZ (  Russia)

Lada Division Global, except North America and Portugal

VAZ Division Russia

26. BYD Auto (  People's Republic of China)

BYD Division China, Russia

27. Isuzu Motors, Ltd (  Japan)

Isuzu Division Global, except North America

28. Anhui Jianghuai Automobile Company, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

JAC Division China

29. Brilliance China Automotive Holding, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

Brilliance Division China, North Africa

Jinbei Subsidiary China

30. Great Wall Motor Company, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

Great Wall Division China, South Africa, Russia, North Africa, Australia

Litex Motors Subsidiary Europe

31. Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (  People's Republic of China)

MG Motor Subsidiary China, United Kingdom, Chile, Argentina

Roewe Division China

Soyat Division China

Yuejin Division China

32. Mahindra & Mahindra, Ltd (  India)

Mahindra Division India, South East Asia, Europe, North Africa, North America

SsangYong** Subsidiary Global

33. Hafei Motor (  China)

Hafei Subsidiary China

34. AB Volvo (  Sweden)

Mack Subsidiary Global

Nissan Diesel Subsidiary Global

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NovaBus Subsidiary North America

Prevost Subsidiary North America

Renault (trucks) Subsidiary Global, except Japan

Volvo (trucks) Division Global

35. Jiangxi Changhe Automobile (  China)

Changhe Division China

36. Qingling Motors Company Ltd. (  China)

Qingling Division China

37. Proton Holdings, Bhd (  Malaysia)

Proton Division Asia Pacific (except Japan and South Africa), UnitedKingdom, Middle East

Lotus Subsidiary Global

38. Hunan Jiangnan Automobile (  People's Republic of China)

Jiangnan Division China

39. MAN SE (  Germany)

MAN SE Division Europe

40. Chongqing Lifan Automobile Company, Ltd (  People's Republic of China)

Lifan Division China

41. Fujian Motor Industry Group Company (  People's Republic of China)

Soueast Division China

42. Kuozui Motors, Ltd (  Taiwan)

Kuozui Subsidiary Taiwan

43. Shandong Kaima (  China)

Kaima Division China

Jubao Division China

Aofeng Division China

44. Porsche (  Germany)

Porsche Subsidiary Global

45. Chenzhou Gonow Nanyan Chifeng Vehicle (  People's Republic of China)

Gonow Division China

46. Ziyang Nanjun Automobile Co., Ltd. (  People's Republic of China)

Nanjun Division China

47. Rongcheng Huatai Motor (  People's Republic of China)

Huatai Division China

48. Aston Martin (  UK)

Aston Martin Subsidiary UK

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Notes* Porsche Automobil Holding SE has a 50.7 percent share in the Volkswagen Group.[24] However, VolkswagenGroup will acquire Porsche AG, the automotive manufacturer under a new "Integrated Automotive Group". Thismerger/acquisition is expected to be fully completed in mid-2011.[25] [26]

** SsangYong Motor Company was acquired by India's Mahindra & Mahindra Limited in February 2011.[27]

Minor automotive manufacturersThere are many automobile manufacturers other than the major global companies. They are mostly regional oroperating in niche markets.

References[1] Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985)[2] "U.S. Makes Ninety Percent of World's Automobiles" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FSgDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA84& dq=popular+

science+ 1930& hl=en& ei=VGmeTrjzHMfhsQLNr5H1CQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage& q=popular science 1930& f=true) Popular Science Monthly, November 1929, p. 84.

[3] "Production Statistics" (http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ ). OICA. . Retrieved 9 Seitember 2011.[4] "Automobile Industry Introduction" (http:/ / www. plunkettresearch. com/ Industries/ AutomobilesTrucks/ AutomobileTrends/ tabid/ 89/

Default. aspx). Plunkett Research. 2008. . Retrieved 2010-09-09.[5] Paul A. Eisenstein Building BRIC's: 4 Markets Could Soon Dominate the Auto World (http:/ / www. thedetroitbureau. com/ 2010/ 01/

building-brics-the-four-markets-that-could-soon-dominate-the-automotive-world/ ) at TheDetroitBureau.com[6] Bertel Schmitt (15 February 2011). "Auto industry sets new world record" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/ 2011/ 02/

auto-industry-sets-new-world-record-in-2010-will-do-it-again-in-2011). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved 7 August 2011.[7] "Global Automotive Outlook for 2011 Appears Positive as Mature Auto Markets Recover, Emerging Markets Continue to Expand" (http:/ /

businesscenter. jdpower. com/ news/ pressrelease. aspx?ID=2011018). J.D. Power and Associates. 15 February 2011. . Retrieved 7 August2011.

[8] http:/ / oica. net/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2007/ 06/ cl98type. pdf[9] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 1999-statistics/[10] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2000-statistics/[11] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2001-statistics/[12] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2002-statistics/[13] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2003-statistics/[14] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2004-statistics/[15] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2005-statistics/[16] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2006-statistics/[17] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2007-statistics/[18] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2008-statistics/[19] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2009-statistics[20] http:/ / www. oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/[21] "World Motor Vehicle Production: World Ranking of Manufacturers Year 2010" (http:/ / oica. net/ wp-content/ uploads/ ranking-2010. pdf)

(PDF). OICA. . Retrieved 2011-08-12.[22] "GM Slips to Number Two Worldwide, Ford to Fourth" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/

gm-slips-to-number-two-worldwide-ford-to-fourth/ ). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved 2010-06-12.[23] "TTAC Announces World's Top Ten Automakers" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/ ttac-announces-world�s-top-ten-automakers/ ).

The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved 2010-06-12.[24] "Volkswagen Group - Shareholder Structure" (http:/ / www. volkswagenag. com/ vwag/ vwcorp/ content/ en/ investor_relations/ share/

Shareholder_Structure. html). Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft. VolkswagenAG.com. . Retrieved 22 December 2009.[25] "Porsche Supervisory Board agrees on the contracts of implementation" (http:/ / www. porsche-se. com/ pho/ en/ news/ ?pool=pho&

id=2009-11-20) (Press release). Porsche Automobil Holding SE, Stuttgart. 20 November 2009. . Retrieved 22 November 2009.[26] "Volkswagen Supervisory Board approves Comprehensive Agreement for an Integrated Automotive Group with Porsche" (http:/ / www.

volkswagenag. com/ vwag/ vwcorp/ info_center/ en/ news/ 2009/ 08/ Volkswagen_Aufsichtsrat_stimmt_Grundlagenvereinbarung_fuer. html)(Press release). Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft. 13 August 2009. . Retrieved 22 November 2009.

[27] Nandini Sen Gupta, TNN, Feb 16, 2011, 12.56am IST (2011-02-16). "M&M seals $470m Ssangyong deal - The Times of India" (http:/ /timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ business/ india-business/ MM-seals-470m-Ssangyong-deal/ articleshow/ 7505113. cms).Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-25.

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External links• Market Share Auto (http:/ / www. utelio. it/ market-share-auto. php)• Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers (http:/ / www. autoalliance. org)• All vehicle manufacturers in the world (in Dutch with English etc. translation) (http:/ / www. deautogids. nl/ auto/

landenlijst. asp)• Car makes of the world, 1894—present (http:/ / members. chello. nl/ j. baartse/ cars/ )• Automaker Rankings 2007: The Environmental Performance of Car Companies (http:/ / www. ucsusa. org/

clean_vehicles/ vehicles_health/ automaker-rankings-2007. html)

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10

Types of vehicles

Automobile

Automobile

Benz "Velo" model (1894) – entered into an early automobile race as a motocycle[1] [2]

Classification Vehicle

Industry Various

Application Conveyance

Fuel Source Gasoline, Diesel, Electric

Powered Yes

Self-Propelled Yes

Wheels 3–4

Axles 0–2

Inventor Ferdinand Verbiest

Passenger cars in 2000

An automobile, autocar, motor car or caris a wheeled motor vehicle used fortransporting passengers, which also carriesits own engine or motor. Most definitions ofthe term specify that automobiles aredesigned to run primarily on roads, to haveseating for one to eight people, to typicallyhave four wheels, and to be constructedprincipally for the transport of people ratherthan goods.[3]

The term motorcar has also been used in the context of electrified rail systems to denote a car which functions as asmall locomotive but also provides space for passengers and baggage. These locomotive cars were often used onsuburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems.[4]

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Automobile 11

World map of passenger cars per 1000 people

There are approximately 600 millionpassenger cars worldwide (roughly one carper eleven people).[5] [6] Around the world,there were about 806 million cars and lighttrucks on the road in 2007; the engines ofthese burn over a billion cubic meters (260billion US gallons) of petrol/gasoline anddiesel fuel yearly. The numbers areincreasing rapidly, especially in China andIndia.[7]

EtymologyThe word automobile comes, via the French automobile, from the Ancient Greek word αὐτός (autós, "self") and theLatin mobilis ("movable"); meaning a vehicle that moves itself. The alternative name car is believed to originatefrom the Latin word carrus or carrum ("wheeled vehicle"), or the Middle English word carre ("cart") (from OldNorth French), in turn these are said to have originated from the Gaulish word karros (a Gallic Chariot).[8] [9]

HistoryThe first working steam-powered vehicle was probably designed by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of aJesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65 cm-long scale-model toy for the Chinese Emperor, that was unableto carry a driver or a passenger.[10] [11] [12] It is not known if Verbiest's model was ever built.[11]

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile inabout 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle.[13] He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army,one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.[14] His inventions were howeverhandicapped by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure.[14] In 1801, Richard Trevithick builtand demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of asteam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and was of littlepractical use.In 1807 Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude probably created the world's first internal combustion enginewhich they called a Pyréolophore, but they chose to install it in a boat on the river Saone in France.[15]

Coincidentally, in 1807 the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own 'de Rivaz internal combustionengine' and used it to develop the world's first vehicle, to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophorewas fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried Lycopodium moss), finely crushed coal dust and resin thatwere mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.[15] Neither design was verysuccessful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with hishippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by clumsy internalcombustion engines.[16]

In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile powered byelectricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris.[17]

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Automobile 12

Karl Benz, the inventor of themodern automobile

Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, WilhelmMaybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the sametime, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modernautomobile.[16]

An automobile powered by his own four-stroke cycle gasoline engine was builtin Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885, and granted a patent in January ofthe following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., whichwas founded in 1883. It was an integral design, without the adaptation of otherexisting components, and included several new technological elements to createa new concept. He began to sell his production vehicles in 1888.

A photograph of the original BenzPatent-Motorwagen, first built in 1885 and

awarded the patent for the concept

In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had beendesigned in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of theinternal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle.His first Motorwagen was built in 1885, and he was awarded the patentfor its invention as of his application on January 29, 1886. Benz beganpromotion of the vehicle on July 3, 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicleswere sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler wasintroduced along with a model intended for affordability. They alsowere powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Rogerof France, already producing Benz engines under license, now addedthe Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was moreopen to the early automobiles, initially more were built and sold inFrance through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.

Bertha Benz, the first long distanceautomobile driver in the world

In August 1888 Bertha Benz, the wife of Karl Benz, undertook the first road tripby car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention.

In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine,called boxermotor. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was thelargest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and,because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company.

Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) inCannstatt in 1890, and sold their first automobile in 1892 under the brand name,Daimler. It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, thatthey retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles hadbeen built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the HotelHermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz,Maybach and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each others' earlywork. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two

companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG.

Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes, that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of

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Automobile 13

vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG automobile wasproduced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMGshortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to othermanufacturers.Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate inGermany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiationsbetween the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed anAgreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production,purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their automobile models jointly, although keeping theirrespective brands. On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizingall of its automobiles Mercedes Benz, as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, theMaybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35 hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained amember of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929, and at times, his two sons participated inthe management of the company as well.In 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laidthe foundation of the automobile industry in France.The first design for an American automobile with a gasoline internal combustion engine was made in 1877 byGeorge Selden of Rochester, New York. Selden applied for a patent for an automobile in 1879, but the patentapplication expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments tohis application, on November 5, 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent (U.S. Patent 549160 [18]) for atwo-stroke automobile engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of automobiles in the UnitedStates. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.In 1893, the first running, gasoline-powered American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers ofSpringfield, Massachusetts. The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on September 21, 1893, onTaylor Street in Metro Center Springfield.[19] [20] To construct the Duryea Motor Wagon, the brothers had purchaseda used horse-drawn buggy for $70 and then installed a 4 HP, single cylinder gasoline engine.[19] The car had afriction transmission, spray carburetor, and low tension ignition. It was road-tested again on November 10, when theThe Springfield Republican newspaper made the announcement.[19] This particular car was put into storage in 1894and stayed there until 1920 when it was rescued by Inglis M. Uppercu and presented to the United States NationalMuseum.[19]

In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Ricketteven attempting a production run in 1860.[21] Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of GreatBritain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894[22] followed by Frederick WilliamLanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs.[22] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from theDaimler Motor Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use thename of the engines. Lawson's company made its first automobiles in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler.[22]

In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, hebuilt the first Diesel Engine.[16] Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, withgasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston andcrankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.

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Mass production

Ransom E. Olds

The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordableautomobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory in1902 based on the assembly line techniques pioneered by MarcIsambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills, England in 1802. Theassembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts hadbeen pioneered in the U.S. by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at theSpringfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts.[23] This conceptwas greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1914.

As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen minute intervals,much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold(requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[24] It was so successful,paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety ofcolors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford'sapocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[24] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T withfour months' pay.[24]

Portrait of Henry Ford (ca. 1919)

Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to aspecific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reducedthe rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called"Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains fromthe assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. Theassembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitivemotions which led to more output per worker while other countries were usingless productive methods.

In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spreadworldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, FordDenmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first nativeEuropean manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had tohave assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not,had disappeared.[24]

Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing togain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by CharlesKettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.

Ford Model T, 1927, regarded as thefirst affordable American automobile

Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs,so marketing plans often have heavily influenced automobile design. It wasAlfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced byone company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved.

Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another solarger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. Forexample, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical partsmade by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, andwindows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms(with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even

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so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson,Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[24]

In Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford,while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practise of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley(gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra had gone under. Citroendid the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CVand Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete.[24]

Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.[24]

WeightThe weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuelconsumption and decreased performance. According to a research conducted by Julian Allwood of the University ofCambridge, global energy use could be heavily reduced by using lighter cars, and an average weight of 500 kg hasbeen said to be well achievable.[25]

In some competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon, average car weights of 45 kg have also been achieved.[26] [27]

These cars are only single-seaters (still falling within the definition of a car, although 4-seater cars are morecommon), but it nevertheless demonstrates the huge degree in which car weights can still be reduced, and theforthfluing lower fuel use (i.e. up to a fuel use of 2560 km/l.[28]

SeatingMost cars are 4-seaters built using a 2 by 2 arrangement, also known as "mainstream". Other setups 2-seaters builtusing a 1 by 1 arrangement and single-seater cars. In the beginning, 4-seaters have been the most popular type of car,mostly due to the fact that the setup was similar to that of carriages. They have remained the most popular setup forcars upto today.

Fuel and propulsion technologies

The Nissan Leaf is an all-electric car launched inDecember 2010

Most automobiles in use today are propelled by a internal combustionengine, fueled by deflagration of gasoline (also known as petrol) ordiesel. Both fuels are known to cause air pollution and are also blamedfor contributing to climate change and global warming.[29] Rapidlyincreasing oil prices, concerns about oil dependence, tighteningenvironmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions arepropelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Effortsto improve or replace existing technologies include the development ofhybrid vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles.Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gainingpopularity in some countries.

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Safety

Result of a serious automobile accident

While road traffic injuries represent the leading cause in worldwideinjury-related deaths,[30] their popularity undermines this statistic.

Mary Ward became one of the first documented automobile fatalitiesin 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland[31] and Henry Bliss one of the UnitedStates' first pedestrian automobile casualties in 1899 in New York.[32]

There are now standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like theEuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests,[33] and insurance industry-backedtests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).[34]

Costs and benefits

Further information: Automotive industryThe costs of automobile usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel,depreciation, injury, driving time, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes, and insurance,[35] are weighed against thecost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits – perceived and real – of vehicle usage. The benefits mayinclude on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience.[12]

Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, landuse, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced againstthe value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates. The societal benefits may include: economybenefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision,society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities.The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature ofsocieties.[36]

CriticismTransportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the AmericanSurface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showedair quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has worsened over the last decade.[37] In the United States the averagepassenger car emits 11450 pounds (5190 kg) of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide annually, along with smalleramounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.[38]

Animals and plants are often negatively impacted by automobiles via habitat destruction and pollution. Over thelifetime of the average automobile the "loss of habitat potential" may be over 50000 square meters ( sq ft) based onprimary production correlations.[39]

Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybridvehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers topurchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution.[40] In the United States Congress,federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risenabove the 27.5 miles per US gallon (8.55 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg-imp) standard set in 1985. Light truck standards havechanged more frequently, and were set at 22.2 miles per US gallon (10.6 L/100 km; 26.7 mpg-imp) in 2007.[41]

Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than conventional petroleum powered vehicles.Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to die in car collisions whichkill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number.[30] Sprawl is more broadly afactor in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[42]

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Millions of animals are also killed every year on roads by automobiles—so-called Roadkill.

Driverless cars

A robotic Volkswagen Passat shown at StanfordUniversity is a driverless car

Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as robotic cars, or driverlesscars, already exist in prototype, and are expected to be commerciallyavailable around 2020. According to urban designer and futuristMichael E. Arth, driverless electric vehicles—in conjunction with theincreased use of virtual reality for work, travel, and pleasure—couldreduce the world's 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that numberwithin a few decades.[43] This would be possible if almost all privatecars requiring drivers, which are not in use and parked 90% of thetime, would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in nearconstant use. This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehiclefor the particular need—a bus could come for a group of people, alimousine could come for a special night out, and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for oneperson. Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety, DUIs would no longer exist, and 41,000 lives could besaved each year in the US alone.[44] [45]

Future car technologiesAutomobile propulsion technology under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in hybrids, battery electricvehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels.Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel cells, Homogeneous ChargeCompression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines,[46] and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquidnitrogen.New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbonnanotubes.Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through suchschemes as City Car Club in the UK, Mobility in mainland Europe, and Zipcar in the US.Communication is also evolving due to connected car systems.

Open source developmentThere have been several projects aiming to develop a car on the principles of open design. The projects includeOScar, Riversimple (through 40fires.org)[47] and c,mm,n.[48] None of the projects have reached significant success interms of developing a car as a whole both from hardware and software perspective and no mass production readyopen-source based design have been introduced as of late 2009. Some car hacking through on-board diagnostics(OBD) has been done so far.[49]

Alternatives to the automobileEstablished alternatives for some aspects of automobile use include public transit such as buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, tramways light rail, cycling, and walking. Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popular–the US market leader in car-sharing has experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007, offering a service that enables urban residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods.[50] Bike-share systems have been tried in some European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programs have been experimented with in a number of US Cities.[51]

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Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to automobilesif they prove to be socially accepted.[52]

IndustryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008,more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide.[53]

In 2007, a total of 71.9 million new automobiles were sold worldwide: 22.9 million in Europe, 21.4 million inAsia-Pacific, 19.4 million in USA and Canada, 4.4 million in Latin America, 2.4 million in the Middle East and 1.4million in Africa.[54] The markets in North America and Japan were stagnant, while those in South America andother parts of Asia grew strongly. Of the major markets, China, Russia, Brazil and India saw the most rapid growth.About 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars andlight trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over 260 billion US gallons ( m3) of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. Thenumbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.[7] In the opinion of some, urban transport systemsbased around the car have proved unsustainable, consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations,and delivering a declining level of service despite increasing investments. Many of these negative impacts falldisproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[55] [56] [57] The sustainabletransport movement focuses on solutions to these problems.In 2008, with rapidly rising oil prices, industries such as the automotive industry, are experiencing a combination ofpricing pressures from raw material costs and changes in consumer buying habits. The industry is also facingincreasing external competition from the public transport sector, as consumers re-evaluate their private vehicleusage.[58] Roughly half of the US's fifty-one light vehicle plants are projected to permanently close in the comingyears, with the loss of another 200,000 jobs in the sector, on top of the 560,000 jobs lost this decade.[59] Combinedwith robust growth in China, in 2009, this resulted in China becoming the largest automobile producer and market inthe world. China 2009 sales had increased to 13.6 million, a significant increase from one million of domestic carsales in 2000.[60]

MarketThe automotive market is formed by the demand and the industry. This article is about the general, major trends inthe automotive market, mainly from the demand side.The European automotive market has always boasted a higher number of smaller cars than the United States. Withthe high fuel prices and the world petroleum crisis, the United States may see its automotive market become morelike the European market with fewer large vehicles on the road and more small cars.[61]

For luxurious cars, with the current volatility in oil prices, going for smaller cars is not only smart, but also trendy.And because fashion is of high importance with the upper classes, the little green cars with luxury trimmings becomequite plausible.[62]

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[11] "A brief note on Ferdinand Verbiest" (http:/ / curiousexpeditions. org/ ?p=52). Curious Expeditions. 2 July 2007. . Retrieved 2008-03-18. –Note that the vehicle pictured is the 20th century diecast model made by Brumm, of a later vehicle, not a model based on Verbiest's plans.

[12] Setright, L. J. K. (2004). Drive On!: A Social History of the Motor Car. Granta Books. ISBN 1-86207-698-7.[13] Encyclopaedia Britannica "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 145966/ Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot). .[14] Encyclopaedia Britannica[15] speos.fr. "Niepce Museum, Other Inventions" (http:/ / niepce. house. museum/ pagus/ pagus-other. html). Niepce.house.museum. . Retrieved

2010-08-26.[16] Ralph Stein (1967). The Automobile Book. Paul Hamlyn Ltd.[17] Wakefield, Ernest H. (1994). History of the Electric Automobile. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.. pp. 2–3. ISBN 1-56091-299-5.[18] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=549160[19] "The First Car - A History of the Automobile" (http:/ / www. ausbcomp. com/ ~bbott/ cars/ carhist. htm). Ausbcomp.com. . Retrieved

2011-07-17.[20] "The Duryea Brothers - Automobile History" (http:/ / inventors. about. com/ od/ dstartinventors/ a/ DuryeaBrothers. htm).

Inventors.about.com. 2010-09-16. . Retrieved 2011-07-17.[21] Burgess Wise, D. (1970). Veteran and Vintage Cars. London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-00283-7.[22] Georgano, N. (2000). Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile. London: HMSO. ISBN 1-57958-293-1.[23] "Industrialization of American Society" (http:/ / www. engr. sjsu. edu/ pabacker/ industrial. htm). Engr.sjsu.edu. . Retrieved 2011-07-17.[24] Georgano, G. N. (2000). Vintage Cars 1886 to 1930. Sweden: AB Nordbok. ISBN 1-85501-926-4.[25] "Possible global energy reducstion" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/

dn20037-efficiency-could-cut-world-energy-use-over-70-per-cent. html). Newscientist.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-17.[26] "45 kg as average car weight in Shell Eco-Marathon" (http:/ / wn. com/ Eco-Marathon). Wn.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-17.[27] Shell Eco-Marathon car weight (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ . . . / 110418-pictures-shell-ecomarathon-2011/ )[28] mindfully.org. "Andy Green's 8000 mile/gallon car" (http:/ / www. mindfully. org/ Energy/ 2006/ Andy-Green-TeamGreen13may06. htm).

Mindfully.org. . Retrieved 2011-07-17.[29] "Global Climate Change" (http:/ / www. fueleconomy. gov/ feg/ climate. shtml). U.S. Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2007-03-03.[30] Peden M, Scurfield R, Sleet D et al. (eds.) (2004). World report on road traffic injury prevention (http:/ / who. int/

violence_injury_prevention/ publications/ road_traffic/ world_report/ en/ ). World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-156260-9. . Retrieved2008-06-24.

[31] "Mary Ward 1827–1869" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080311122721/ http:/ / www. universityscience. ie/ pages/ scientists/sci_mary_ward. php). Universityscience.ie. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. universityscience. ie/ pages/ scientists/ sci_mary_ward.php) on 2008-03-11. . Retrieved 2008-10-27.

[32] "CityStreets – Bliss plaque" (http:/ / www. citystreets. org/ plaque. html). .[33] "SaferCar.gov – NHTSA" (http:/ / www. nhtsa. dot. gov/ cars/ testing/ ncap/ ). .[34] "Insurance Institute for Highway Safety" (http:/ / www. hwysafety. org/ ). .[35] "Car Operating Costs" (http:/ / www. racv. com. au/ wps/ wcm/ connect/ racv/ Internet/ Primary/ my+ car/ advice+ _+ information/ vehicle+

operating+ costs/ ). my car. RACV. . Retrieved 2009-12-22.[36] John A. Jakle, Keith A. Sculle. (2004). Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture. Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press.

ISBN 0813922666.[37] "Clearing the Air" (http:/ / www. transact. org/ report. asp?id=227). The Surface Transportation Policy Project. 2003-08-19. . Retrieved

2007-04-26.[38] "Emission Facts" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ otaq/ consumer/ f00013. htm). United States Environmental Protection Agency. May 2000. .

Retrieved 2011-01-10.[39] Ball, Jeffrey (2009-03-09). "Six Products, Six Carbon Footprints" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB122304950601802565. html). Wall

Street Journal. . Retrieved 2011-01-10.

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[40] "Automobiles and the Environment" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080214145812/ http:/ / www. greenercars. com/ autoenviron. html).Greenercars.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. greenercars. com/ autoenviron. html) on 2008-02-14. .

[41] "CAFE Overview – Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. nhtsa. dot. gov/ cars/ rules/ cafe/ overview. htm). National Highway TrafficSafety Administration. .

[42] "Our Ailing Communities" (http:/ / www. metropolismag. com/ cda/ story. php?artid=2353). Metropolis Magazine. .[43] Oliver, Rachel (2007-09-16). "Rachel Oliver "All About: hydrid transportation"" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2007/ BUSINESS/ 09/ 14/

allabout. hybrid/ ). CNN. . Retrieved 2009-03-05.[44] Arth, Michael (Spring 2008). "New Pedestrianism: A Bridge to the Future" (http:/ / www. carbusters. org/ magazine/ 33/ feature3. html).

Carbusters Magazine. . Retrieved 2009-03-06.[45] Birch, Alex (2008-05-23). "Most Cars Can be Eliminated in 20 Years says Urban Designer Michael E. Arth" (http:/ / www. corrupt. org/

news/ most_cars_can_be_eliminated_in_20_years_says_urban_designer_michael_e_arth). Corrupt.org. . Retrieved 2009-03-06.[46] Paul Werbos. "Who Killed the Electric car? My review" (http:/ / www. werbos. com/ E/ WhoKilledElecPJW. htm). . Retrieved 2007-04-10.[47] "FortyFires: Main" (http:/ / 40fires. org/ ). 40fires.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-11.[48] "open source mobility: home" (http:/ / www. cmmn. org/ nc/ en/ home. html). c,mm,n. . Retrieved 2010-07-11.[49] "Geek My Ride presentation at linux.conf.au 2009" (http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=-6306814203245314335).

Video.google.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-11.[50] "Flexcar Expands to Philadelphia" (http:/ / www. greencarcongress. com/ 2007/ 04/ flexcar_expands. html). Green Car Congress.

2007-04-02. .[51] "About Bike Share Programs" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071220235050/ http:/ / web. mit. edu/ dzshen/ www/ about. shtml). Tech

Bikes MIT. Archived from the original (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ dzshen/ www/ about. shtml) on 2007-12-20. .[52] Jane Holtz Kay (1998). Asphalt Nation: how the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back. Berkeley, Calif.: University of

California Press. ISBN 0520216202.[53] "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country: 2007–2008" (http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ ). OICA. .[54] "2008 Global Market Data Book", Automotive News, p.5[55] Kenworthy, J R (2004). "Transport Energy Use and Greenhouse Emissions in Urban Passenger Transport Systems" (http:/ / cst. uwinnipeg.

ca/ documents/ Transport_Greenhouse. pdf) (PDF). Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy. . Retrieved 2008-07-22.[56] World Health Organisation, Europe. "Health effects of transport" (http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ transport/ hia/ 20021009_2). . Retrieved

2008-08-29.[57] Social Exclusion Unit, Office of the Prime Minister (UK). "The Connections – final report on transport and social exclusion" (http:/ / www.

carplus. org. uk/ Resources/ pdf/ Making_the_Connections_Final_Report_on_Transport_and_Social_Exclusion. pdf). . Retrieved 2003-02-01.[58] IBISWorld Newsletter, June 2008, GLOBAL TRENDS Oil – The Crude Reality of Current trends (http:/ / www. ibisworld. com/ newsletter/

issues/ us/ 08jun/ news. htm:), IBISWorld[59] Jeff Rubin (2009-03-02). "Wrong Turn" (http:/ / research. cibcwm. com/ economic_public/ download/ sfeb09. pdf) (PDF). CIBC World

Markets. .[60] "Indonesia: Towards a one trillion dollar economy" (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2011/ 05/ 09/

indonesia-towards-a-one-trillion-dollar-economy. html). The Jakarta Post. . Retrieved 2011-07-17.[61] Article Detail (http:/ / www. sema. org/ Main/ ArticleDetail. aspx?fc_c=1123885x2468667x66059664& contentID=59806)[62] "Rendered Speculation: Audi EV" (http:/ / www. worldcarfans. com/ 9080923. 006/ rendered-speculation-audi-ev). Worldcarfans. .

Retrieved 2009-07-25.

Further reading• Halberstam, David, The Reckoning, New York, Morrow, 1986. ISBN 0688048382• Kay, Jane Holtz, Asphalt nation : how the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back, New

York, Crown, 1997. ISBN 0517587025• Heathcote Williams, Autogeddon, New York, Arcade, 1991. ISBN 1559701765• Wolfgang Sachs: For love of the automobile: looking back into the history of our desires, Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1992, ISBN 0520068785

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External links• Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (http:/ / www. fia. com/ )• Forum for the Automobile and Society (http:/ / www. autoandsociety. com/ )

Sedan (automobile)

Typical pillar configurations of a sedan (threebox), station wagon (two box) and hatchback

(two box) from the same model range.

Diagram of a sedan (three box) over a stationwagon (two box) from the same model range.

A sedan (American English, Canadian English;  /sɪˈdæn/) or salooncar (British English, Irish English, New Zealand English) is apassenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars andprincipal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine,passenger and cargo.[1] The passenger compartment features two rowsof seats and adequate passenger space in the rear compartment foradult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, withthe exception of some rear-engined models, such as the RenaultDauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and Chevrolet Corvair. It isone of the most common car body styles.

Types of sedans

Several versions of the body style exist, including four-door, two-door,and fastback variants of both.

A sedan seats four or more people and has a fixed roof that isfull-height up to the rear window. The roof structure will typicallyhave a fixed B-pillar on sedan models. Most commonly it is afour-door; two-door models are rare, but they do occur (more sohistorically). In the U.S., the term sedan has been used to denote a carwith fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style without a"B" pillar and where the sash, if any, winds down with the glass.However, true hardtops have become increasingly rare.

Four-door sedans can have either two or three side windows: One ineach door (vent windows not counted), and the possible thirdintegrated in the "C"-pillar.

Notchback sedans

1962 Chevrolet Impala, a typical notchback sedan

A notchback sedan is a three-box sedan, where the passenger volume isclearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle (when seen fromthe side). The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, therear window at a sharp angle to the roof, and the trunk lid is alsoparallel to the ground.

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Fastback sedans

1941 Plymouth fastback sedan

A fastback sedan is a two-box sedan, with continuous slope from theroof to the base of the decklid, but excludes the hatchback feature.Marketing terminology is often misleading in this area - for example,Daimler AG calls the Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class sedan a four-doorcoupé because its semi-fastback design tries to give the impression of acoupé. Certain sedans are edging close to being one-box vehicles,where the windshield is steeply raked from the hood/bonnet and therear window slopes toward almost the end of the car, leaving just ashort rear deck that is part of the trunk lid - the 2006 4-door JDMHonda Civic is an example of this. They are not fastbacks because theirbodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck. Their steeply rakedrear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their rear ends are tall -sometimes in a Kammback style - to increase trunk space.

Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages. Automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuelconsumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form.

Two-door sedans

Opel Kadett B two-door sedan

The Society of Automotive Engineers defines such a vehicle as anytwo-door model with rear accommodation greater than or equal to 33cubic feet (930 L) in volume (a calculation made by adding thelegroom, shoulder room, and headroom). By this standard, theChevrolet Monte Carlo, Ferrari 612 Scaglietti, and Mercedes-BenzCL-Class coupés are all two-door sedans. Only a few sources, however(including the magazine Car and Driver), use the two-door sedan labelin this manner.

In the popular vernacular, a two-door sedan is defined by appearanceand not by volume; vehicles with a B-pillar between the front and rearwindows are generally called two-door sedans, while hardtops (without the pillar, and often incorporating a slopingbacklight) are called coupés.The Mazda RX-8 meets the volume requirement to be called a sedan, but it has vestigial rear-hinged rear doors, sosome call it 2+2-door sedan. Another term for a coupé endowed with rear-hinged doors is a "quad coupé." However,this may simply be vernacular, based on a possible copyright by General Motors, for its Saturn Ion Quad-Coupe.

Hardtop sedans

1958 AMC Ambassador hardtop sedan

In historic terminology a sedan will have a frame around the doorwindows, while the hardtop has frameless door glass. A true hardtopsedan design also has no "B" pillar (the roof support behind the frontdoors). This body style has an open feel, but requires extra underbodystrengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can beconsidered separately (i.e., a vehicle can be simply called a four-doorhardtop), or it can be called a hardtop sedan. During the 1960s and1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by American

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manufacturers and were among the top selling body styles. During the 1980s, automakers in the U.S. focused onremoving weight and increasing strength, and their new four-door sedans with B-pillars were called pillaredhardtops or pillared sedans. The sport sedan term has since been appropriated for other uses. In Japan, and amongJapanese manufacturers worldwide, the hardtop design was popular among luxury sedans throughout the 1990s.

Hatchback sedans

Chevy Malibu Maxx hatchback sedan

Hatchback (a.k.a. liftback) sedans typically have the fastback profile,but instead of a trunk lid, the entire back of the vehicle lifts up (using aliftgate or hatch). A vehicle with four passenger doors and a liftgate atthe rear can be called a four-door hatchback, four-door hatchbacksedan, or five-door sedan. An example of such is the Chevrolet MalibuMaxx and Audi A5 Sportback. There can also be two-door hatchbacksedans (three-door sedans), by the same technical explanation fortwo-door sedans. Examples of this design are the Volkswagen Golf,and Chevrolet Chevette.

Chauffeured sedans

The Lincoln Town Car is often used as achauffeured car in the U.S.

Strictly speaking limousine sedans have a separate compartment for thedriver and the passenger compartment is long enough to contain atleast two comfortable, forward-facing bench seats. Vehicles used forthese means are usually Lincoln Town Car, Cadillac, Mercedes, orRolls-Royce or Maybach for the more wealthy. The term limousine canrefer to a large sedan, especially if hired from a service. Chauffeuredlimousines are primarily used by individuals for weddings, businessesfor meetings, as well as for airport and sightseeing transportation.Chauffeurs are professional drivers, usually with experience in thetransportation industry or tourism industry. Chauffeured sedans areowned either by private owners, livery services, or corporations. Large corporations as well as governmentscommonly provide luxury sedans to top executives, as well as VIP guests. Chauffeured sedans, such as the LincolnTown Car, may also be stretched into limousines that are capable of seating up to twenty people.

Terminology

Sedan chair carried by two people

Origin

The word sedan is possibly derived from a southern Italian dialectderivative of Italian sedia "chair" (the first sedan was said to have beenintroduced from Naples). However, Portuguese and Spanish navigatorsand colonists encountered litters of various sorts in India, Japan,Mexico, and Peru. They were imported into Spain in the late sixteenthcentury. Soon the fashion spread into France and then England. All thenames for these derived from the root "sed-" from the Latin "sella" -the traditional name for a carried chair.[2]

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The first automobile to use the configuration was the 1899 Renault Voiturette Type B. The first closed car, for atleast 4 persons, which used the word sedan was the 1911 Speedwell sedan, which was manufactured by theSpeedwell Motor Co in Dayton, Ohio.[3] But even before that time completely closed cars were called saloons orlimousines, like the 1905 Rational 4-door limousine[4] or the 1907 Renault 4-door limousine[5] or the 1910 Stella2-door saloon.[6] The words saloon or limousine do not exclusively mean a fully closed car.[7] Cars which are calledsedans are always fully closed.The derivation from the town of Sedan, Ardennes in France, where it was said to have been made or first used, lackshistorical evidence, according to Oxford English Dictionary.

International terminologyIn American English and American Spanish, the term sedan is used (accented as "sedán" is in Spanish). The enginecompartment, at the front, is covered by the hood; the cargo compartment at the rear is called the trunk.In British English, a car of this configuration is called a saloon. The engine compartment cover is the bonnet, thecargo-compartment boot is at the rear. Hatchback sedans are known simply as hatchbacks (not hatchback saloons);long-wheelbase luxury saloons may be referred to as limousines.The British English term saloon is sometimes used by British car manufacturers in the United States. For example,the Rolls-Royce Park Ward was sold as a saloon in the United States, while the smaller Silver Seraph was called asedan.In Australia the American term sedan is used, albeit with the British terms boot and bonnet being retained. In NewZealand the British terms are used, but the American terms are understood by most of the population. In otherlanguages, sedans are known as berline (French), berlina (European Spanish, European Portuguese, Romanian, andItalian); although these terms also may include hatchbacks. These terms, besides sedan, derive from types ofhorse-drawn carriages. In German, the term limousine is used for sedans, as well as for limousines.

References[1] "Car Design Glossary - Part 2: One-Box (Monospace or Monovolume)" (http:/ / www. cardesignnews. com/ site/ home/ new_cars/ display/

store4/ item131867/ ). Car Design News. . "The principal volumes of the traditional sedan can be split into separate compartments or boxes:the hood/bonnet is the first box; the passenger compartment the second, and the trunk/boot the third - i.e. it's a 'three-box' car."

[2] T. Atkinson Jenkins. "Origin of the Word Sedan", Hispanic Review, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Jul., 1933), pp. 240-242.[3] Georgano, G.N. (1985). Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886-1930. London: Grange-Universal. page 87[4] Georgano, G. N.: The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present, 2. Ausgabe, E. P. Dutton, New York (1973), page 573,

ISBN 0-525-08351-0[5] Georgano, G. N.: The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present, 2. Ausgabe, E. P. Dutton, New York (1973), page 578,

ISBN 0-525-08351-0[6] Georgano, G. N.: The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present, 2. Ausgabe, E. P. Dutton, New York (1973), page 649,

ISBN 0-525-08351-0[7] There are many photos of half open limousines and saloons in the book "The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present" by

Georgano.

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Minivan 25

Minivan

DKW Schnellaster (1949-1962), with front-wheeldrive, transverse engine, flat floor, and

multi-configurable seating

Kia Carnival/Sedona 2006, Gen II, acontemporary minivan with front-wheel drive,

transverse engine, flat floor, andmulti-configurable seating

Minivan is a type of van designed for personal use. Minivans aretypically either two-box or one box designs for maximum interiorvolume – and are taller than a sedan, hatchback, or a station wagon.

Worldwide, minivans are also marketed as multi-purpose vehicles(MPVs), people-carriers, people-movers, or multi-utility vehicles(MUVs).

The term

In Europe and India, "multi-purpose vehicle" (MPV) describes thegeneral vehicle type without reference to its size. These are describedwith a word before the acronym: a "mini MPV" is derived from asupermini, a "compact MPV" is based on a small family car and a"large MPV" has about the same size as a large family car. In Asia,"multi-utility vehicle" (MUV) has more or less the same meaning asMPV. "People-carrier" and "people mover" describe both large MPVsand minibuses, but not smaller models.

Other terms are used in other English-speaking countries.

Characteristics

Overview

MPVs are usually between 1600–1800 millimetres (63–71 in) tall, which is around 200 mm (8 in) taller than asedan, hatchback, or a station wagon. The engine is mounted very close to the front edge of the van, and its elementsare grouped higher than in other vehicle types to minimize front overhang length. The rear overhang may be short asin a hatchback or long like in station wagons, changing the cargo area vs seat balance – the first option is morecommon in smaller minivans and the second in large minivans.

SeatingSeats are located higher than in lower cars with a higher H-point, giving passengers a more upright posture andproviding more legroom.Larger MPVs usually feature three seat rows, with two or three seats each: 2-3-2, 2-2-3 or 2-3-3 (front to rear) arethe most common seating configurations. According to Consumer Reports, the most common large sizeconfiguration for the 2011 model year was 7 passenger seating.[1] Smaller minivans tend to have two seat rows, witha traditional 2-3 configuration. There are some exceptions, like the Honda FR-V, Fiat Multipla, and Mercedes-BenzR-Class which are six seaters (3-3 in the first two cases and 2-2-2 in the latter). On U.S. models, Chrysler copied theshort bench, long bench format of their full-size vans for most of their minivan models. Other U.S. manufacturersfollowed suit. This setup allowed easy access to the rear from the right side (these vans were initially all 3-doormodels). However, it led to tight seating in the second row. Captain's chairs (the format typically used on U.S.conversion vans) soon began to gain popularity, beginning with top trim models and working its way down. Today,with 4-door models completely replacing 3-doors, the Captain chair setup has become the standard format, withmany models no longer offering two bench seats.

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MPVs may have seats, either benches or individual seats, that are designed to be relocated, removed, folded partially(on-floor) or folded completely under-floor – allowing variable seating capacity and cargo room.

Chassis and drivetrainIn contrast to vans, sport utility vehicles (SUV), and many crossover SUVs, most current MPVs are front-wheeldrive. This configuration allows a flat inner floor, due to the absence of the driveshaft hump. With rear seatsremoved, the cargo area in large minivans can hold a 4x8 ft sheet of drywall or plywood flat. Four-wheel drive wasalso introduced to minivans in North America with the Toyota Van Wagon 4WD and the Volkswagen VanagonSyncro. Full-time all-wheel drive was introduced to North American minivans in 1990 with the Ford Aerostar'sE-4WD option, followed in 1991 by the Toyota Previa All-Trac, and in 1992 on models made by Chrysler.Most modern MPVs feature unibody architecture, which offers superior crashworthiness and a more comfortableride than a body-on-frame chassis, and is typically lighter. The discontinued Chevrolet Astro / GMC Safari were thelast body-on-frame rear-wheel drive minivans.In the United States, in order to be governed by more lenient safety and emissions regulations, minivans areclassified as light trucks. Unlike their European counterparts, manual transmissions have disappeared due to lack ofdemand; 1995 was the last year for a manual transmission in the Ford Aerostar and Chrysler minivans while GM hadpreviously discontinued the manual transmission in the Chevrolet Astro and GMC Safari.

DoorsDoor configuration for MPVs are highly variable. Access to the rear interior may be through one or two sliding orout-swing rear side doors. Early minivans featured one rear side sliding door on the passenger's side, similar tofull-sized passenger vans in the early 1980s. Many current minivans feature rear sliding doors on both sides;swinging doors are the norm for European and Japanese minivans, while most American models feature slidingdoors. Some models featuring power sliding doors.

SegmentsMPVs can be roughly classified in three or four segments: large, compact, mini, and micro. Models of all segmentsare present in Europe, the Americas and parts of Asia.Large MPVs are those above 4600 mm (180 in) long. Nearly every minivan sold in the United States belongs to thissegment, so they are simply called minivans there. The first European MPV also belonged to this segment, and latersimilar models were named likewise until smaller models appeared; now these models are called "large MPVs".Examples are the Dodge Caravan, Honda Odyssey, Volkswagen Sharan and Eurovan.Compact MPVs have a length of between 4200–4600 millimetres (170–180 in). Such models enjoyed somepopularity in the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s, for example the Mitsubishi Expo and NissanAxxess. In 1996, the Renault Scénic was released in Europe and its success made mainstream automakers producethem in large quantities, usually based on small family car platforms and with both two and three-row seats. As of2007, the only compact minivans available in the United States are the Mazda5 and Kia Rondo.Mini MPVs are under 4100 mm (160 in) long, and were introduced in the early first decade of the 21st century.These models are based on supermini platforms and have different styles depending on markets: Japanese models aremore boxy while Europeans have the bonnet and windshield almost parallel. Examples of mini MPVs are theOpel/Vauxhall Meriva, Citroën C3 Picasso, Fiat Idea, Toyota bB and Nissan Cube.Tall city cars and kei cars like the Hyundai Atos, Chevrolet Matiz, Chery QQ and Suzuki Wagon R have also beencalled mini MPVs or "microvans" because of their increased height over traditional hatchbacks. Others believe theyare too similar in design with other small cars, so they should be described as the same kind of cars.

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Early minivans models may be smaller than modern models, but still fit into the child subsegment; thefirst-generation Renault Espace introduced in 1984 would be classified nowadays as a compact MPV, but latergenerations grew in size and the Espace is now considered a large MPV. Indeed, it is expected that thenext-generation Espace will be smaller in size than the current model.

History

Fiat 600 Multipla (1956-1965)

Volkswagen Type 2 1964, Generation I

Antecedents to the contemporary minivan include the Stout Scarab,which in 1936 featured a removable table and second row seats thatturn 180 degrees to face the rear – a feature that Chrysler marketed asSwivel 'n Go.[2]

The DKW Schnellaster, manufactured from 1949 to 1962 was a smallmonospace (or one-box) design featuring its front wheels set forwardof the passenger cabin, a short, sloping aerodynamic hood, front wheeldrive, transverse engine, flat load floor throughout with flexible seatingand cargo accommodations – the key design ingredients that describethe modern minivan configuration popularized in such notableexamples as the Renault Espace and Chrysler Voyager/Caravanminivans.[3]

Other predecessors of minivans were compact vans. In 1950, theVolkswagen Type 2 adapted a bus-shaped body to the compactVolkswagen Beetle. It placed the driver above the front wheels, sittingbehind a flat nose, with the engine mounted at the rear. The two hingedside doors were opposite to the driver's side, with optional doors on thedriver's side, Fiat built a similar vehicle, Multipla based on the Fiat 600with the same engine and door layout. Japanese and Americanmanufacturers responded with compact vans since the 1960s. Usuallybased on front-engined compact cars with a FMR layout, the enginewas mounted behind or under the front seat with a flat, vertical nose.Examples include the Ford Econoline, Chevrolet Van, Suzuki Carry, Toyota Hiace,and Subaru Sambar. WhenVolkswagen introduced a sliding side door on their van in 1968, it then had all the features that would later come todefine a minivan: compact length, three rows of forward-facing seats, station wagon-style top-hingedtailgate/liftgate, sliding side door, passenger car base.

As the U.S. vehicles such as the Econoline evolved into larger full-sized vans, the term minivan came to use in NorthAmerica, when Toyota and Chrysler launched their respective smaller minivan products for the 1984 model year.The Toyota Van and Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager featured very different structural designs: the DodgeCaravan / Plymouth Voyager had a FF layout and unibody construction, while the Toyota Van Wagon featured aFMR layout and was built on a body-on-frame chassis. The Chevrolet Astro / GMC Safari and Ford Aerostar wereintroduced for the 1985 model year with FR layout.A European minivan design was conceived in the late 1970s by the Rootes Group in partnership with the French automaker Matra (which was also affiliated with Simca, the former French subsidiary of the Chrysler Corporation, sold in 1977 to the PSA Group). The Matra design was originally intended to be sold as a Talbot and be a replacement for the Talbot-Matra Rancho. Early prototypes were designed to use Simca parts and a grille like the Simca 1307. Matra took their idea to Peugeot who thought it too expensive and risky so the project was then presented to Renault, becoming the Renault Espace introduced in 1984. The Renault had traditional hinged car doors on both sides. Chrysler had also been developing a minivan based on the Chrysler K platform, releasing the boxy

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Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager earlier than the Espace, in 1983.

Minivans by market

North America

Dodge Caravan 1986, Generation I, at theSmithsonian's National Museum of American

History

Shortly after their arrival, the Chrysler minivans competed against thetruck-based front-engine, rear drive Chevrolet Astro, GMC Safari(based on a reworked 1st generation S-10 platform), and Ford Aerostar(based on a reworked 1st-generation Ranger platform). Utilizing thetransverse-mounted engine, front-wheel drive, monocoque (unibody)construction and "one-box" design, the Chrysler minivans offeredbetter traction, size, and driving characteristics. Nissan and Mitsubishialso introduced minivans to North America; but like the Toyota VanWagon, they had poor rear drive traction, had a bouncy ride due to theshort wheelbase.

In 1989, Mazda introduced the MPV, which featured a swing-out doorwith roll-down windows and was the first Japanese minivan with afront engine.

General Motors introduced the Chevrolet Lumina APV, Oldsmobile Silhouette, and Pontiac Trans Sport in 1990.These minivans were GM's first front-wheel drive minivans; built on a reworked version of GM's 1980sA-platform – with composite plastic body panels, a cab-forward nose, steeply raked windshields, and deepdashboards.

That same year, Toyota introduced the Previa. The Toyota Previa had a four-cylinder engine located under the floorof the vehicle, mounted nearly flat on its side, rather than straight up and down like in its predecessor.Ford and Nissan introduced models in 1993 with front-wheel drive, the Mercury Villager and Nissan Questrespectively. These minivans featured car-based platforms and V6 engines. Ford introduced a slightly largerfront-wheel drive minivan (based on a reworked version of the 1980s Taurus platform) called the Windstar in 1994.In 1995 Honda introduced the Odyssey, based on the Honda Accord with outswing doors with roll-down second rowwindows, a rear seat that folded into the floor, and a 140 hp inline four engine.According to Autodata, in 2006 Chrysler, Honda, and Toyota comprised 72% of the United States minivan market.General Motors and Ford made up 17%, Kia Sedona and Hyundai Entourage sales made up 5%, and the NissanQuest was 3%. By 2008, most North American minivans had adopted the size and configuration of thelong-wheelbase Chrysler vans, with Chrysler dropping their shorter models as well. In 2008, only the Kia Sedonaand Chevrolet Uplander offered both short and long-wheelbase configurations. In 2008, Volkswagen debuted theRoutan, a rebadged variant of the Chrysler RT platform minivans.

Engines

During the 1980s, North American minivans generally had four-cylinder engines and were slow and under-powered when compared with sport utility vehicles, but were more fuel efficient. Such vehicles typically had poor performance, especially since manual transmissions were (and still are) rare in minivans. The minivans also often had a higher rate of problems than vehicles with larger engines. Some minivans were notorious for having problems with their transaxles, as the vehicles were substantially heavier than the sedans for which their powertrains were originally designed. With the shift in the 1990s towards heavier, long-wheelbase models and light towing, V6 engines became more common and some automakers dropped their four-cylinder engines from their lineup. The Chevrolet Astro, the last surviving rear wheel drive mid-size van, was popular for towing applications because of its

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available 4.3 liter V6, and some owners even installed their own V8 engines.

EuropeApart from the Chrysler Minivans, the Renault did not have any direct rival during the 1980s. Other mainstreamautomakers began to develop multi-purpose vehicles designed with European tastes in mind. PSA Peugeot Citroënand the Fiat Group founded a joint-venture, Sevel, and released in 1994 the eurovan under the nameplates CitroënEvasion (marked as Synergie in the UK), Peugeot 806, Fiat Ulysse and Lancia Zeta. The Ford and the VolkswagenGroup JV Auto-Europa similarly co-developed models on a common chassis and built them in a shared-plant inPalmela, Portugal. While the VW/SEAT/Ford model had alength of 4635 mm (182.5 in), the Espace and the eurovanwere around 200 mm (7.9 in) shorter and would be considered today as compact MPVs. All of them were availableas seven-seaters and the seats could be folded and removed. These models would be later called "large MPVs".The trend towards compact MPVs began in 1996 with the launch of the Renault Scénic and Opel Zafira. CompactMPVs were cars with tall bodies but based on the chassis and engines of a small family car (in the case of the Scénic,the Renault Mégane). The runaway success of the Scénic saw the car spawn a multitude of similar vehicles, like theOpel Zafira, the Citroën Xsara Picasso, the Volkswagen Touran, the SEAT Altea, the Ford Focus C-Max, and theNissan Almera Tino. By the mid-first decade of the 21st century virtually all mainstream automakers in Europe had acompact MPV in their range. Citroën's Xsara Picasso was a strong seller and was followed up with the C4 Picassorange with 5 and 7 seat variants, a line-up which resulted in Citroën becoming Europe's largest MPVmanufacturer.[4]

Also in the mid-first decade of the 21st century, automakers began to use MPV-style designs on supermini-basedchassis. Examples of mini MPVs them are the Opel/Vauxhall Meriva, based on the Corsa, the Citroën C3 Picasso,derived from the C3, and the Fiat Idea, derived from the Punto platform.In 2000, the Auto-Europa triplets (Galaxy, Sharan and Alhambra) were heavily face-lifted. More recently, Ford quitthe Auto-Europa joint venture to make its own Galaxy sharing many parts with the Ford S-MAX, another MPV.However the Auto-Europa production was not dissolved as VW and SEAT continued with their own models.In 2010, the second-generation Volkswagen Sharan and SEAT Alhambra were presented, making the debut of thebrand new Volkswagen group's MQB platform, and like their predecessors did, they were both again almost identicalin design one to another, with the exception of the front fascias, rear ends and some minor details. The productionsite would still be the Auto-Europa site in Portugal.

Engines

European Minivans (MPVs) are generally powered by four-cylinder engines, originally a mix of petrol and dieselunits, but with petrol engines becoming increasingly rare as diesels have improved. V6 engines are rare due to theincreased fuel consumption of larger engines being considered unacceptable with high fuel prices.

AsiaIn the ASEAN nations, China and India, multi-utility vehicles tend to be smaller than North American minivans andEuropean MPVs. Compact MUVs are more popular than models of other sizes.They also differ in that they need to cope with uneven terrain as opposed to paved highways. Models from localmanufacturers are usually based on Japanese designs from Suzuki, Daihatsu and Toyota. Popular models includeToyota Picnic, Toyota Previa, Mazda 8 and Honda StepWGN.MUVs vary widely in configuration. Whilst some MUVs might be replicas of European MPVs (such as theEuropean Ford Fusion) or American-style minivans (like the Toyota Innova), in some cases MUVs are similar toSUVs (such as the Chevrolet Tavera).

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Other examples of MUVs are the Maruti Versa, Isuzu Panther, Toyota Avanza, Mahindra Xylo, Toyota Qualis andToyota Innova.In Korea, full-size minivans are popular. Korean made examples include the Kia Carnival and SsangYong Rodius.In Malaysia, the Proton Exora is Proton's first MPV and the Perodua Alza is Perodua's first MPV.

Minivan Gallery

Lloyd LT500/600

(1953-1961)

Renault Espace1984, Generation I

Plymouth Grand Voyager1991, Generation II

Citroën Evasion1994

Fiat Ulysse 1994

Ford Windstar1995-1998, Generation I

SEAT Alhambra1996

Dodge Grand Caravan1996, Generation III

Mercury Villager1996-1998, Generation

I

Opel/VauxhallSintra 1996

HondaOdyssey/Shuttle

1995–1998,Generation I, US

Citroën XsaraPicasso 1999

Opel/VauxhallMeriva 2002

Renault Espace 2002,Generation IV

Honda Odyssey2002–2004,

Generation II, US

Pontiac Montana2002, shortwheelbase

SEAT Altea XL 2004 SsangYong Rodius2004

Honda Elysion 2004 Opel/VauxhallZafira 2005

Citroën C4 Grand Picasso2006

Kia Carnival/Sedona2006, Generation II,

short wheelbase,Europe

Ford C-Max 2007 Citroën C4 Picasso2007

Toyota Innova 2009

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Minivan 31

Citroën C3 Picasso2009

Proton Exora 2009 Opel/Vauxhall Meriva2010

Volkswagen Sharan2010

Chevrolet Orlando2011

References[1] "7 Passenger Vehicle List for 2011" (http:/ / 7passengervehicleshq. com/ 7-passenger-vehicles-list/ ). 7passengervehicleshq.com. . Retrieved

2011-09-23.[2] Patton, Phil (January 6, 2008). "A Visionary's Minivan Arrived Decades Too Soon" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 06/ automobiles/

collectibles/ 06SCARAB. html?_r=1& scp=6& sq=minivan& st=cse). The New York Times. . Retrieved September 23, 2011.[3] Niedermeyer, Paul (March 29, 2010). "The Mother Of All Modern Minivans: 1949 DKW Schnellaster" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars.

com/ the-mother-of-all-modern-minivans-1949-dkw-schnellaster/ ). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved September 23, 2011.[4] "Top Gear – Citroën Picasso" (http:/ / www. topgear. com/ uk/ citroen/ c3-picasso). .

External links• About.com Minivans Site (http:/ / minivans. about. com)

Crossover (automobile)

2009 Dodge Journey, CUV

2010 Fiat Palio Weekend Adventure Locker

A crossover is a vehicle built on a car platform and combining, inhighly variable degrees, features of a sport utility vehicle (SUV) withfeatures from a passenger vehicle, especially those of a station wagonor hatchback.

Using the unibody construction typical of passenger vehicles, thecrossover combines SUV design features such as tall interiorpackaging, high H-point seating, high ground-clearance orall-wheel-drive capability — with design features from an automobilesuch as a passenger vehicle's platform, independent rear suspension,car-like handling and fuel economy.

A crossover may borrow features from a station wagon or hatchbacksuch as the two-box design of a shared passenger/cargo volume withrear access via a third or fifth door, a liftgate — and flexibility to allowconfigurations that favor either passenger or cargo volume, e.g.,fold-down rear seats. The crossover may include an A, B & C-pillar, aswell as a D pillar.

Crossovers are typically designed for only light off-road capability, ifany at all.[1]

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Crossover (automobile) 32

2007 Saturn Outlook XR

Origin

The term crossover began as a marketing term,[2] and a 2008CNNMoney article indicated that "many consumers cannot tell thedifference between an SUV and a crossover."[1] A January 2008 WallStreet Journal blog article called crossovers "wagons that look likesport utility vehicles but ride like cars."[3]

The market segment spans a wide range of vehicles. In some cases,manufacturers have marketed vehicles as crossovers simply to avoidcalling them station wagons.[4] And while some crossover vehicles released in the early 2000s resembled traditionalSUVs or wagons, others have prioritized sportiness over utility—such as the Infiniti FX and BMW X6.[5] [6]

Crossover antecedents include the AMC Eagle, a vehicle that "pioneered the crossover SUV"[7] By 2006, thesegment came into strong visibility in the U.S., when crossover sales "made up more than 50% of the overall SUVmarket."[8] Sales increased in 2007 by 16%.[3] In the U.S., domestic manufacturers were slow to switch from theiremphasis on light truck-based SUVs, and foreign automakers developed crossovers targeting the U.S. market, as analternative to station wagons that are unpopular there. But by the 2010 model year, domestic automakers had quicklycaught up.[1] The segment has strong appeal to aging baby boomers.[1]

Crossover examplesThe broad spectrum of CUVs or crossovers includes:• Compact CUVs: e.g., Audi Q5, BMW X1, BMW X3, Mahindra XUV500, Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner/Mazda

Tribute, Honda CR-V, Toyota RAV4, Nissan Rogue, Nissan Juke, Mini Countryman, Acura RDX, Volvo XC60,Hyundai Tucson/Kia Sportage, Suzuki Grand Vitara, Mitsubishi Outlander Sport, Land Rover Freelander, InfinitiEX, Skoda Yeti, Subaru Forester, Mercedes-Benz GLK-Class, Volkswagen Tiguan, Land Rover Range RoverEvoque

• Mid-sized CUVs: e.g., Acura MDX, BMW X5, Chevy Equinox, Lexus RX, Mercedes-Benz M-Class, ToyotaHighlander, Nissan Murano, Ford Edge/Lincoln MKX, Cadillac SRX (2010-), Saab 9-4X, Mazda CX-7, BMWX6, Mitsubishi Outlander, Infiniti FX, Hyundai Santa Fe/Kia Sorento (2011-), Volkswagen Touareg/PorscheCayenne, GMC Terrain

• Full-sized CUVs: e.g., Audi Q7, Dodge Durango (2011 -), Ford Flex, Ford Explorer (2011-), Honda Pilot,Lincoln MKT, Mazda CX-9, Mercedes-Benz GL-Class, Mercedes-Benz R-Class (all of which offer three rows ofseating for 7 or 8 passengers)

• Mid-sized sedan-derived CUVs: e.g., BMW X6, Honda Accord Crosstour, Acura ZDX, Toyota Venza, AMCEagle, Audi A6 allroad quattro, Saab 9-3X, Subaru Outback, Volvo XC70 (the last five being based upon Stationwagons)

• Compact sedan-derived hatchback CUVs: e.g. Toyota Matrix/Pontiac Vibe[9] , Subaru Impreza hatchback• Minivan-like CUVs: e.g., Dodge Journey, Tata Aria, Buick Enclave/Chevrolet Traverse/GMC Acadia/Saturn

Outlook (defunct), Ford C-MAX, Mazda 5• Semi-offroaders: e.g. Fiat Palio Adventure, Ford Fiesta Trail, Nissan Livina X-Trail, Land Rover LR2, Jeep

Compass, Jeep Grand Cherokee (2005-) Peugeot Escapade, etc.The European MPV or large MPV may broadly resemble the crossover, including vehicles such as theMercedes-Benz R-Class, VW Golf Plus, Ford Kuga, Renault Koleos and Ford S-Max. Notably, during thedevelopment of the Dodge Journey CUV, Dodge benchmarked the S-Max.[10]

A short list of current crossovers with their platform genealogy (similar vehicles are grouped together):

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Model(s) Platform

Acura MDX Honda mid-size "CD" platform[11] (Honda Accord)

Acura RDX Honda compact "C" platform[11] (Honda Civic)

Acura ZDX Honda mid-size "CD" platform[11] (Honda Accord)

Audi allroad Volkswagen Group C5 platform

Audi Q5 Volkswagen Group B8 platform

Audi Q7 Volkswagen Group PL71 platform

BMW X1 BMW 3 Series

BMW X3 BMW 3 Series

BMW X5 BMW 5 series

BMW X6 BMW X5

Buick Enclave/Chevrolet Traverse/GMC Acadia/Saturn Outlook GM Lambda platform

Buick Rendezvous GM U platform

Cadillac SRX GM Theta Premium platform

Chevrolet Captiva/Saturn Vue GM Theta platform

Chevrolet Equinox GM Theta platform

Chrysler Pacifica Chrysler CS platform (Chrysler Town and Country/Dodge Caravan)

Dacia Duster Nissan B / Dacia B0 platform (Dacia Logan)

Dodge Journey Mitsubishi GS platform (Dodge Avenger)

Fiat Idea Fiat Idea Adventure Locker

Fiat Palio Fiat Palio Weekend Adventure Locker

Fiat Strada Fiat Strada Adventure Locker

Ford Edge Ford CD3 platform

Ford Escape/Mazda Tribute/Mercury Mariner Ford CD2 platform

Ford EcoSport Ford B3 platform (Ford Fiesta)

Ford Explorer (fifth generation) Ford D3 platform

Ford Flex Ford D4 platform

Ford Taurus X / Ford Freestyle Ford D3 platform (Ford Five Hundred/Taurus)

Ford Territory Ford Falcon

Holden Adventra/HSV Avalanche Holden Commodore

Holden Crewman/HSV Avalanche XUV Holden Commodore

Honda CR-V/Honda HR-V Honda compact "C" platform[11] (Honda Civic)

Honda Element Honda compact "C" platform[11] (Honda Civic)

Honda Pilot Honda mid-size "CD" platform[11] (Honda Accord)

Honda Crosstour Honda mid-size "CD" platform[11] (Honda Accord)

Hyundai Tucson/Kia Sportage (2nd Generation) Hyundai Elantra

Hyundai Santa Fe/Hyundai Veracruz/Kia Sorento (2nd Generation) Hyundai Sonata

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Infiniti EX Nissan FM platform

Infiniti FX Nissan FM platform (Infiniti G35)

Jeep Compass/Jeep Patriot Mitsubishi GS platform

Lexus RX Toyota Camry

Lincoln MKX/Ford Edge Ford CD3 platform (Lincoln Zephyr/MKZ, Ford Fusion)

Mazda CX-7 Mazda 6

Mazda CX-9 Ford CD3 platform (Mazda MPV)

Mercedes-Benz GL-Class

Mercedes-Benz GLK-Class Mercedes-Benz W204

Mercedes-Benz M-Class (second generation)

Mercedes-Benz R-Class

Mini Countryman

Mitsubishi Endeavor Mitsubishi Galant

Mitsubishi Outlander Mitsubishi Lancer

Nissan Murano Nissan D platform (Nissan Altima)

Nissan Rogue/Nissan Qashqai/Renault Koleos Nissan C platform (Nissan Sentra)

Nissan X-Trail Nissan C platform (Nissan Sentra)

Peugeot 3008 Peugeot 308

Porsche Cayenne Volkswagen Group PL71 platform

Saab 9-3X GM Epsilon platform

Saab 9-4X GM Theta Premium platform

Škoda Octavia Scout Volkswagen Group A platform

Subaru Forester Subaru Impreza

Subaru Outback Subaru Legacy

Subaru Tribeca Subaru Legacy

Suzuki Grand Vitara (Second generation) Suzuki SX4

Suzuki XL7 (Second generation) Chevrolet Equinox

Tata Aria Tata Indigo Manza

Toyota Matrix Toyota Corolla

Toyota RAV4 Toyota Corolla

Toyota Venza Toyota Camry

Toyota Highlander/Kluger Toyota Camry

Volkswagen Tiguan Volkswagen Group B platform (PQ46) (Volkswagen Golf)

Volkswagen Touareg Volkswagen Group PL71 platform

Volvo XC60 Ford EUCD platform

Volvo XC70 Ford EUCD platform

Volvo XC90 Ford D3 platform (Volvo S80)

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References[1] Isidore, Chris (9 January 2006). "GM and Ford's New Cross to Bear" (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ 2006/ 01/ 09/ Autos/ detroit_crossovers/

index. htm). CNN Money.com. . Retrieved 8 August 2010.[2] "Smart Buying Essentials What is a Crossover Vehicle?" (http:/ / www. intellichoice. com/ carBuying101/ what-is-a-crossover).

Intellichoice.com. .[3] White, Joseph B. (14 January 2008). "Crossover Market Is Thinly Sliced" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ autoshow/ 2008/ 01/ 14/

crossover-market-is-thinly-sliced/ ). The Wall Street Journal Blogs. . Retrieved 8 August 2010.[4] "Definition of Crossover Utility Vehicle" (http:/ / usedcars. about. com/ od/ glossaryatoe/ g/ Crossovers. htm). Usedcars.about.com.

2009-09-17. . Retrieved 2009-10-13.[5] "Inifiti FX35 Review (MY 2010)" (http:/ / www. edmunds. com/ infiniti/ fx35/ review. html). Edmunds.com. 2009. . Retrieved 2010-01-21.[6] Thomas, David (2008-09-15). "2009 Infiniti FX35" (http:/ / www. cars. com/ go/ crp/ research. jsp?makeid=20& modelid=7091&

year=2009& section=reviews). cars.com. . Retrieved 2010-01-21.[7] Sherman, Don (February 2001). "All-Wheel-Drive Revisited: AMC's 1980 Eagle pioneered the cross-over SUV" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/

articles/ mi_m3012/ is_2_181/ ai_70935228/ ?tag=content;col1). Automotive Industries. . Retrieved 8 August 2010.[8] Carty, Sharon Silke (3 May 2006). "Crossover vehicles pass up SUVs on road to growing sales" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ money/ autos/

2006-05-03-crossover-usat_x. htm). USAtoday. . Retrieved 8 August 2010.[9] Huffman, John. "A sleek “CUV” with youthful imagination - 2003 Toyota Matrix" (http:/ / www. thecarconnection. com/ Vehicle_Reviews/

SUVs_Wagons/ 2003_Toyota_Matrix. S181. A4435. html). The Car Connection. . Retrieved 2008-04-26.[10] "2009 Dodge Journey Road Test" (http:/ / car-reviews. automobile. com/ Dodge/ review/ 2009-dodge-journey-road-test/ 5449/ ). Car

Reviews.com, Feb 3, 2008, Justin Couture. .[11] Haines, Steven (2008). The Product Manager's Desk Reference (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xTMWzXuPqgwC& pg=PA13&

dq=Honda+ platforms& ei=DlBjS-OEJZryygSt-dEW& client=safari& cd=1#v=onepage& q=Honda platforms& f=false). McGraw-Hill.pp. 13–14. ISBN 9780071591348. . Retrieved 2010–01–29.

Commercial vehicleA commercial vehicle is a type of motor vehicle that may be used for transporting goods or passengers. TheEuropean Union defines "commercial motor vehicle" as any motorised road vehicle, which by its type ofconstruction and equipment is designed for, and capable of transporting, whether for payment or not: (1) more thannine persons, including the driver; (2) goods and "standard fuel tanks". This means the tanks permanently fixed bythe manufacturer to all motor vehicles of the same type as the vehicle in question and whose permanent fittingenables fuel to be used directly, both for the purposes of propulsion and, where appropriate, for the operation of arefrigeration system. Gas tanks fitted to motor vehicles designed for the direct use of gas as a fuel are considered tobe standard fuel tanks.[1]

Commercial classificationIn the United States a vehicle is designated “commercial” when it is titled or registered to a company. This is a broaddefinition, as commercial vehicles may be fleet vehicles, company cars, or other vehicles used for business. Vehiclesthat are designed to carry more than 16 passengers are considered a commercial vehicle.A vehicle may be considered a commercial vehicle if:• the title was placed in the name of a company or corporation.• The vehicle is used for business but is in an individual's name such as a sole proprietor.• the vehicle is a leased vehicle and in the name of the financial institution that owns it.• the vehicle exceeds a certain weight or class and therefore is "classified" as commercial even though it may not be

commercially used or commercially owned. A weight rating of 26,001 pounds or more is always considercommercial.[2]

• the vehicle is used to haul any hazardous material.A vehicles can be used for a business, if not exclusively, and remain private licensed, depending on the amount oftime used for business.

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Examples of commercial vehicles• Truck• Semi truck (articulated lorry)• Van• Coach• Bus• Taxicab• Trailers• Box truck (also known as a straight truck)

Commercial truck classificationCommercial trucks are classified according to the Gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). The United StatesDepartment of Transportation classifies commercial trucks with eight classes[3] :• Class 1- GVWR ranges from 0 to 6,000 pounds (0 to 2,722 kg)• Class 2- GVWR ranges from 6,001 to 10,000 pounds (2,722 to 4,536 kg)• Class 3- GVWR ranges from 10,001 to 14,000 pounds (4,536 to 6,350 kg)• Class 4- GVWR ranges from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds (6,351 to 7,257 kg)• Class 5- GVWR ranges from 16,001 to 19,500 pounds (7,258 to 8,845 kg).• Class 6- GVWR ranges from 19,501 to 26,000 pounds (8,846 to 11,793 kg)• Class 7- GVWR ranges from 26,001 to 33,000 pounds (11,794 to 14,969 kg)• Class 8- GVWR is anything above 33,000 pounds (14,969 kg)

PreservationOld commercial vehicles, like vintage cars, are popular items for preservation. News about preservation can be foundin magazines, such as Heritage Commercials.

References[1] EC Council Directive 68/297, substituted by EC Council Directive 85/347[2] (http:/ / www. is-it-a-lemon. com/ vehicle_history/ faq-commercial. htm) -commercial vehicles[3] (http:/ / changingears. com/ rv-sec-tow-vehicles-classes. shtml) Commercial truck classificatio

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Bus

An Arriva double-decker bus, running route 102on the London Buses network.

Volvo B10M articulated bus in Chiba, Japan.

Police bus in Australia

A bus (  /ˈbʌs/; plural "buses" or "busses", /ˈbʌsɪz/, archaically alsoomnibus, multibus, or autobus) is a road vehicle designed to carrypassengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers.[1]

The most common type of bus is the single-decker bus, with largerloads carried by double-decker buses and articulated buses, and smallerloads carried by midibuses and minibuses; coaches are used for longerdistance services. Bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, withthe same design appearing around the world.

Buses may be used for scheduled bus transport, scheduled coachtransport, school transport, private hire, tourism; promotional busesmay be used for political campaigns and others are privately operatedfor a wide range of purposes.

Horse drawn buses were used from 1820, followed by steam buses inthe 1830 and electric trolleybuses in 1882. The first buses powered byinternal combustion engines were used 1895 and this is still the mostcommon power source. Recently there has been growing interest inhybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses as well as onespowered by compressed natural gas or bio-diesel.

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Etymology

Parisian Omnibus, late nineteenth century

Bus is an apheresis of the Latin word Omnibus. The latter name isderived from a hatter's shop which was situated in front of one of thefirst bus stations in Nantes, France in 1823. "Omnes Omnibus" was apun on the Latin sounding name of that hatter Omnès: omnes meaning"all" and omnibus means "for all" in Latin. Nantes citizen soon gavethe nickname of Omnibus to the vehicle.[2] When motorized transportreplaced horse-drawn transport starting 1905, a motorized omnibuswas called an autobus, a term still used.

Types

Enviro 400 in Newcastle, England

Formats include single-decker bus, double-decker bus and articulatedbus (or 'bendy-bus') the prevalence of which varies from country tocountry. bi-articulated buses are also manufactured, andpassenger-carrying trailers— either towed behind a conventional bus (abus trailer), or hauled as a trailer by a truck (a trailer bus). Smallermidibus have a lower capacity and open-top bus are typically used forleisure purposes. In many new fleets, particularly in local transitsystems, there is an increasing shift to low-floor buses primarily foreasier accessibility. Coaches are designed for longer-distance traveland are typically fitted with individual high-backed reclining seats,seat-belts, toilets, audio-visual entertainment systems and can operateat higher speeds with more capacity for luggage. Coaches may be

single- or double-deckers, articulated and often include a separate luggage compartment under the passenger floor.Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlledalignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes.

Bus manufacturing may be by a single company (an integral manufacturer), or by one manufacturer's building a busbody over a chassis produced by another manufacturer.

Design

Accessibility

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Bus with wheelchair lift extended

Transit buses increasingly use low-floor bus designs and optionallyalso 'kneeling' air suspension and electrically or hydraulically extendedunder-floor ramps to provide level access for wheelchair users andpeople with baby carriages. Prior to more general use of suchtechnology these wheelchair users could only use specialist paratransitmobility buses.

Accessible vehicles also have wider entrances and interior gangwaysand space for wheelchairs. Interior fittings and destination displaysmay also be designed to be usable by the visually impaired. Coachesgenerally use wheelchair lifts instead of low floor designs. In somecountries vehicles are required to have these features by disability discrimination laws.

ConfigurationBuses were initially configured with an engine in the front and an entrance at the rear. With the transition to one-manoperation, many manufacturers moved to mid or rear-engined designs, with a single door at the front, or multipledoors. The move to the low-floor design has all but eliminated the mid-engined design, although some coaches stillhave mid mounted engines. Front-engined buses still persist for niche markets such as American school buses, someminibuses, and buses in less developed countries, which may be derived from truck chassis, rather than purpose-builtbus designs. Most buses have two axles, articulated buses have three.

GuidanceGuided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlledalignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Guidance canbe mechanical, optical or electromagnetic. Guidance is often, but not exclusively, employed as part of a BRTscheme. Extensions of the guided technology include the Guided Light Transit and Translohr systems, althoughthese are more often termed 'rubber tyred trams' as they have limited or no mobility away from their guideways.

LiveriesTransit buses are normally painted to identify the operator or a route, function or to demarcate low-cost or premiumservice buses. Bus may be painted onto the vehicle, applied using adhesive vinyl technologies or using decals.Vehicles often also carry bus advertising or part or all of their visible surfaces (as mobile billboard). campaign busesmay be decorated with key campaign messages.

Propulsion

Ride On hybrid electric bus with appropriatelivery

The most common power source since the 1920s has been the dieselengine. Early buses, known as trolleybus, were powered by electricitysupplied from overhead lines. Nowadays, electric buses often carrytheir own battery, which is sometimes recharged on stops/stations inorder to keep the size of the battery small/lightweight. Currently thereis interest in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses andones powered by compressed natural gas or bio-diesel. Gyrobuses,which are powered by the momentum stored by a flywheel were triedin the 1940s.

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ManufactureEarly bus manufacturing grew out of carriage coachbuilding, and later out of automobile or truck manufacturers.Early buses were merely a bus body fitted to a truck chassis. This body+chassis approach has continued with modernspecialist manufacturers, although there also exist integral designs such as the Leyland National where the two arepractically inseparable. Specialist builders also exist and concentrate on building buses for special uses, or modifyingstandard buses into specialised products.Integral designs have the advantages that they are have been well tested for strength, stability and so forth, and alsoare off-the-shelf. But there are, however, two incentives to use the chassis+body model. First it allows the buyer andmanufacturer both to shop for the best deal for their needs, rather than having to settle on one fixed design— thebuyer can choose the body and the chassis separately. Second it is likely that over the lifetime of a vehicle (inconstant service and heavy traffic) that it will get minor damage now and again, and to be able easily to replace abody panel or window etc. can vastly increase its service life and save the cost and inconvenience of removing itfrom service.As with the rest of the automotive industry, into the 20th century bus manufacturing increasingly became globalized,with manufacturers producing buses far from their intended market to exploit labour and material cost advantages.As with the cars, new models are often exhibited by manufacturers at prestigious industry shows to gain new orders.

Uses

Public transport

Public transit bus in Brooklyn, New York

Transit bus, used on public transport bus services, have utilitarianfittings designed for efficient movement of large numbers of people,and often have multiple doors. coaches are used for longer distanceroutes. High capacity bus rapid transit services may use thebi-articulated bus or tram style buses such as Wright StreetCar and theIrisbus Civis.

Buses and coach services often operate to a pre-determined publishedpublic transport timetable defining the route and the timing, howeversmaller vehicles may be used on more flexible demand responsivetransport services.

Tourism

Buses play a major part in the tourism industry. Tour buses around the world allow tourists to view local attractionsor scenery. These are often open-top buses, but can also be by regular bus or coach.

In local sightseeing, City Sightseeing is the largest operator of local tour buses, operating on a franchised basis allover the world. Specialist tour buses are also often owned and operated by safari parks and other theme parks orresorts. Longer distance tours are also carried out by bus, either on a turn up and go basis or through a tour operator,and usually allow disembarkation from the bus to allow touring of sites of interest on foot. These may be day trips orlonger excursions incorporating hotel stays. Tour buses will often carry a tour guide, although the driver or apre-recorded audio commentary may also perform this function. The tour operator may itself be a subsidiary of a busoperating company that operates buses and coaches for other uses, or an independent company that charters buses orcoaches. Commuter transport operators may also use their coaches to conduct tours within the target city between themorning and evening commuter transport journey.

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Buses and coaches are also a common component of the wider package holiday industry, providing private airporttransfers (in addition to general airport buses) and organised tours and day trips for holidaymakers on the package.Public long distance coach networks are also often used as a low-cost method of travel by students or young peopletravelling the world. Some companies such as Topdeck Travel were set up to specifically use buses to drive thehippie trail or travel to places like north Africa.In many tourist or travel destinations, a bus is part of the tourist attraction, such as the North American touristtrolleys, London’s Routemaster heritage routes, or the customised buses of Malta, Asia and the Americas.

Student transport

U.S. style school bus

In some countries, particularly the USA and Canada, buses used totransport school children have evolved in to a specific design withspecified mandatory features. These school buses feature things suchas the school bus yellow livery and crossing guards. Other countriesmay mandate the use of seat belts. As a minimum many countriesrequire that a bus carrying students displays a sign, and may also adoptyellow liveries. Student transport often uses older buses cascaded fromservice use, retro-fitted with more seats and/or seatbelts. Studenttransport may be operated by local authorities or private contractors.Schools may also own and operate their own buses for other transportneeds, such as class field trips, or to transport associated sports, musicor other school groups.

Private charter

An Example of a private bus featuring, KuwaitSC Football team bus.

Due to the costs involved in owning, operating and driving buses andcoaches, many bus and coach uses a private hire of vehicles fromcharter bus companies, either for a day or two, or a longer contractbasis, where the charter company provides the vehicles and qualifieddrivers. Charter bus operators may be completely independentbusinesses, or charter hire may be a subsidiary business of a publictransport operator who might maintain a separate fleet or use surplusbuses, coaches, and dual purpose coach seated buses. Many privatetaxicab companies also operate larger minibus vehicles to cater forgroup fares. Companies, private groups and social clubs may hirebuses or coaches as a cost effective method of transporting a group toan event or site, such as a group meeting, racing event, or organisedrecreational activity such as a summer camp. Entertainment or event companies may also hire temporary shuttlesbuses for transport at events such as festivals or conferences. Party buses are used by companies in a similar mannerto limousine hire, for luxury private transport to social events or as a touring experience. Sleeper buses are used bybands or other organisations that tour between entertainment venues and require mobile rest and recreation facilities.Some couples hire preserved buses for their wedding transport instead of the traditional car. Buses are often hired forparades or processions. Victory parades are often held for triumphant sports teams, who often tour their home townor city in an open-top bus. Sports teams may also contract out their transport to a team bus, for travel to away games,to a competition or to a final event. These buses are often specially decorated in a livery matching the team colours.Private companies often contract out private shuttle bus services, for transport of their customers or patrons, such as

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hotels, amusement parks, university campuses or private airport transfer services. This shuttle usage can be astransport between locations, or to and from parking lots. High specification luxury coaches are often chartered bycompanies for executive or VIP transport. Charter buses may also be used in Tourism and for promotion (SeeTourism and Promotion sections)

Private ownershipMany organisations, including the police, not for profit, social or charitable groups with a regular need for grouptransport may find it practical or cost-effective to own and operate a bus for their own needs. These are oftenminibuses for practical, tax and driver licensing reasons, although they can also be full size buses. Cadet or scoutgroups or other youth organizations may also own buses. Specific charities may exist to fund and operate bustransport, usually using specially modified mobility buses or otherwise accessible buses (See Accessibility section).Some use their contributions to buy vehicles, and provide volunteer drivers.Airport operators make use of special airside airport buses for crew and passenger transport in the secure airsideparts of an airport. Some public authorities, police forces and military forces make use of armoured buses wherethere is a special need to provide increased passenger protection. The United States Secret Service acquired two in2010 for transporting dignitaries needing special protection.[3] Police departments make use of police buses for avariety of reasons, such as prisoner transport, officer transport, temporary detention facilities and as command andcontrol vehicles. Some fire departments also use a converted bus as a command post,[4] while those in cold climatesmight retain a bus as a heated shelter at fire scenes.[5] Many are drawn from retired school or service buses.

PromotionBuses are often used for advertising, political campaigning, public information campaigns, public relations orpromotional purposes. These may take the form of temporary charter hire of service buses, or the temporary orpermanent conversion and operation of buses, usually of second-hand buses. Extreme examples include convertingthe bus with displays and decorations or awnings and fittings. Interiors may be fitted out for exhibition orinformation purposes with special equipment and/or audio visual devices.Bus advertising takes many forms, often as interior and exterior adverts and all-over advertising liveries. Thepractice often extends into the exclusive private hire and use of a bus to promote a brand or product, appearing atlarge public events, or touring busy streets. The bus is sometimes staffed by promotions personnel, giving out freegifts. Campaign buses are often specially decorated for a political campaign or other social awareness informationcampaign, designed to bring a specific message to different areas, and/or used to transport campaign personnel tolocal areas/meetings. Exhibition buses are often sent to public events such as fairs and festivals for purposes such asrecruitment campaigns, for example by private companies or the armed forces. Complex urban planning proposalsmay be organised into a mobile exhibition bus for the purposes of public consultation.

Buses around the world

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Ryujin bus, Japan

Historically, the types and features of buses have developed accordingto local needs. Buses were fitted with technology appropriate to thelocal climate or passenger needs, such as air conditioning in Asia, orcycle mounts on North American buses. The bus types in use aroundthe world where there was little mass production were often sourcedsecond hand from other countries, such as the Malta bus, and buses inuse in Africa. Other countries such as Cuba required novel solutions toimport restrictions, with the creation of the “camellos” (camel bus), aspecially manufactured trailer bus.

After the Second World War, manufacturers in Europe and the Far East, such as Mercedes-Benz buses andMitsubishi Fuso expanded into other continents influencing the use of buses previously served by local types. Use ofbuses around the world has also been influenced by colonial associations or political alliances between countries.Several of the Commonwealth nations followed the British lead and sourced buses from British manufacturers,leading to a prevalence of double-decker buses. Several Eastern Bloc countries adopted trolleybus systems, and theirmanufacturers such as Trolza exported trolleybuses to other friendly states. In the 1930s Italy designed the world'sonly triple decker bus for the busy route between Rome and Tivoli that could carry eighty-eight passengers. It wasunique not only in being a triple decker but having a separate smoking compartment on the third level.[6]

The buses to be found in countries around the world often reflect the quality of the local road network, with highfloor resilient truck based designs prevalent in several less developed countries where buses are subject to toughoperating conditions. Population density also has a major impact, where dense urbanisation such as in Japan and thefar east has led to the adoption of high capacity long multi-axle buses, often double-deckers, while South Americaand China are implementing large numbers of articulated buses for bus rapid transit schemes.

Bus expositionsEuro Bus Expo is a trade show, which is held bi-annually at the UK's National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham. Asthe official show of the Confederation of Passenger Transport, the UK’s trade association for the bus, coach and lightrail industry, the three day event offers visitors from Europe and beyond the chance to see and experience, at firsthand, the very latest vehicles and product and service innovations right across the industry. The next show will beheld in November 2010.[7]

Busworld Kortrijk is the leading bus trade fair in Europe is the Busworld in Kortrijk in Belgium. It is heldbi-annually, last time October 2009 and next time October 2011.

History

Old bus, serving Viveiro and Lugo in Galicia, Spain.

The first known public bus line (known as a "Carriage" at thattime) was launched by Blaise Pascal in 1662 and was quitepopular until fares were increased and access from to the servicerestricted to high society members only by regulation. Servicesceased after 15 years[2] [8] and no further such services wereknown until the 1820s. Horse buses operated in many cities duringthe later part of the 1800s and early 1900s with one company inLondon operating 220 horse-buses by 1880. The last horse bus inLondon stopped operation in 1914.[9] Early horse-drawn buseswere a combination of a hackney carriage and a stagecoach.

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From the 1830s steam powered buses existed. In parallel to the development of the bus, was the invention of theelectric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires, which actually preceded, and in manyurban areas outnumbered, the conventional engine powered bus. The first internal combustion engine buses weredeveloped along with the automobile. After the first engine powered bus of 1895.The Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company which rapidly became a major manufacturer of buses was founded inChicago in 1923 by John D. Hertz. General Motors purchased a majority stake in 1925 and changed its name to theYellow Truck & Coach Manufacturing Company. They then purchased the balance of the shares in 1943 to form theGM Truck & Coach Division.Models expanded in the 20th century, leading to the widespread introduction of the contemporary recognizable formof full size buses from the 1950s.One of the most unusual buses ever built was a prop for Paramount Productions in 1935 for a movie set.[10]

The Montgomery Bus Boycott which opposed the city's policy of racial segregation on its public transit systemstarted on 1 December 1955, when Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrenderher seat to a white person in Montgomery, Alabama, USA. It ended on 20 December 1956 with a United StatesSupreme Court decision that the laws requiring segregated buses were unconstitutional.[11] Many historicallysignificant figures of the civil rights movement were involved in the boycott, including Reverend Martin LutherKing, Jr. and Ralph Abernathy.

Use of retired buses

Retired GM bus

Most public or private buses and coaches, once they have reached theend of their service with one or more operators, are sent to thewrecking yard for breaking up for scrap and spare parts. Some buses,while not economical to keep running as service buses, are oftenconverted in some way for use by the operator, or another user, forpurposes other than revenue earning transport. Much like old cars andtrucks, buses often pass through a dealership where they can be boughtfor a price or at auction.

Bus operators will often find it economical to convert retired buses touse as permanent training buses for driver training, rather than taking aregular service bus out of use. Some large operators have in the past also converted retired buses into tow busvehicles, to act as tow trucks. With the outsourcing of maintenance staff and facilities, the increase in companyhealth and safety regulations, and the increasing curb weights of buses, many operators now contract their towingneeds to a professional vehicle recovery company.

Many retired buses have been converted to static or mobile cafés, often using historic buses as a tourist attraction.Food is also provided from a catering bus, in which a bus is converted into a mobile canteen and break room. Theseare commonly seen at external filming locations to feed the cast and crew, and at other large events to feed staff.Some organisations adapt and operate playbuses or learning buses to provide a playground or learning environmentsto children who might not have access to proper play areas. An ex-London Routemaster bus has been converted to amobile theatre and catwalk fashion show.[12]

Some buses meet a destructive end by being entered in banger races or at demolition derbys.Many old retired buses have also been converted into mobile holiday homes and campers.

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Bus 45

Bus preservationRather than being scrapped or converted for other uses, sometimes retired buses are saved for preservation. This canbe done by individuals, volunteer preservation groups or charitable trusts, museums, or sometimes by the operatorsthemselves as part of a heritage fleet. These buses often need to undergo a degree of vehicle restoration to restorethem to their original condition, and will have their livery and other details such as internal notices and rollsignsrestored to be authentic to a specific time in the bus's actual history. Some buses that undergo preservation arerescued from a state of great disrepair, but others enter preservation with very little wrong with them. As with otherhistoric vehicles, many preserved buses either in a working or static state form part of the collections of transportmuseums. Working buses will often be exhibited at rallies and events, and they are also used as charter buses. Whilemany preserved buses are quite old or even vintage, in some cases relatively new examples of a bus type can enterrestoration. In-service examples are still in use by other operators. This often happens when a change in design oroperating practice, such as the switch to one person operation or low floor technology, renders some buses redundantwhile still relatively new.

References[1] "China's longest bus unveiled in Shanghai" (http:/ / news. jongo. com/ articles/ 07/ 0315/ 9180/ OTE4MAmXAYhbF0. html). Jongo.com. 15

March 2007. .[2] "Histoire générale des transports" (http:/ / www. amtuir. org/ 03_htu_generale/ htu_1_avant_1870/ htu_1. htm). French transportations

Museum Website. . Retrieved 16 September 2010. (French)[3] Robert Farley (25 August 2011). "Obama’s Canadian-American Bus" (http:/ / www. factcheck. org/ 2011/ 08/

obamas-canadian-american-bus/ ). FactCheck. . Retrieved 17 October 2011.[4] "Chesapeake Fire Department" (http:/ / cityofchesapeake. net/ services/ depart/ fire/ bus. shtml). Cityofchesapeake.net. 1998-05-01. .

Retrieved 2010-10-12.[5] City of Winnipeg Corporate Web Services. "Winnipeg Fire Department" (http:/ / www. winnipeg. ca/ fps/ Services/ Operations/ MIRV. stm).

Winnipeg.ca. . Retrieved 2010-10-12.[6] "Three Decker Auto Bus Carries 88 Persons" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7-EDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA286& dq=popular+

mechanics+ 1932+ the+ president+ of+ a+ big& hl=en& ei=JIgVTcvHIM2AnQf50_3fDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=true) Popular Mechanics, August 1932

[7] "Euro Bus Expo : Welcome to the European coach & bus industry exhibition" (http:/ / www. eurobusxpo. com). Eurobusxpo.com. . Retrieved2009-05-30.

[8] "Le temps de révolutions" (http:/ / www. herodote. net/ histoire/ evenement. php?jour=18260810). Herodote.net. . Retrieved 16 September2010. (French) Retrieved 13 June 2008.

[9] "Riding on a knifeboard" (http:/ / www. museumoflondon. org. uk/ postcodes/ places/ SE15. html). London Museum. . "Thomas Tillingstarted his bus service in the 1840s. By 1901 he had a total of 220 horse-drawn buses... The last recorded horse omnibus in London was aTilling bus. It ran its last journey between Peckham and Honor Oak Tavern on 4 August 1914."

[10] "Streamline Bus Is Like Dirigible On Wheels" Popular Mechanics, April 1935 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA487& dq=Popular+ Science+ 1935+ plane+ "Popular+ Mechanics"& hl=en& ei=zHM2Tpf-IeuFsgLc_MH3Cg& sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCwQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage& q=Popular Science 1935 plane "Popular Mechanics"&f=true)

[11] "Montgomery Bus Boycott" (http:/ / www. crmvet. org/ tim/ timhis55. htm#1955mbb). Civil Rights Movement Veterans. .[12] Event preview: Fashion Bus On The Square, London (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ stage/ 2008/ aug/ 16/ theatre. londonlistings1) The

Guardian, 16 August 2008

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links• American Bus Association (http:/ / www. buses. org)

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Truck

North American highway freight rig pulled by aKenworth tractor. Note the refrigerated trailer andthe Conventional ("American") engine-cab style.

1898 "NW First Truck"

Truck carrying a large load in India

A truck (North American, Irish and Australian English) or lorry(British and Commonwealth English) is a motor vehicle designed totransport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power and configuration,with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile.Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful, and may beconfigured to mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of firetrucks and concrete mixers and suction excavators. Modern trucks arepowered by either gasoline or diesel engines, with diesel dominant incommercial applications. In the European Union vehicles with a grosscombination mass of less than 3500 kilograms (7716 lb) are known asLight commercial vehicles and those over as Large goods vehicles.

The word

Etymology

The word "truck" might have come from a back-formation of "truckle"with the meaning "small wheel", "pulley", from Middle English trokell,in turn from Latin trochlea. Another explanation is that it comes fromLatin trochus with the meaning of "iron hoop". In turn, both go back toGreek trokhos (τροχός) meaning "wheel" from trekhein (τρέχειν, "torun"). The first known usage of "truck" was in 1611 when it referred tothe small strong wheels on ships' cannon carriages. In its extendedusage it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads, a meaningknown since 1771. With the meaning of "motor-powered load carrier",it has been in usage since 1930, shortened from "motor truck", whichdates back to 1916.[1] [2]

"Lorry" has a more uncertain origin, but probably has its roots in therailroad industry, where the word is known to have been used in 1838to refer to a type of truck (a freight car as in British usage, not a bogieas in the American), specifically a large flat wagon. It probably derivesfrom the verb lurry (to pull, tug) of uncertain origin. With the meaningof "self-propelled vehicle for carrying goods" it has been in usage since1911.[3] [4]

International variance

In the United States and Canada "truck" is usually reserved forcommercial vehicles larger than normal cars including pickups andother vehicles having an open load bed, while in Australia and NewZealand, a pickup truck is usually called a ute (short for "utility") and the word "truck" is mostly reserved for largervehicles. The small utility truck was invented in Australia in the 1930s.[5]

In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ireland and Hong Kong lorry is used instead of truck, but onlyfor the medium and heavy types.

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In American English, the word "truck" is often preceded by a word describing the type of vehicle, such as a "firetruck" or "tanker truck". In British English these would be referred to as "fire engine" and "tanker" or "petrol tanker",respectively. In Canada and the United States, "fire engine" is also used.

Driving

Inside a Mack truck

In the United States, a commercial driver's license is required to driveany type of commercial vehicle weighing 26001 lb (11794 kg) ormore.[6]

The United Kingdom and the rest of Europe now have common, yetcomplex rules (see European driving licence). As an overview, to drivea vehicle weighing more than 7500 kilograms (16535 lb) forcommercial purposes requires a specialist licence (the type variesdepending on the use of the vehicle and number of seats). For licencesfirst acquired after 1997, that weight was reduced to 3500 kilograms(7716 lb), not including trailers.

In Australia, a truck driving license is required for any motor vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM) exceeding4500 kilograms (9921 lb). The motor vehicles classes are further expanded as:

• LR: Light rigid: a rigid vehicle with a GVM of more than 4500 kilograms (9921 lb) but not more than 8000kilograms (17637 lb). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9000 kilograms (19842 lb) GVM.

• MR: Medium rigid: a rigid vehicle with 2 axles and a GVM of more than 8000 kilograms (17637 lb). Any towedtrailer must not weigh more than 9000 kilograms (19842 lb) GVM. Also includes vehicles in class 'LR'.

• HR: Heavy Rigid: a rigid vehicle with 3 or more axles and a GVM of more than 8000 kilograms (17637 lb)). Anytowed trailer must not weigh more than 9000 kilograms (19842 lb)) GVM. Also includes articulated buses andvehicles in class 'MR'.

• HC: Heavy Combination, a typical prime mover plus semi trailer combination.• MC: Multi Combination e.g. B Doubles/Road trains.There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a licence class HR, HC or MC test passed in a vehicle fittedwith an automatic or synchromesh transmission, a driver’s licence will be restricted to vehicles of that class fittedwith a synchromesh or automatic transmission . To have the condition removed, a person needs to pass a practicaldriving test in a vehicle with non synchromesh transmission (constant mesh or crash box).[7] [8]

In 2006, the U.S. trucking industry employed 1.8 million drivers of heavy trucks.[9] There are around 5 million truckdrivers in India.[10]

Anatomy of a truck

A Russian truck from the early 1920s

Almost all trucks share a common construction: they are made of achassis, a cab, an area for placing cargo or equipment, axles,suspension and roadwheels, an engine and a drivetrain. Pneumatic,hydraulic, water, and electrical systems may also be identified. Manyalso tow one or more trailers or semi-trailers.

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Scania R470 flat nose truck

Cab

The cab is an enclosed space where the driver is seated. A sleeper is acompartment attached to the cab where the driver can rest while notdriving, sometimes seen in semi-trailer trucks.

There are several possible cab configurations:• Cab over engine (COE) or flat nose; where the driver is seated

above the front axle and the engine. This design is almostubiquitous in Europe, where overall truck lengths are strictlyregulated, but also widely used in the rest of the world as well. Theywere common in North America, but lost prominence whenpermitted length was extended in the early 1980s. To access theengine, the whole cab tilts forward, earning this design the name oftilt-cab. This type of cab is especially suited to the deliveryconditions in Europe where many roads follow the layout of muchmore ancient path, and trackways which require the additionalturning capability of the cab over engine type. The COE design wasinvented by Viktor Schreckengost.[11]

• Conventional cabs are the most common in North America and Australia, and are known in the UK as Americancabs and in the Netherlands as "torpedo cabs". The driver is seated behind the engine, as in most passenger cars orpickup trucks. Conventionals are further divided into large car and aerodynamic designs. A "large car" or "longnose" is a conventional truck with a long (6 to 8 foot (1.8 to 2.4 m) or more) hood. Aerodynamic cabs are verystreamlined, with a sloped hood and other features to lower drag.

• Cab beside engine designs also exist, but are rather rare and are mainly used inside shipping yards, or otherspecialist uses such as aircraft baggage loading.

Engine

Cummins ISB 6.7L medium duty truck dieselengine

The oldest truck was built in 1896 by Gottlieb Daimler.[12] Most smalltrucks such as sport utility vehicles (SUVs) or pickups, and even lightmedium-duty trucks in North America and Russia will use petrolengines (gasoline engines), but many diesel engined models are nowbeing produced. Most heavier trucks use four stroke diesel engine witha turbocharger and aftercooler. Huge off-highway trucks uselocomotive-type engines such as a V12 Detroit Diesel two strokeengine. Diesel engines are becoming the engine of choice for trucksranging from class 3 to 8 GVWs.

North American manufactured highway trucks almost always use anengine built by a third party, such as CAT, Cummins, or DetroitDiesel. The only exceptions to this are Volvo and its subsidiary MackTrucks, which are available with their own engines. Freightliner Trucks, Sterling Trucks and Western Star,subsidiaries of Daimler AG, are available with Mercedes-Benz and Detroit Diesel engines. Trucks and buses built byNavistar International usually also contain International engines. The Swedish manufacturer Scania claims they stayaway from the U.S. market because of this third party tradition.

In the European Union, all new lorry engines must comply with Euro 5 emission regulations.

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Drivetrain

A truck rear suspension and drive axles overview

Eaton Roadranger 18 speed "crash box" withautomated gearshift

Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all cars,having either an automatic transmission or a manual transmission withsynchromesh (synchronizers). Bigger trucks often use manualtransmissions without synchronisers, saving bulk and weight, althoughsynchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well.Transmissions without synchronizers, known as "crash boxes", requiredouble-clutching for each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motioninjuries), or a technique known colloquially as "floating", a method ofchanging gears which doesn't use the clutch, except for starts and stops,due to the physical effort of double clutching, especially with nonpower assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear.

Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine andtransmission revolutions to synchronize, so that a smooth shift can bemade, e.g., when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released and theclutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, theclutch pedal is then released and quickly pushed down again while thegear lever is moved to the next higher gear. Finally, the clutch pedal isreleased and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain requiredengine speed. Although this is a relatively fast movement, perhaps asecond or so while transmission is in neutral, it allows the engine speedto drop and synchronize engine and transmission revolutions relative tothe road speed. Downshifting is performed in a similar fashion, except

the engine speed is now required to increase (while transmission is in neutral) just the right amount in order toachieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision gear change. Skip changing is also widely used; in principleoperation is the same as double-clutching, but it requires neutral be held slightly longer than a single gear change.

Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18 speeds. Automatic and semi-automatic transmissionsfor heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances both in transmission and engine power. InEurope 8, 10, 12 and 16 gears are common on larger trucks with manual transmission, while automatic orsemi-automatic transmissions would have anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are ofthe "range and split" (double H shift pattern) type, where range change and so-called half gears or splits are airoperated and always preselected before the main gear selection.

Frame

A truck rear frame (chassis) section view

A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C-shapedrails, or beams, held together by crossmembers. These frames arereferred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a ladder iftipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed)and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical sectionprovides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top ofthe frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length onheavy duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched forclearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are

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used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses, or measuring and adjusting theorientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop.Though they may be welded, crossmembers are most often attached to frame rails by bolts or rivets. Crossmembersmay be boxed or stamped into a c-shape, but are most commonly boxed on modern vehicles, particularly heavytrucks.The frame is almost always made of steel, but can be made (whole or in part) of aluminium for a lighter weight. Atow bar may be found attached at one or both ends, but heavy trucks almost always make use of a fifth wheel hitch.

Environmental effects

DAF tractor with an auto-transport semi-trailercarrying Škoda Octavia cars in Cardiff, Wales

Trucks contribute to air, noise, and water pollution similarly toautomobiles. Trucks may emit lower air pollution emissions than carsper equivalent vehicle mass, although the absolute level per vehicledistance traveled is higher, and diesel particulate matter is especiallyproblematic for health.[13] With respect to noise pollution, trucks emitconsiderably higher sound levels at all speeds compared to typical car;this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks.[14] There areseveral aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall soundthat is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on theroadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highwayspeeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are thingslike the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on

acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noiseregulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders are allowed.

Concerns have been raised about the effect of trucking on the environment, particularly as part of the debate onglobal warming. In the period from 1990 to 2003, carbon dioxide emissions from transportation sources increased by20%, despite improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency.[15]

In 2005, transportation accounted for 27% of U.S. greenhouse gas emission, increasing faster than any othersector.[16]

Between 1985 and 2004, in the U.S., energy consumption in freight transportation grew nearly 53%, while thenumber of ton-miles carried increased only 43%.[17] "Modal shifts account for a nearly a 23% increase in energyconsumption over this period. Much of this shift is due to a greater fraction of freight ton-miles being carried viatruck and air, as compared to water, rail, and pipelines."According to a 1995 U.S. Government estimate, the energy cost of carrying one ton of freight a distance of onekilometer averages 337 kJ for water, 221 kJ for rail, 2,000 kJ for trucks, and nearly 13,000 kJ for air transport.[18]

Many environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to encourage the switch from road to rail, especially inEurope.[19]

The European Parliament is moving to ensure that charges on heavy-goods vehicles should be based in part on theair and noise pollution they produce and the congestion they cause, according to legislation approved by theTransport Committee.[20] The Eurovignette scheme has been proposed, whereby new charges would be potentiallylevied against things such as noise and air pollution and also weight related damages from the lorries themselves.[21]

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Sales and sales issues

Truck market worldwide

Worldwide

Isuzu truck Mercedes-Benz lorryIVECO lorry Volvo's subsidiary Renault

Magnum lorry

UD Nissan lorryHino Motors truck

SISU truck

Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2009, over 16 tons GVW in 2009.[22]

Pos. Make Units

1 Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz, Freightliner Trucks, Sterling Trucks, Unimog, Western Star, Fuso) 478,535

2 Volvo Group (Volvo, Mack, Renault, UD Nissan Diesel) 438,954

3 Dongfeng 341,875

4 Tata Group (Tata Motors, Daewoo Commercial Vehicle) 159,237

5 Hyundai Kia Automotive Group (Hyundai) 157,781

6 Toyota Group (Hino Motors) 129,107

7 Fiat Group (Iveco, Magirus, Astra, Seddon Atkinson, Yuejin) 127,542

8 PACCAR (DAF Trucks, Kenworth, Peterbilt, Leyland Trucks) 126,960

9 Volkswagen Group (Scania, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles) 110,617

10 MAN SE (MAN SE, Volkswagen Trucks and Buses, China National Heavy Duty Truck Group) 92,485

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Operations issues

Commercial insurancePrimary liability Insurance coverage protects the truck from damage or injuries to other people as a result of a truckaccident. This truck insurance coverage is mandated by U.S. state and federal agencies, and proof of coverage isrequired to be sent to them. Insurance coverage limits range from $35,000 to $1,000,000. Pricing is dependent onregion, driving records, and history of the trucking operation.Motor truck cargo insurance protects the transporter for his responsibility in the event of damaged or lost freight. Thepolicy is purchased with a maximum load limit per vehicle. Cargo insurance coverage limits can range from $10,000to $100,000 or more. Pricing for this insurance is mainly dependent on the type of cargo being hauled.

Truck showsIn the UK, three truck shows are popular - Shropshire Truck Show in Oswestry Showground during May, The UKTruck Show held in June at Santa Pod Raceway, and FIA European Drag Racing Championships from the home ofEuropean Drag-Racing. The UK Truck Show features drag-racing with 6-tonne trucks from the British Truck RacingAssociation, plus other diesel-powered entertainment.Truck shows provide operators with an opportunity to win awards for their trucks.

References[1] "Truck" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ truck?show=2& t=1284721768) Merriam-Webster Dictionary[2] "Truck" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=truck& searchmode=none) Online Etymology Dictionary 2010-09-16[3] "Lorry" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=lorry& searchmode=none) Online Etymology Dictionary 2010-09-16[4] "Lorry" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ lorry) Marriam-Webster Dicitionary[5] Radio Australia - Innovations - The First Ute (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ ra/ innovations/ stories/ s841574. htm)[6] "Commercial Drivers License" (http:/ / www. nhtsa. gov/ people/ injury/ enforce/ cvm/ CMV_license. html). National Highway Traffic Safety

Administration. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.[7] Australian driving license classifications (http:/ / www. transport. sa. gov. au/ licences_certification/ drivers/ classifications. asp)[8] License class information (http:/ / www. transport. sa. gov. au/ licences_certification/ drivers/ about_licence_class. asp)[9] "Truck Drivers and Drivers/Sales Workers" (http:/ / www. bls. gov/ oco/ ocos246. htm#projections_data). Occupational Outlook Handbook.

Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 2007-12-18. . Retrieved 2008-01-25.[10] " Indian Truckers Strike to Protest Against Fuel Price Hike (http:/ / www2. dw-world. de/ southasia/ South_Asia/ 1. 234233. 1. html)".

Deutsche Welle. July 2, 2008.[11] Bernstein, Adam (2008-01-29). "Viktor Schreckengost; Designed Bicycles, Dinnerware and More" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/

wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2008/ 01/ 28/ AR2008012802613. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2010-05-26.[12] "Truck History" (http:/ / inventors. about. com/ library/ inventors/ bltruck. htm). About.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-06.[13] "Heavy-Duty Truck and Bus Engines" (http:/ / www. dieselnet. com/ standards/ us/ hd. html). dieselnet.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-06.[14] C. Michael Hogan (1973). "Analysis of highway noise" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ x1707075n815g604/ ). Springer

Science+Business Media. pp. 387–392. doi:10.1007/BF00159677. .[15] "U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Use by Sector" (http:/ / www. bts. gov/ publications/ national_transportation_statistics/ html/

table_04_49. html). United States Department of Transportation. . Retrieved 2008-09-06.[16] "Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080718170054/ http:/ / www. epa. gov/ climatechange/

emissions/ downloads06/ 07Trends. pdf) (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (http:/ / epa. gov/climatechange/ emissions/ downloads06/ 07Trends. pdf) on 2008-07-18. . Retrieved 2008-09-06.

[17] "Energy Intensity Indicators" (http:/ / www1. eere. energy. gov/ ba/ pba/ intensityindicators/ ). United States Department of Energy. .Retrieved 2008-09-06.

[18] "U.S. Domestic Freight Transportation" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ efficiency/ ee_ch5. htm). United States Department of Energy. .Retrieved 2008-09-06.

[19] "How Government policy can realize rail freight’s role in reducing carbon emissions" (http:/ / www. freightonrail. org. uk/ConsultationsEnvironmentalAuditCommittee. htm). FreightOnRail.org.uk. . Retrieved 2008-09-06.

[20] MEPs push for green tolls (http:/ / www. europarl. europa. eu/ news/ expert/ infopress_page/062-48814-040-02-07-910-20090209IPR48793-09-02-2009-2009-false/ default_en. htm) Last retrieved 11-02-09

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[21] European Parliament discuss Eurovignette scheme (http:/ / www. europarl. europa. eu/ news/ public/ story_page/062-48727-040-02-07-910-20090205STO48540-2009-09-02-2009/ default_en. htm) Last retrieved 10-02-09

[22] World ranking 2007.xls (http:/ / oica. net/ wp-content/ uploads/ world-ranking-2007. pdf)

External links• Truck (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Business/ Transportation_and_Logistics/ Trucking/ / ) at the Open Directory

Project• Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (http:/ / www. fmcsa. dot. gov/ )• Hutchinson, Jr., Rollin W. (January 1912). "Motor Trucks - The New Freighters: Quicker And More Reliable

Service, Cleaner And Less Congested Cities, Concrete Examples Of Saving" (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=Vv--PfedzLAC& pg=PA268). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXIII: 268–187. Retrieved2009-07-10.

Tractor

A tractor pulling a chisel plow in Slovenia

A tractor is a vehicle specifically designed to deliver a hightractive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes ofhauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or construction.Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle thatprovides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks,especially (and originally) tillage but nowadays a great variety oftasks. Agricultural implements may be towed behind or mountedon the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of powerif the implement is mechanised.

The word tractor was taken from Latin, being the agent noun oftrahere "to pull".[1] [2] The first recorded use of the word meaning"an engine or vehicle for pulling wagons or ploughs" occurred in 1901, displacing the earlier term traction engine(1859).[3]

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National variationsIn Britain, Ireland, Australia, India, Spain, Argentina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, and Germany the word "tractor"usually means "farm tractor", and the use of the word "tractor" to mean other types of vehicles is familiar to thevehicle trade but unfamiliar to much of the general public. In Canada and the US the word may also refer to the roadtractor portion of a tractor trailer truck.

History

1882 Harrison Machine Works steam-poweredtractor

The first powered farm implements in the early 19th century wereportable engines – steam engines on wheels that could be used to drivemechanical farm machinery by way of a flexible belt. Around 1850,the first traction engines were developed from these, and were widelyadopted for agricultural use. The first tractors were steam-poweredplowing engines. They were used in pairs, placed on either side of afield to haul a plow back and forth between them using a wire cable.Where soil conditions permitted (as in the United States) steam tractorswere used to direct-haul plows, but in the UK and elsewhere plowingengines were used for cable-hauled plowing instead. Steam-poweredagricultural engines remained in use well into the 20th century untilreliable internal combustion engines had been developed.[4]

In 1892, John Froelich invented and built the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor in Clayton County, Iowa, USA.[5]

[6] After receiving a patent Froelich started up the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company, investing all of his assetswhich by 1895, all would be lost and his business resigned to become a failure.[7] [8] [9]

A very early, hand-built gasoline powered tractor.

After graduating from the University of Wisconsin, Charles W. Hartand Charles H. Parr developed a two-cylinder gasoline engine and setup their business in Charles City, Iowa. In 1903 the firm built fifteen"tractors". A term with Latin roots coined by Hart and Parr and acombination of the words traction and power. The 14,000 pound #3 isthe oldest surviving internal combustion engine tractor in the UnitedStates and is on display at the Smithsonian National Museum ofAmerican History in Washington D.C. The two-cylinder engine has aunique hit-and-miss firing cycle that produced 30 horsepower at thebelt and 18 at the drawbar.[10]

In Britain, the first recorded tractor sale was the oil-burningHornsby-Ackroyd Patent Safety Oil Traction engine, in 1897. However, the first commercially successful design wasDan Albone's three-wheel Ivel tractor of 1902. In 1908, the Saunderson Tractor and Implement Co. of Bedfordintroduced a four-wheel design, and went on to become the largest tractor manufacturer outside the U.S. at that time.

While unpopular at first, these gasoline-powered machines began to catch on in the 1910s when they became smallerand more affordable.[11] Henry Ford introduced the Fordson, the first mass-produced tractor in 1917. They were builtin the U.S., Ireland, England and Russia and by 1923, Fordson had 77% of the U.S. market. The Fordson dispensedwith a frame, using the strength of the engine block to hold the machine together. By the 1920s, tractors with agasoline-powered internal combustion engine had become the norm.

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Farm tractor design, power and transmission

Tractor configurationsTractors can be generally classified as two-wheel drive, two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel drive(often with articulated steering), or track tractors (with either two or four powered rubber tracks).The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving wheels on an axle below and slightlybehind a single seat (the seat and steering wheel consequently are in the center), and the engine in front of the driver,with two steerable wheels below the engine compartment. This basic design has remained unchanged for a numberof years, but enclosed cabs are fitted on almost all modern models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort.

A 1958 Series II Field Marshall--theclassic standard tread farm tractor

configuration

In some localities with heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley ofCalifornia, the "Caterpillar" or "crawler" type of tracked tractor becamepopular in the 1930s, due to superior traction and floatation. These wereusually maneuvered through the use of turning brake pedals and separatetrack clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel.

Volvo T25, 1956, Gasoline tractor

A modern 4-wheel drive farm tractor

Four-wheel drive tractors began to appear in the 1960s. Somefour-wheel drive tractors have the standard "two large, two small"configuration typical of smaller tractors, while some have fourlarge powered wheels. The larger tractors are typically anarticulated center-hinged design steered by hydraulic cylinders thatmove the forward power unit while the trailing unit is not steeredseparately. In the early 21st century, articulated or non-articulated,steerable multi-track "tractors" have largely supplanted the"Caterpillar" type for farm use. Larger types of modern farmtractors include articulated four wheel or eight wheel drive unitswith one or two power units which are hinged in the middle andsteered by hydraulic clutches or pumps. A relatively recentdevelopment is the replacement of wheels or steel crawler-typetracks with flexible steel-reinforced rubber tracks, usually poweredby hydrostatic or completely hydraulic driving mechanisms. Theconfiguration of these tractors bears little resemblance to theclassic farm tractor design.

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A modern steerable all-tracked power unit planting wheat in North Dakota

Engine and fuels

The predecessors of modern tractors,traction engines, used steam enginesfor power. Since the turn of the 20thcentury, internal combustion engineshave been the power source of choice.Between 1900 and 1960, gasoline wasthe predominant fuel, with keroseneand ethanol being commonalternatives. Generally one enginecould burn any of those, although coldstarting was easiest on gasoline. Oftena small auxiliary fuel tank wasavailable to hold gasoline for coldstarting and warm-up, while the mainfuel tank held whatever fuel was mostconvenient or least expensive for the

particular farmer. Dieselisation gained momentum starting in the 1960s, and modern farm tractors usually employdiesel engines, which range in power output from 18 to 575 horsepower (15 to 480 kW). Size and output aredependent on application, with smaller tractors for lawn mowing, landscaping, orchard work, and truck farming, andlarger tractors for vast fields of wheat, maize, soy, and other bulk crops. Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) or propanealso have been used as tractor fuels, but require special pressurized fuel tanks and filling equipment so are lessprevalent in most markets.

TransmissionMost older farm tractors use a manual transmission. They have several gear ratios, typically 3 to 6, sometimesmultiplied into 2 or 3 ranges. This arrangement provides a set of discrete ratios that, combined with the varying ofthe throttle, allow final-drive speeds from less than one mile per hour up to about 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), withthe lower speeds used for working the land and the highest speeds used on the road.Slow, controllable speeds are necessary for most operations that are performed with a tractor. They help give thefarmer a larger degree of control in certain situations, such as field work. However, when travelling on public roads,the slow operating speeds can cause problems, such as long queues or tailbacks, which can delay or annoy motoristsin cars and trucks. These motorists are responsible for being duly careful around farm tractors and sharing the roadwith them, but many shirk this responsibility, so various ways to minimize the interaction or minimize the speeddifferential are employed where feasible. Some countries (for example the Netherlands) employ a road sign on someroads that means "no farm tractors". Some modern tractors, such as the JCB Fastrac, are now capable of muchhigher road speeds of around 50 mph (80 km/h).

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An older model European farm tractor. Thesetypes of tractors are still common in Eastern

Europe

Older tractors usually have unsynchronized transmission design, whichoften requires that the operator stop the tractor in order to shift betweengears. This mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work thattractors do, and has been circumvented in various ways over the years.For existing unsynchronized tractors, the methods of circumvention aredouble clutching or power-shifting, both of which require the operatorto rely on skill to speed-match the gears while shifting. Both of thesesolutions are undesirable from a risk-mitigation standpoint because ofwhat can go wrong if the operator makes a mistake – transmissiondamage is possible, and loss of vehicle control can occur if the tractoris towing a heavy load either uphill or downhill – something thattractors often do. Therefore, operator's manuals for most of thesetractors state that one must always stop the tractor before shifting, andthey do not even mention the alternatives. As already said, that modeof use is inherently unsuited to some of the work that tractors do, so

better options were pursued for newer tractor designs.

Cutaway of modern tractor

In these, unsynchronized transmission designs were replaced withsynchronization or with a continuously variable transmission (CVT).Either a synchronized manual transmission with enough available gearratios (often achieved with dual ranges, high and low) or a CVT allowthe engine speed to be matched to the desired final-drive speed whilekeeping engine speed within the appropriate rpm range for powergeneration (the working range) (whereas throttling back to achieve thedesired final-drive speed is a trade-off that leaves the working range).The problems, solutions, and developments described here alsodescribe the history of transmission evolution in semi-trailer trucks.The biggest difference is fleet turnover; whereas most of the old roadtractors have long since been scrapped, many of the old farm tractors are still in use. Therefore, old transmissiondesign and operation is primarily just of historical interest in trucking, whereas in farming it still often affects dailylife.

Hitches and power applicationsThe power produced by the engine must be transmitted to the implement or equipment in order to do the actual workintended for the equipment. This may be accomplished via a drawbar or hitch system if the implement is to be towedor otherwise pulled through the tractive power of the engine, or via a pulley or power takeoff system if theimplement is stationary, or a combination of the two.

DrawbarsUntil the 1950s, plows and other tillage equipment usually were connected to the tractor via a drawbar, or aproprietary connecting system. The classic drawbar is simply a steel bar attached to the tractor (or in some cases, asin the early Fordsons, cast as part of the rear transmission housing) to which the hitch of the implement was attachedwith a pin or by a loop and clevis. The implement could be readily attached and removed, allowing the tractor to beused for other purposes on a daily basis. If the tractor was equipped with a swinging drawbar, the drawbar could beset at the center or offset from center to allow the tractor to run outside the path of the implement.

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The drawbar system necessitated that the implement have its own running gear (usually wheels) and in the case of aplow, chisel cultivator or harrow, some sort of lift mechanism to raise it out of the ground at turns or for transport.Drawbars necessarily posed a rollover risk depending on how the tractive torque was applied. The Fordson tractors(of which more units were produced and placed in service than any other farm tractor) was extremely prone to rollover backwards due to an excessively short wheelbase. The linkage between the implement and the tractor usuallyhad some slack which could lead to jerky starts and greater wear and tear on the tractor and the equipment.

A large modern John Deere model 9400 four wheel drive tractor with tripled wheels and adrawbar-towed tool chain including one-pass tillage equipment, planter and fertilizer

applicator with tanks

Drawbars were appropriate to the dawnof mechanization, because they werevery simple in concept and because asthe tractor replaced the horse, existinghorse-drawn implements usuallyalready had running gear. As thehistory of mechanization progressed,however, the advantages of otherhitching systems became apparent,leading to new developments (seebelow). Depending on the function forwhich a tractor is used, however, thedrawbar is still one of the usual meansof attaching an implement to a tractor(see photo at left).

Fixed mounts

Some tractor manufacturers producedmatching equipment that could be directly mounted on the tractor. Examples included front-end loaders, bellymowers, row crop cultivators, corn pickers and corn planters. In most cases, these fixed mounts were proprietary andunique to each make of tractor, so that an implement produced by John Deere, for example, could not be attached toa Minneapolis Moline tractor. Another disadvantage was that mounting usually required some time and labor,resulting in the implement being semi-permanently attached with bolts or other mounting hardware. Usually it wasimpractical to remove the implement and reinstall it on a day-to-day basis. As a result, the tractor was unavailable forother uses and dedicated to a single use for an appreciable period of time. An implement generally would bemounted at the beginning of its season of use (such as tillage, planting or harvesting) and removed only when thelikely use season had ended.

Three-point hitches and quick hitchesThe drawbar system was virtually the exclusive method of attaching implements (other than direct attachment to thetractor) before Harry Ferguson developed the three-point hitch. Equipment attached to the three-point hitch can beraised or lowered hydraulically with a control lever. The equipment attached to the three-point hitch is usuallycompletely supported by the tractor. Another way to attach an implement is via a Quick Hitch, which is attached tothe three-point hitch. This enables a single person to attach an implement quicker and put the person in less dangerwhen attaching the implement.

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A modern three point hitch

The three-point hitch revolutionized farm tractors and their implements.Almost every tractor today features Ferguson's 3 point linkage or a derivativeof it. The three-point hitch allows for easy attachment and detachment ofimplements while allowing the implement to function as a part of the tractoralmost as if it were attached by a fixed mount. Previously, when theimplement hit an obstacle the towing link would break or the tractor couldflip over. Ferguson's genius was to combine a connection via two lower andone upper lift arms that were connected to a hydraulic lifting ram. The ramwas in turn connected to the upper of the 3 links so that increased drag (as

when a plough hits a rock) caused the hydraulics to lift the implement until the obstacle was passed.Other manufacturers copied Ferguson's invention, or developed variations of it. For example, InternationalHarvestor's Farmall tractors had a two-point "Fast Hitch" and John Deere had a power lift that was similar but not asflexible as the Ferguson invention. Recently, Bobcat's patent on its front loader connection (inspired by these earliersystems) has expired; and compact tractors are now being outfitted with quick-connect attachments for theirfront-end loaders.

Power take-off systems and hydraulicsIn addition to towing an implement or supplying tractive power through the wheels, most tractors have a means totransfer power to another machine such as a baler, swather, or mower. Unless it functions solely by pulling it throughor over the ground, a towed implement needs its own power source (such as a baler or combine with a separateengine) or else a means of transmitting power from the tractor to the mechanical operations of the equipment.Early tractors used belts or cables wrapped around the flywheel or a separate belt pulley to power stationaryequipment, such as a threshing machine, buzz saw, silage blower, or stationary baler. In most cases, it was notpractical for the tractor and equipment to move with a flexible belt or cable between them, so this systemnecessitated that the tractor remain in one location with the work brought to the equipment, or that the tractor berelocated at each turn and the power set-up reapplied (as in cable-drawn plowing systems used in early steam tractoroperations).

A PTO shaft connected to a tractor.

Modern tractors use a power take-off (PTO) shaft to provide rotary power tomachinery that may be stationary or pulled. The PTO shaft generally is at therear of the tractor, and can be connected to an implement that is either towedby a drawbar or a three-point hitch. This eliminates the need for a separateimplement-mounted power source, which is almost never seen in modernfarm equipment.

Virtually all modern tractors can also provide external hydraulic fluid andelectrical power to the equipment they are towing, either by hoses or wires.

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Operation

A lawn tractor towing a cargo cart

Modern tractors have many electrical switches andlevers in the cab for controlling the multitude ofdifferent functions available on the tractor.

Pedals

Modern farm tractors usually have four or fivefoot-pedals for the operator on the floor of the tractor.The pedal on the left is the clutch. The operator presseson this pedal to disengage the transmission for eithershifting gears or stopping the tractor. Some moderntractors have (or as optional equipment) a button on thegear stick for controlling the clutch, in addition to the standard pedal.

Two of the pedals on the right are the brakes. The left brake pedal stops the left rear wheel and the right brake pedaldoes the same with the right side. This independent left and right wheel braking augments the steering of the tractorwhen only the two rear wheels are driven. This is usually done when it is necessary to make a sharp turn. The splitbrake pedal is also used in mud or soft dirt to control a tire that spins due to loss of traction. The operator pressesboth pedals together to stop the tractor. For tractors with additional front-wheel drive, this operation often engagesthe 4-wheel locking differential (diff-lock) to help stop the tractor when traveling at road speeds.The pedal furthest to the right is the foot throttle. Unlike in automobiles, it can also be controlled from ahand-operated lever ("hand throttle"). This helps provide a constant speed in field work. It also helps providecontinuous power for stationary tractors that are operating an implement by shaft or belt. The foot throttle gives theoperator more automobile-like control over the speed of the tractor for road work. This is a feature of more recenttractors; older tractors often did not have this feature. In the UK it is mandatory to use the foot pedal to controlengine speed while travelling on the road. Some tractors, especially those designed for row-crop work, have a'de-accelerator' pedal, which operates in the reverse fashion to an automobile throttle, in that the pedal is pusheddown to slow the engine. This is to allow fine control over the speed of the tractor when maneuvering at the end ofcrop rows in fields- the operating speed of the engine is set using the hand throttle, and if the operator wishes to slowthe tractor to turn, he simply has to press the pedal, turn and release it once the turn is completed, rather than havingto alter the setting of the hand throttle twice during the maneuver.A fifth pedal is traditionally included just in front of the driver's seat to operate the rear diff-lock, which preventswheelslip. The differential normally allows the outside wheel to travel faster than the inside wheel during a turn.However, in low-traction conditions on a soft surface the same mechanism could allow one wheel to slip, furtherreducing traction. The diff-lock overrides this, forcing both wheels to turn at the same speed, reducing wheel slip andimproving traction. Care must be taken to unlock the differential before turning, usually by hitting the pedal a secondtime, since the tractor cannot perform a turn with the diff-lock engaged. In modern tractors this pedal is replacedwith an electrical switch.

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Levers and switchesMany functions that were once controlled with a lever have been replaced with some model of electrical switch withthe rise of indirect computer controlling of functions in modern tractors.Until the beginning of the 60's tractors had a single register of gears, hence one gear stick. Often 3-5 forwards and 1reverse. Then group gears were introduced, hence another gear stick. Later on control of the reverse gear was movedto a special stick that controls direction and adding a gear stick or a lever attached at the side of the steering wheel.Nowadays with CVT or other clutch-free gear types there are fewer sticks for controlling the transmission, somereplaced with electrical switches or totally computer controlled.The three-point hitch was controlled with a lever for adjusting the position, or as with the earliest ones, just thefunction for raising or lowering the hitch. With modern electrical systems it's often replaced with a potentiometer forlower bound position and another one for the upper bound and a switch allowing automatic adjustment of the hitchbetween these settings.The external hydraulics also originally had levers but nowadays often replaced with some form of electrical switch,the same goes for the power take-off shaft.

Safety

Farm tractor rear turnover

The classic Row Crop tractor (anAllis-Chalmers WD). Note the absence

of any rollover protection system.

Agriculture in the United States is one of the most hazardous industries, onlysurpassed by mining and construction. No other farm machine is so identifiedwith the hazards of production agriculture as the tractor.[12] Tractor-relatedinjuries account for approximately 32% of the fatalities and 6% of thenon-fatal injuries in agriculture. Over 50% is attributed to tractoroverturns.[13]

The roll over protection structure (ROPS) and seat belt, when worn, are thetwo most important safety devices to protect operators from death duringtractor overturns.[14]

Modern tractors have rollover protection systems (ROPS) to prevent anoperator from being crushed if the tractor overturns. It is important toremember that the ROPS does not prevent tractor overturns. Rather, itprevents the operator from being crushed during an overturn. This isespecially important in open-air tractors, where the ROPS is a steel beam thatextends above the operator's seat. For tractors with operator cabs, the ROPS ispart of the frame of the cab. A ROPS with enclosed cab further reduces thelikelihood of serious injury because the operator is protected by the sides andwindows of the cab.

ROPS were first required by legislation in Sweden in 1959. Before ROPSwere required, some farmers died when their tractors rolled on top of them. Row-crop tractors, before ROPS, wereparticularly dangerous because of their 'tricycle' design with the two front wheels spaced close together and angledinward toward the ground. Some farmers were killed by rollovers while operating tractors along steep slopes. Othershave been killed while attempting to tow or pull an excessive load from above axle height, or when cold weathercaused the tires to freeze to the ground, in both cases causing the tractor to pivot around the rear axle.

For the ROPS to work as designed, the operator must stay within the protective frame of the ROPS. This means theoperator must wear the seat belt. Not wearing the seat belt may defeat the primary purpose of the ROPS.

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Applications and variations

Farm tractor applications

A modern John Deere 8110 Farm Tractorplowing a field using a chisel plow.

A tractor pulling a rototiller

The most common use of the term "tractor" is for the vehicles used on farms.The farm tractor is used for pulling or pushing agricultural machinery ortrailers, for plowing, tilling, disking, harrowing, planting, and similar tasks.

A farm tractor used to power a pump forirrigating a plot of land

A variety of specialty farm tractors have been developed for particular uses.These include "row crop" tractors with adjustable tread width to allow thetractor to pass down rows of corn, tomatoes or other crops without crushingthe plants, "wheatland" or "standard" tractors with non-adjustable fixedwheels and a lower center of gravity for plowing and other heavy field workfor broadcast crops, and "high crop" tractors with adjustable tread andincreased ground clearance, often used in the cultivation of cotton and otherhigh-growing row crop plant operations, and "utility tractors", typicallysmaller tractors with a low center of gravity and short turning radius, used forgeneral purposes around the farmstead. Many utility tractors are used fornon-farm grading, landscape maintenance and excavation purposes, particularly with loaders, backhoes, pallet forksand similar devices. Small garden or lawn tractors designed for suburban and semi-rural gardening and landscapemaintenance also exist in a variety of configurations.

A tractor with a chaser bin.

Some farm-type tractors are found elsewhere than on farms:with large universities' gardening departments, in publicparks, or for highway workman use with blowtorch cylindersstrapped to its sides and a pneumatic drill air compressorpermanently fastened over its power take-off. These are oftenfitted with grass (turf) tyres which are less damaging to softsurfaces than agricultural tires.

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Precision agricultureSpace technology has been incorporated into agriculture in the form of GPS devices, and robust on-board computersinstalled as optional features on farm tractors. These technologies are used in modern, precision farming techniques.The spin-offs from the space race have actually facilitated automation in plowing and the use of autosteer systemsdrone on tractors that are manned but only steered at the end of a row, the idea being to neither overlap and use morefuel nor leave streaks when performing jobs such as cultivating.

Engineering tractors

A tractor factory in Chelyabinsk in the Soviet Union circa 1930.

Ebro farm tractor

The durability and engine power of tractors madethem very suitable for engineering tasks. Tractors canbe fitted with engineering tools such as dozer blade,bucket, hoe, ripper, and so on. The most commonattachments for the front of a tractor are dozer bladeor a bucket. When attached with engineering toolsthe tractor is called an engineering vehicle.

A bulldozer is a track-type tractor attached withblade in the front and a rope-winch behind.Bulldozers are very powerful tractors and haveexcellent ground-hold, as their main tasks are to pushor drag things.

Bulldozers have been further modified over time toevolve into new machines which are capable ofworking in ways that the original bulldozer can not.One example is that loader tractors were created byremoving the blade and substituting a large volumebucket and hydraulic arms which can raise and lowerthe bucket, thus making it useful for scooping upearth, rock and similar loose material to load it intotrucks.

A front-loader or loader is a tractor with anengineering tool which consists of two hydraulic powered arms on either side of the front engine compartment and atilting implement. This is usually a wide open box called a bucket but other common attachments are a pallet forkand a bale grappler.

Other modifications to the original bulldozer include making the machine smaller to let it operate in small workareas where movement is limited. There are also tiny wheeled loaders, officially called Skid-steer loaders butnicknamed "Bobcat" after the original manufacturer, which are particularly suited for small excavation projects inconfined areas.

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Backhoe loader

A common backhoe-loader. The backhoe is on the left, thebucket/blade on the right.

The most common variation of the classic farm tractoris the hoe, also called a hoe-loader. As the nameimplies, it has a loader assembly on the front and abackhoe on the back. Backhoes attach to a 3 point hitchon farm or industrial tractors. Industrial tractors areoften heavier in construction particularly with regardsto the use of steel grill for protection from rocks andthe use of construction tires. When the backhoe ispermanently attached, the machine usually has a seatthat can swivel to the rear to face the hoe controls.Removable backhoe attachments almost always have aseparate seat on the attachment.

Backhoe-loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks: construction, small demolitions, lighttransportation of building materials, powering building equipment, digging holes,loading trucks, breaking asphaltand paving roads. Some buckets have a retractable bottom, enabling them to empty their load more quickly andefficiently. Buckets with retractable bottoms are also often used for grading and scratching off sand. The frontassembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Often the bucket can be replaced with otherdevices or tools.

Their relatively small frame and precise control make backhoe-loaders very useful and common in urban engineeringprojects such as construction and repairs in areas too small for larger equipment. Their versatility and compact sizemakes them one of the most popular urban construction vehicles.In the UK, the word "JCB" is sometimes used colloquially as a genericized trademark for any such type ofengineering vehicle. The term JCB now appears in the Oxford English Dictionary, although it is still legally atrademark of J. C. Bamford Ltd. The term "digger" is also commonly used.

Compact Utility Tractor

In the middle is a 24 hp (18 kW) diesel CUTillustrating the size difference between a small 40

hp farm tractor and a garden tractor

A Compact Utility Tractor, also called a CUT is a smaller version of anagricultural tractor but designed primarily for landscaping and estatemanagement type tasks rather than for planting and harvesting on acommercial scale. Typical CUTs range in from 20 to 50 horsepower(15-37 kW) with available power take off (PTO) horsepower rangingfrom 15 to 45 hp (11-34 kW). CUTs are often equipped with both amid-mounted PTO and a standard rear PTO, especially those below 40horsepower (30 kW). The mid-mount PTO shaft typically rotatesat/near 2000 rpms and is typically used to power such implements asmid-mount finish mower, a front mounted snow blower or frontmounted rotary broom. The rear PTO is standardized at 540 rpms forthe North American markets, but in some parts of the world a dual

540/1000 rpm PTO is standard and implements are available for either standard in those markets.

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Howse brand modular Subsoiler mounted to atractor

Broadcast seeder mounted to a Kubota CompactUtility Tractor

One of the most common attachment for a Compact Utility Tractor isthe front end loader or FEL. Like the larger agricultural tractors, aCUT will have an adjustable three-point hitch that is hydraulicallycontrolled. Typically a CUT will have four wheel drive, or morecorrectly 4 wheel assist. Modern Compact Utility Tractors oftenfeature a Hydrostatic transmission, but many variants of gear drivetransmissions are also offered from low priced simple geartransmissions to synchronized transmissions to advanced glide-shifttransmissions. All modern CUTs feature a government mandated rollover protection structure (ROPS) just like agricultural tractors. Themost well known brands in North America include Kubota, John DeereTractor, New Holland Ag, Case-Farmall and Massey-Ferguson.Although less common, compact backhoes are often attached tocompact utility tractors.

JD 71 Flexi Planter for tractors 20 to 35horsepower

Compact Utility Tractors require special smaller implements than fullsize agricultural tractors. Very common implements include the boxblade, the grader blade, the landscape rake, the post hole digger (orpost hole auger), the rotary cutter (also called a slasher or a brushhog), a mid or rear mount finish mower, broadcast seeder, subsoilerand the rototiller (also rotary tiller). In northern climates, a rearmounted snow blower is very common, on smaller CUTs some modelsare available with front mounted snow blowers that are powered by amid-PTO shaft. There are many more implement brands than there aretractor brands offering CUT owners a wide selection of choice.

For small scale farming or large scale gardening, there are someplanting and harvesting implements sized for CUTs. One and two row planting units are commonly available as arecultivators, sprayers and different types of seeders (slit, rotary and drop).

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Row-crop tractor

An Oliver Row Crop 60 tractor

A row-crop tractor is a tractor tailored specifically tothe growing of row crops (crops grown in rows, as intruck farming), and most especially to cultivating.Cultivating can take place anytime from soon after thecrop plants have sprouted until soon before they areharvested. Several rounds of cultivating may be doneover the season. A row-crop tractor essentially bringstogether a farm tractor and its cultivator into onemachine, in the same way that motive power has beencombined into other machinery (for example, horselesscarriages combined the motive power into transportvehicles; self-propelled guns combined the artillerytractor and its gun into one machine).

The earliest win from introducing tractors to mechanize agriculture was in reducing the heavy efforts of plowing andharrowing before planting, which could often be (almost literally) backbreaking tasks for humans and draft animals.Early tractors were used mainly to alleviate this drudgery. But they tended to be very big and heavy, so they were notwell suited to getting into a field of already-planted row crops to do weed control. Row-crop tractors—light,affordable, and reliable—corrected this flaw.Row crop itself refers to any farm crop that is cultivated in rows. The United States Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) defines 'row crop' as an "Agricultural crop planted, usually with mechanical planting devices, inindividual rows that are spaced to permit machine traffic during the early parts of the growing season" [15]

Row-crop tractor history

A Farmall Regular

The first tractors designed for the ability to fit between rows ofcrops were made by International Harvester (IH), withdevelopment beginning in the 1920s. The first row-crop tractorsmade by IH were called "Farmalls". The cultivator mounted in thefront so it was easily visible. Additionally, the tractor had a narrowfront end; the front tires were spaced very closely and angled intowards the bottom. The back wheels straddled two rows and itcould cultivate four rows at once.

From 1924 until 1963, Farmalls were the largest selling row-croptractors.To compete, John Deere designed the Model C which had a wide front and could cultivate three rows at once. Only112 prototypes were made as Deere realized that sales would be lost to Farmall if their model did less. In 1928, JohnDeere released the Model C anyway, only as the Model GP (General Purpose) to avoid confusion with the Model Dwhen order over the then unclear phone.[16]

Oliver refined its "Row Crop" model early in 1930.[17] Until 1935, the 18-27 was Oliver–Hart-Parr's only row-croptractor.[18] Many Oliver row crop models are referred to as "Oliver Row Crop 77" or "Oliver Row Crop 88" etc.

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Row-crop tractor safety

Allis-Chalmers WD. Note theabsence of any rollover protection

system.

Many early row-crop tractors had a tricycle design with two closely spaced fronttires, and some even had a single front tire. This made it dangerous to operate onthe side of a steep hill, and, as a result, many farmers died from tractor rollovers.Also, early row-crop tractors had no rollover protection system (ROPS), meaningthat if the tractor flipped back the operator could be crushed. Sweden was the firstcountry which passed legislation requiring ROPS, in 1959.

Over 50% of tractor related injuries and deaths are attributed to tractorrollover.[13]

Modern row-crop tractors

The Canadian agricultural equipment manufacturer Versatile makes row-crop tractors that are 250 and 280horsepower (190 and 210 kW); powered by an 8.3 liter Cummins Diesel engine.[19]

Modern row crop tractors have rollover protection systems in the form of a reinforced cab or a roll bar.

Garden tractorsGarden Tractors (also called Mini Tractors) are small, light and simple tractors designed for use in domestic gardens.Garden Tractors are usually designed primarily for cutting grass, being fitted with horizontal rotary cutting decks.Visually, the distinction between a garden tractor and a ride-on lawnmower is often hard to make - generally GardenTractors are more sturdily built, with stronger frames, axles and transmissions rated for ground-engagingapplications. Garden Tractors are generally capable of mounting other implements such as harrows,cultivators/rotavators, sweepers, rollers and dozer-blades. Like ride-on mowers, Garden Tractors generally have avertical-crankshaft engine with a belt-drive to a transaxle-type transmission (usually of 4- or 5-speeds, althoughsome may also have two-speed reduction gearboxes or a hydrostatic drive). However, Wheel Horse (now part ofToro) garden tractors have horizontal-crankshaft engines with belt-drive, whilst Allen/Gutbrod tractors had anautomotive-type clutch and gearbox. The engines are generally a 1- or 2-cylinder petrol (gasoline) engine, althoughdiesel engine models are also available, especially in Europe.In the U.S., the term riding lawn mower today often is used to refer to mid or rear engined machines. Front-enginedtractor layout machines designed primarily for cutting grass and light towing are called lawn tractors; and heavierduty tractors of the same overall size, often shaft driven, are called garden tractors. The primary differences betweena lawn tractor and a garden tractor are the transmission torque handling capability, frame durability, the rear wheels(garden tractors almost always have multiple mounting bolts, while most lawn tractors have a single bolt or clip onthe hub), and the ability to attach ground engaging equipment such as plows or disk-harrows. Craftsman, MTD,Snapper, and other major mowing equipment manufacturers use these terms.As well as dedicated manufacturers, many makers of agricultural tractors have made (or continue to make) ranges ofgarden tractors, such as Case, Massey-Ferguson, International Harvester and John Deere.

Two-wheel tractorsAlthough most people think first of four-wheel vehicles when they think of tractors, a tractor may have one or more axles. The key benefit is the power itself, which only takes one axle to provide. Single-axle tractors, more often called two-wheel tractors or walk-behind tractors, have had many users ever since the beginning of internal combustion engine tractors. They tend to be small and affordable. This was especially true before the 1960s, when a walk-behind tractor could often be more affordable than a two-axle tractor of comparable power. Today's compact utility tractors and advanced garden tractors may negate most of that market advantage, but two-wheel tractors still

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enjoy a loyal following, especially where an already-paid-for two-wheel tractor is financially superior to a compactor garden tractor that would have to be purchased. Regions where two-wheel tractors are especially prevalent todayinclude India, China, and Southeast Asia.

Orchard tractorsTractors tailored to use in fruit orchards typically have features suited to passing under tree branches with impunity.These include a lower overall profile; reduced tree-branch-snagging risk (via underslung exhaust pipes rather thansmoke-stack-style exhaust, and large sheetmetal cowlings and fairings that allow branches to deflect and slide offrather than catch); spark arrestors on the exhaust tips; and often wire cages to protect the operator from snags.

Automobile-conversion tractors and other homemade versions

A Ford rebuilt to an EPA tractor.

An "A tractor" based on Volvo 760. Notice theslow-vehicle triangle and the longer boot.

A Volvo Duett rebuilt to an EPA tractor.Obviously the intended use is no longer as a farm

vehicle.

The ingenuity of farm mechanics, coupled in some cases with OEM oraftermarket assistance, has often resulted in the conversion ofautomobiles for use as farm tractors. In the United States, this trendwas especially strong from the 1910s through 1950s. It began early inthe development of vehicles powered by internal combustion engines,with blacksmiths and amateur mechanics tinkering in their shops.Especially during the interwar period, dozens of manufacturers(Montgomery Ward among them) marketed aftermarket kits forconverting Ford Model Ts for use as tractors.[20] (These weresometimes called "Hoover Wagons" during the Great Depression,although this term was usually reserved for automobiles converted tohorse-drawn buggy use when gasoline was unavailable orunaffordable. During the same period, another common name was"Doodlebug"). Ford even considered producing an "official" optionalkit.[21] Many Model A Fords also were converted for this purpose. Inlater years, some farm mechanics have been known to convert moremodern trucks or cars for use as tractors, more often as curiosities orfor recreational purposes (rather than out of the earlier motives of purenecessity or frugality).

During World War II, a shortage of tractors in Sweden led to thedevelopment of the so-called EPA tractor (EPA was a chain ofdiscount stores and it was often used to signify something lacking inquality). An EPA tractor was simply an automobile, truck or lorry,with the passenger space cut off behind the front seats, equipped withtwo gearboxes in a row. When done to an older car with a ladderframe, the result was not dissimilar to a tractor and could be used asone.

After the war it remained popular, now not as a farm vehicle, but as away for young people without a driver's license to own somethingsimilar to a car. Since it was legally seen as a tractor it could be drivenfrom 16 years of age and only required a tractor license. Eventually thelegal loophole was closed and no new EPA tractors were allowed to bemade, but the remaining were still legal, something that led to inflatedprices and many protests from people that preferred EPA tractors to ordinary cars.

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Tractor 69

In March 1975 a similar type of vehicle was introduced in Sweden, the A tractor [from arbetstraktor (work tractor)].The main difference is that an A tractor has a top speed of 30 km/h. This is usually done by fitting two gearboxes ina row and not using one of them. Volvo Duett was for a long time the primary choice for conversion to an EPA or Atractor, but, since supplies have dried up, other cars have been used, in most cases a Volvo.Another type of homemade tractors are ones that are fabricated from scratch. The "from scratch" description isrelative, as often individual components will be repurposed from earlier vehicles or machinery (e.g., engines,gearboxes, axle housings); but the tractor's overall chassis is essentially designed and built by the owner (e.g., aframe is welded from bar stock—channel stock, angle stock, flat stock, etc.). As with automobile conversions, theheyday of this type of tractor, at least in developed economies, lies in the past, when there were large populations ofblue-collar workers for whom metalworking and farming were prevalent parts of their lives. (For example, many19th- and 20th-century New England and Midwestern machinists and factory workers had grown up on farms.)Backyard fabrication was a natural activity to them (whereas it might seem daunting to most people today).

Alternative machine types 'called' tractors

Road tractor pulling a flatbed trailer

The term tractor (US & Canada) or tractor unit (UK) is also appliedto:

• Road tractors, tractor units or traction heads, familiar as the frontend of an articulated lorry / semi-trailer truck. They are heavy-dutyvehicles with large engines and several axles.

• The majority of these tractors are designed to pull longsemi-trailers, most often to transport freight of some kind over asignificant distance, and is connected to the trailer with a fifth wheel coupling. In England this type of "tractor"is often called an "artic cab" (short for articulated cab).

• A minority is the ballast tractor, whose load is hauled from a drawbar.• Pushback tractors are used on airports to move aircraft on the ground, most commonly pushing aircraft away

from their parking stands.• Locomotive tractors (engines) or Rail car movers

• The amalgamation of machines, electrical generators, controls and devices that comprise the tractioncomponent of railway vehicles

• Artillery tractors• Vehicles used to tow artillery pieces of varying weights.

• NASA and other space agencies use very large tractors to move large launch vehicles and space shuttles betweentheir hangars and launch pads.

• A pipe-tractor is a device used for conveying advanced instruments into pipes for measurement and data logging,and the purging of well holes, sewer pipes and other inaccessible tubes.

Diesel-electric locomotive atwork

Komsomolets Soviet artillerytractor

A Trackmobile4150

Aircraft Pushback tractor

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Tractor 70

Glossary of tractor-related terms not explained elsewhere

Term Explanation

Nebraskatractor tests

Tests, mandated by a Nebraska law and administered by the University of Nebraska, that objectively tested the performance of allbrands sold in that state. In the 1920s and 1930s, an era of snake oil sales and advertising tactics, the Nebraska tests helped farmersthroughout North America to see through marketing claims and make informed buying decisions. The tests continue today, makingsure that the snake oil, which has mostly been vanquished, stays that way.

tractorwar(s)great tractorwar(s)

A period of ruinous competition and price warring between tractor manufacturers in the 1920s. Led to a consolidation in the industry.

Gallery

An unusual application - road rollerpowered by a tractor-drive

Russian peasants gather to watch theirvillage's first tractor - drawing by Vladimir

Krikhatsky

A single tractor in Brazil.

ManufacturersSee List of tractor manufacturersSee List of former tractor manufacturers

In addition to commercial manufacturers, the Open Source Ecology group has developed several working prototypesof an open source tractor called the LifeTrac as part of its Global Village Construction Set. When technicaldocumentation, including CAD blueprints, is completed for instructions to build it, anyone with access to the Internetwill be able to download a full set of blueprints and manufacturing instructions to build their own tractor (assumingthey have the necessary tools and equipment); under the open source license, the do-it-yourself tractors may be builtand used for any purpose including selling the working tractors.

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Tractor 71

References[1] Houghton Mifflin (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (http:/ / www. houghtonmifflinbooks. com/ epub/

ahd4. shtml) (4th ed.). Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 1829. ISBN 978-0-395-82517-4. .[2] Merriam-Webster Unabridged (http:/ / unabridged. merriam-webster. com) (MWU). (Online subscription-based reference service of

Merriam-Webster, based on Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.) Headword tractor.Accessed 2007-09-22.

[3] "Tractor" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=tractor). (etymology). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2008-06-02.[4] http:/ / www. livinghistoryfarm. org/ farminginthe30s/ machines_04. html Tractors in the 1930s[5] The John Deere Tractor Legacy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3cJeffKoriEC& pg=PA41& dq=John+ Froelich+ and+

tractor#v=onepage& q& f=false). Voyageur Press. .[6] Xulon Press (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Vtgl7YKNFQ0C& pg=PA42& dq=John+ Froelich+ and+ tractor#v=onepage& q&

f=false). Xulon Press. 2002-06. ISBN 9781591601340. .[7] "Gasoline Tractor" (http:/ / www. iptv. org/ iowapathways/ mypath. cfm?ounid=ob_000058). Iowa Pathways. .[8] "From Steam to Gasoline…" (http:/ / theinspiredmedia. com/ 2009/ 08/ from-steam-to-gasoline/ ). Inspired Media. .[9] Miller 2003.[10] "Smithsonian Museum of American History" (http:/ / americanhistory. si. edu/ collections/ object. cfm?key=35& objkey=157). Hart Parr #3.

. Retrieved 2010-11-29.[11] Rumely 1910.[12] NASD: Tractor Overturn Hazards (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ nasd/ docs/ d000701-d000800/ d000746/ d000746. html)[13] Donham, K., D. Osterberg,, M.L/ Meyers, and C. Lehtola. 1999. Final report tractor risk abatement and control: the policy conference,

September 10–12, 1997. The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.[14] General Tractor Safety (http:/ / www. ext. colostate. edu/ pubs/ farmmgt/ 05016. html)[15] "Crop Glossary | Ag 101 | Agriculture | US EPA" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ oecaagct/ ag101/ cropglossary. html). Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. .

Retrieved 2010-07-29.[16] Klancher et al. 2003.[17] "Tractors Advance during the Depression" (http:/ / www. livinghistoryfarm. org/ farminginthe30s/ machines_04. html).

Livinghistoryfarm.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-29.[18] Ertel 2001, p. 72.[19] Row Crop Tractors 250 to 280 hp (http:/ / www. versatile-ag. ca/ news_and_media/ downloads/ Versatile-RC-brochure. pdf)[20] Pripps & Morland 1993, p. 28.[21] Leffingwell 2004, pp. 43–53.

Bibliography• Ertel, Patrick W. (2001). The American Tractor: A Century of Legendary Machines (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=vQenXMGgRc4C& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q& f=false). Osceola, WI, USA: MBI.ISBN 978-0760308639.

• Klancher, Lee; Leffingwell, Randy; Morland, Andrew; Pripps, Robert N. (2003). Farm Tractors (http:/ / books.google. com/ ?id=b1U8tvBEEDMC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). Crestline [Imprint of MBI].ISBN 978-0760317761.

• Leffingwell, Randy (2004). Ford Farm Tractors (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1GzJ_Hyj1kC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). Motorbooks Classics Series. Osceola, WI, USA: MBI.ISBN 978-0760319192.

• Miller, Orrin E. (2003). "John Froelich: The Story of a Man and a Tractor" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=3cJeffKoriEC& pg=PA41#v=snippet& q=john froelich tractor& f=false). In Macmillian, Don. TheJohn Deere Tractor Legacy. Voyaguer Press. ISBN 978-0896586192.

• Pripps, Robert N.; Morland, Andrew (photographer) (1993). Farmall Tractors: History of InternationalMcCormick-Deering Farmall Tractors (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=y6FKAAAAYAAJ). Farm TractorColor History Series. Osceola, WI, USA: MBI. ISBN 978-0-87938-763-1.

• Rumeley, Edward A. (August 1910). "The Passing Of The Man With The Hoe" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=HsrkfU461xAC& pg=PA13246). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XX: 13246–13258.Retrieved 2009-07-10

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External links

Tractor information• Database covering all makes and models of farm tractors (http:/ / www. tractordata. com/ )• Paying homage to humble tractor (http:/ / www. youtractor. com/ )• UK tractor & Construction Plant Wikia for collectors & information (http:/ / tractors. wikia. com/ wiki/ Tractor_&

_Construction_Plant_Wiki)• Purdue University Tractor Safety Article re: ROPS, PTO, etc (http:/ / www. ces. purdue. edu/ extmedia/ S/ S-56.

html)• Agricultural Tractors and Machinery (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Business/ Agriculture_and_Forestry/

Equipment_and_Supplies/ Tractors,_Machinery,_and_Implements/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Nebraska Tractor Test Laboratory (http:/ / tractortestlab. unl. edu/ )• Historical Tractor Test Reports and Manufacturers' Literature (http:/ / digitalcommons. unl. edu/

tractormuseumlit/ ) Reports on 400+ models 1903-2006• A History of Tractors (http:/ / www. agriculture. technomuses. ca/ english/ collections_research/ tractors. cfm) at

the Canada Agriculture Museum• European tractors (http:/ / www. tractorforum. com/ f245/ )• Russian tractors (http:/ / www. chetra-im. com/ )

Tractor safety• EU Working Group on Agricultural Tractors - Work Safety (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ enterprise/ automotive/

tws_meetings/ index. htm)• EU Directives on tractor design: (Mapped Index) (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ enterprise/ automotive/ directives/

tractors/ index_map. htm), or (Numerical Index) (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ enterprise/ automotive/ directives/tractors/ index. htm)

• Tractor Safety (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ nasd/ docs/ d000101-d000200/ d000155/ tractor. html) (NationalAgricultural Safety Database)

• Tractor Safety (http:/ / www. nsc. org/ resources/ factsheets/ ag/ ts. aspx) (National Safety Council)• Adaptive Tractor Overturn Prediction System (http:/ / age-web. age. uiuc. edu/ faculty/ teg/ Research/

BiosystemsAutomation/ SafetyORE/ AdaptiveTractorOverturnPredictionSystem. pdf)• Tractor Overturn Protection and Prevention (http:/ / www. ext. colostate. edu/ PUBS/ FARMMGT/ 05018. html)• Case Report: 04NY077 Farm Owner Dies during Tractor Overturn (http:/ / www. health. state. ny. us/

environmental/ investigations/ face/ 04ny077. htm).• ACC: Farm safety: Vehicles, machinery and equipment (http:/ / www. acc. co. nz/ injury-prevention/ rural-safety/

vehicles-machinery-and-equipment/ index. htm).

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Article Sources and ContributorsAutomotive industry  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458369184  Contributors: -Majestic-, 00666, 1122334455, 16@r, 7tattoosleeves7, 842U, 85jettaguy, A elalaily, A littleinsignificant, A8UDI, Abghosh71, Ace Darville, Adamccl, Addshore, Admirer123, Ahunt, Airport master, Akosikupal, Aldo L, AlexLibman, Allo002, Altermike, Amicianthony, Anaanalatte,Andrewpmk, Anniv22, Anserta, AntoSFD1982, AntoniusJ, Antonw1, Arm jstp, Athene cunicularia, Atomician, Avono, Barneca, Basilicum, Bathrobe, Beland, Belligero, Ben Ben, Benefactordyr,Benjamin12, Bento00, Bielasko, BigBen212, Bjenks, BlGene, Blanchardb, Bllr3, Bob A, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Bravada, Brossow, Brutaldeluxe, Brydo16,Bryschneider, BsBsBs, Bsroiaadn, CZmarlin, Calabe1992, Canadian, Canaima, Chasingsol, Cheezman183, Chendy, Chinahanji1, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chrisgarty, Clyde1998,Constantijn09, CrookedAsterisk, Cymru.lass, D, Dale Arnett, Dan69en, Dancarblog, Dancho612, Danielign9, Davepape, DeFacto, DeLarge, Decltype, Dekisugi, Delorean, Dennis Bratland, DeonSteyn, Dino246, Discospinster, Djibouti,Djibouti, Domger, Doug Coldwell, Dougofborg, Download, Drbreznjev, Dricherby, Drilnoth, E2eamon, Ecthelion83, Ehoopman, ElSaxo, Elockid,Empoor, Enthusiast10, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Evbat95, Facts707, Faisal Shariar, Favouritesky, FetchcommsAWB, Flubeca, FoxLad, FreedomSeven, Ftcnt, Gail, Gaucho9, Gildos, Giraffedata,Glane23, Gogo Dodo, Gonzalez Gabe, Goodnightmush, Graham87, Gregor cox, Grifter72, Gsarwa, Gscshoyru, H falcon, Ham Pastrami, Hamiltha, Hamster X, Hasan.habib, Hassan.ishtiaq,Hezery99, Hobbsgobble, Howcheng, Hu12, HybridBoy, Hydro, I dream of horses, Iamabeast333, Icairns, Icsunonove, Infrogmation, Interiot, Ionica55amg, Ipigott, J.delanoy, JArbacol,JCDenton2052, JCam, JForget, JJx2, JMBZ-12, Jackehammond, Jacobpage21, James086, JamesBWatson, Jamie DD, JanSöderback, JaneGJanson, Jevansen, Jklamo, John Anderson, Johnanth,JosefBranson, JovanCormac, Jreconomy, JuWiki2, Juliancolton, JustinRossi, KP-TheSpectre, Kalaua, KansasCity, Kenneth M Burke, Khalidshou, Kierant, Kingj123, Kookyunii, KoreanSentry,Kozuch, Kroum, Kshitij85, Ksyrie, Kuru, Kwende, Lakshmix, LeaveSleaves, Lefty G. Balogh, Levineps, Lorikeet, Lotje, Love Krittaya, Luna Santin, MER-C, Mac, Malcolma, Marco bisello,Markus451, Martin451, Mattg82, Mba4931627, McSly, Mdavidson98, Mellisa Anthony Jones, Mgblair, MickMacNee, Minimac93, Miniotx, Modster, Motorworld, Mr Vinx, MrOllie, Mrwojo,Mtaylor848, Mwanner, My sister drives a '98 Sunfire, Mykeathome, Mysteo, NJA, Nate 687, Netalarm, Newgenerationz, Newt, Nietszeggend, Nopetro, Nuno Tavares, Nzd, OOODDD, OSX,Oda Mari, Olivier, Omk 489, Opc123, OranL, OrbiliusMagister, Ouyuecheng, Oxymoron83, PFHLai, PGWG, Peter E. James, Phantomsteve, Phatdawg00, PhilHibbs, Philip Trueman,PhnomPencil, Pineapple fez, Pinkadelica, Plasticup, Polly, Pondok Cerita, Pontificalibus, Porsche997SBS, Prashanthns, PrincessofLlyr, Ptr123, Rangoon11, Reaper Eternal, Regushee, RenatoCosta, Rhp26, RiseOfTheRev01ution, Rjensen, Rjuice, Robofish, Rrburke, Ryuhaku, SHCarter, Sable232, Salted sugar, Samwise12, Schalkcity, Scheno, Sciurinæ, Scoty6776, Sennen goroshi,SergeyKurdakov, Sgeureka, Shantigk69, Shawnc, Shinerunner, Shoobs056, SidneyWeston, Siim, SimonX, Skartsis, Skcpublic, Sky Attacker, Slo-mo, Snc, Softjuice, Somatosis, SomeUsr,Sparrowman980, Species8473, Spectorza, Steve Dufour, Stude62, Sun830816, SuperHamster, Taalo, Taegetos, TakuyaMurata, TastyPoutine, Tempodivalse, Teutonic Tamer, Thamzn, TheGrumpy Hacker, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thingg, Thomas Paine1776, Tide rolls, Timpicerilo, Tomh009, Tony Corsini, Tresiden, Trusilver, Tvskyfreak, Tydwil3, Typ932, TyrantSinner,Ucdddfl, Uncle Dick, Vega84, Vibhijain, Vickyshekhawat07, Viddea9, VitaleBaby, Vossanova, Vrenator, Vytal, WLU, Wavelength, Welsh, Wickamouse, WikHead, Wikipelli, Wiooiw,Wmania, Writeswift, YorkshireM, Yottamaster, YouAndMeBabyAintNothingButCamels, Z10x, Zeck 23, Zigger, Ziggymaster, Zik2, Zoe, Zunaid, Zzorse, 24.غامدي.أحمد, おむこさん志望, 1234anonymous edits

Automobile  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457828131  Contributors: $5forMe, -Midorihana-, -hiphop-, .K, 04pandre, 08toi, 10sh10, 10totti10, 200.191.188.xxx, 21655, 24.93.53.xxx, 2586, 271292hrs, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2e2e2e3r3r4t4tt5y5y6u6u7ui8i, 61.9.128.xxx, 62.83.130.xxx, 80120t, 83d40m, 84user, 92889, A455bcd9, AEMoreira042281, AGToth, AKMask, ATS 500, Aaron Brenneman, Aaron Schulz, Abdullais4u, Abkovalenko, Academic Challenger, Acdx, Adam Rock, Adam78, Adamkelly, Adashiel, Ahildaballa, Ahoerstemeier, Aim Here, Akadruid, Aksi great, Ala.foum, Alai, Alan Liefting, Aldie, AlexPlank, AlexWilkes, AlexanderM, Alexdi, AlexiusHoratius, Alexofdodd, Alexzor1, Alfio, Ali K, Aliceinlampyland, Alison, Alison9, All Is One, All in, Alskdjfdhfiwow, Altenmann, Altermike, Ambarish, AmosWolfe, An Editor With a Self-Referential Name, Anand Karia, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrea244, Andrewferrier, Andrewpmk, Andrewrhchen, Andy Dingley, Andy G, Andy M. Wang, AndySimpson, Andycartland, Andycjp, Andygharvey, Anetode, AniRaptor2001, Animum, Anobo, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous anonymous, Anphanax, Antandrus, Anthro135 JDK, Antonrojo, AntonyGDines, Anwar Javed, Anwar saadat, ApolloBoy, Archangel x105, Aremith, Argon233, ArielGold, Arpingstone, Arrenlex, Arsenikk, Asanchez1572, Asfadsfasdfasdfasdfreybhkiu, Ashenai, Asskikr1001, AtholM, Atn55, Aude, Austria156, Autonova, Avarame, Avenged Eightfold, Avengerx, Average Earthman, Az1568, Aztune, BECPL, BGOATDoughnut, BRG, Barneca, Barnie slyvester, Barrylb, Basawala, Bathrobe, Beckettc, BeelzebubJNR, Beeswaxcandle, Beetstra, Beland, Bencherlite, Benefactordyr, Benny the wayfarer, Beno1000, Benzocane, Bernd.Brincken, Berney, Berria, Bevo, Bewildebeast, Beyond silence, Bfar7122, Bfigura's puppy, Bggoldie, Bhadani, Bhludzin, Biker Biker, Bilbobee, BillC, BillFlis, Birdthug, BiroZombie, Biswaranjan, Bjorn Elenfors, Bkonrad, Blablablob, Blah3, Blainster, Blank7, BlankVerse, Blimpguy, Bloodshedder, Blorf, Blue520, BlueMars, Bntsg, Bob332, Bobblewik, Bobet, Bobjob455, Bobo192, Bobobo10547, Bobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobob, Bogdangiusca, Boivie, Bonaparte, BonesBrigade, Bongle, Bongohead222, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, BorgQueen, Borisblue, BostonMA, Bovineone, Brakedust, Branden Gorecki, Brat32, Bravada, BrendelSignature, Brian Pearson, Brian0918, Brim, BrokenSphere, Brossow, BrowardBulldawg, Bruce A. McHenry, BryanG, Btownsox13, Buckley699, Burzmali, Byrule62, CART fan, CIMCOBILL, CJ, CSvBibra, CT Cooper, CUSENZA Mario, CZmarlin, Cacycle, Cadillac, Calm, Caltas, Camaro96, Cambrasa, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Cameron Dewe, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Candyman36ws, Captain panda, CardinalDan, Careless hx, Carfreek, Carmaniacx, Carmenharvey, Casey8572, Caster23, Cate, Catmoongirl, Celebration1981, Century0, Ceyockey, Chan Han Xiang, Chaos, Charitwo, Charles Matthews, Charmander trainer, Cheese wizzz, Chendy, Chief tin cloud, Chienlit, Chill doubt, Chouette Sage, Chris 73, Chris Roy, ChrisUK, Chrisd87, Christian List, Christopher Parham, Chu333222, Chupa me wevos, CiTrusD, Clampton, Cleanupman, Clearbluepr, Cliché Online, Cm233lh, Coasting, Cobi, Colleenthegreat, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Compass35, Conufsed, Conversion script, Cookie90, Cool Blue, Coolcaesar, CopperMurdoch, Cory007, Covalent, Cowboy Ray, Craig Butz, Crazycomputers, Crystallina, Curley boi 69, Cuye, CyclePat, DAMurphy, DH85868993, DJ Bungi, DJ Clayworth, DRTllbrg, DVD R W, Da man239, DanKeshet, DanMS, Daniel, Daniel.Cardenas, Danmore1101, Dar-Ape, DarkFalls, Darkfred, Dave Runger, David R. 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Finkelstein, J.delanoy, JForget, JLaTondre, JRM, JTN, JWM83, JYolkowski, Jaberwocky6669, JackLumber, Jackace911, Jacob1219, Jacob12190, Jaganath, Jak Inn Thee Been Stock, Jakey981, Jakslayer, James086, JamesBurns, Jasonstark, Jasz, Jauerback, Java7837, Jayron32, Jdforrester, Jdrumgoole, JeLuF, JeopardyTempest, Jeremyster, Jeromewiley, Jespersm, Jesse Viviano, JesseGarrett, Jesvane, Jh51681, Jimbobzeway, Jimp, Jimxu, Jjron, Jmlk17, Jnc, JoanneB, Jobe457, Jodis, Joe11miles, Joeblakesley, John254, JohnCub, Johnie, Johnmccollim, Johnny69420, Jon442, Jonearles, Jonnogibbo, Jononon, Jorge Stolfi, Jose77, Joshthejedi3, Joshygoodwin, Jossi, Joy, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jph, Jpogi, Jptwo, Jredmond, Jtdirl, Jtkiefer, Jules.lt, Juliancolton, JuliusJackson, Junglecat, JunkyardDawg, Just zis Guy, you know?, Justinlovesmonica, Jwhyte, Jwy, JzG, K731, KBBEditors, KFan II, KJBracey, KVDP, Kageyose, Kaisershatner, Kanags, Kane5187, Kar98, Karrmann, Katalaveno, Kateshortforbob, Katieh5584, Kazrak, Kazvorpal, Kdales, Keithonearth, KelleyCook, Ken6en, Kendrick7, Kesac, Kevin, Kevin Hayes, Kevyn, Keycard, KeysHistorian, Khazar, Kiand, Kidpoker15, Kierant, Kim Bruning, Kingturtle, Kipala, Kiteinthewind, Kjkolb, Knight123, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kntrabssi, Konman72, Korath, Kostan1, Kowey, Kozuch, Krawi, Krishowns, Krsont, Kukini, Kuribosshoe, KurtRaschke, Kuru, Kurykh, Kuzaar, Kvdveer, Kyle sb, LFaraone, Laogeodritt, Lapuwali, Latka, LauLaunohow, Lda523287, Lectonar, Ledpup, Lee, Leenewton, Legotech, Leidolf, Leonard G., Lesorcan, Levineps, Lexor, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Like 3, Limp10, Linmhall, Llort, Llywrch, Locos epraix, Logan, LonelyMarble, Lord Hawk, Lord Pistachio, Lord Ramza, Louisrix, Lovenoble, Luapnampahc, Lucan8ter, Lucas the scot, Lucasgarsha, Lucyin, Lugomasa, Luk, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Lupin, Lupo, LuvWikis, Lvivske, Lynndunn, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MD87, MER-C, MJ94, MZMcBride, Mac, MacMed, Magain, Magister Mathematicae, Mailer diablo, Mairi, Malcolma, Mani1, Maniacgeorge, Marc Venot, Marcika, Marcus Qwertyus, Marcus22, Mariordo, Mark Dingemanse, MarkGallagher, Markb, Master of Puppets, Mateuszica, Mateycow, Matron10, Matt Crypto, Mav, Maximilian Schönherr, Maximus Rex, Mayank shah 89, Mclal1pt1, Mcluvin, Mcmillin24, Mdlutz, Meeples, Meggar, Mel Etitis, Mellisa Anthony Jones, Mentor2007, Mercury888, Merphant, Meyers018, Meznaric, Mgreenbe, Michael Hardy, Michael1115, MickMacNee, Midgrid, Midnightcomm, Miguelisgay, Mike 7, Mike Christie, Mike Rosoft, MikeCapone, Mikem77, Mikeymcbreen, Milkmandan, Million$Baby, Mindspillage, Minesweeper, Minority Report, Minority2005, Mintguy, Mion, Miss Madeline, Misza13, Mjb, Mjpieters, Mlouns, Modster, Monedula, Moneypage, Montrealais, Moonriddengirl, Moreschi, Moros, Morther, Morven, Moscovite Knight, Mr Mulliner, Mr. Lefty, Mr.hankythepoo, MrDarcy, MrDarkChao, Mrc360, Msikma, Muchness, Mulad, Muppppet, Murderbike, Mushroom, Music Sorter, Musical Linguist, Mxn, Myanw, Mysdaao, Myths245, NaBUru38, Nakon, Naryathegreat, Nascar1996, Nathan Johnson, Natofyelsew, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Neelix, Neil Martin India, Neonumbers, Nerval, Netsnipe, Nevetsjc, New Thought, NewEnglandYankee, Newfoundlanddog, Ngantengyuen, Nighthawk leader, Nikkul, Nil Einne, Nilfanion, Nilmerg, Ninnnu, Nishkid64, Niteowlneils, Nivix, Nju987, Nk, Nkayesmith, Nlu, Noah Salzman, Node ue, Non-dropframe, Nonono123, Nopetro, Norm, Northamerica1000, Nslsmith, NuclearWarfare, Nucleusboy, Nufy8, Nukeless, Nyletak, Nyvhek, ONEder Boy, OSX, Obli, Ocicatmuseum, Ohnoitsjamie, Oilpanhands, Oleg Alexandrov, Olegwiki, Oliver202, Olivier, Omgwehavename, Omicronpersei8, Ontopic, Orangutan, Ott, OverlordQ, OwenX, Oxymoron83, P0mbal, PAK Man, Paco1991, Padajtsch-kall, Palica, Panchitaville, Papaya07, Parable1991, Past-man, Patrick, Patstuart, Paul August, Pavel Vozenilek, Pawyilee, Pax:Vobiscum, Paxsimius, Pc13, PeaceNT, Peas and corn, Pediainsight, Peligroso, Pellande12, Persian Poet Gal, Peruvianllama, Peter, Peter Horn, PeterEastern, Petewailes, Pgan002, Pgk, Phill up 007, Phlamer26, Phntm, Pigeon.dyndns.org, Pithecanthropus, Pjbflynn, Pladuk, Plastikspork, PlatinumX, Pokrajac, Polluxian, Pomadeguy, Poorleno, Porqin, Portiab, Possum, Poypoyboiiii, Prashanthns, Primate, PseudoSudo, Ptk, Puchu,

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Article Sources and Contributors 74

Pumbill, Punchup, Pwnr77, Pyrospirit, Q5967, QIOY, Qazwsx777, Qbmessiah, Qqwwwwwwww, Qtoktok, Quadell, Quadratic, Quaque, Quiddity, Qwerty33, Qxz, R9tgokunks, RC-0722, RG2,RJN, RMFan1, RWardy, Rabhach, Rachelgiggles, RadioKirk, Radon210, Rajkiandris, Randomblue, Raryel, Rasmus Faber, RaymondSutanto, Razbox, Rdsmith4, Recury, RedCoat1510, Redvers,Reginmund, Regushee, Relvin, Remag Kee, Renamed user 24, Rent A Troop, Reswobslc, Rettetast, Revcanon, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rhobite, Riana, Ric36, Rich Farmbrough, Richardearl,Richdude24, RickK, Rintrah, RitKill, Rjwilmsi, Rlsheehan, Rmhermen, Rmt2m, Roadrunner, Rob230, RobDe68, Robert Merkel, RobertG, Robitaille03, Rocastelo, Rock427, RockMFR,Rocket000, Rodrigue, Roke, Rolf, Romanm, Rory096, Roux, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rppeabody, Rujoesmith, Runch, Runner5k, Rusl, Ryan4314, Rzf3, S.M., SCEhardt, SPUI, Saberwyn,Sagesebas, Saket6, Sam Francis, Sam Hocevar, SamH, SamdupLama, SamuraiClinton, Samw, Sandy13397, SavoySison, Sc147, Sceptre, Scheetor, Schicklgruber, Schlichtinator,SchmuckyTheCat, Schwnj, Scientizzle, Scipius, Scole01, Sdornan, Sean Whitton, Sean William, Seant, Selimbey, SenorAnderson, Seoanalyzer, Serketan, Sfoskett, Shacurthi, Shadow1,Shane0016, Shanes, Sharnak, Shashwatrocks, Shawn in Montreal, Shawnc, Shazam3592, Shenme, Shoemoney2night, Siddhant, Sietse Snel, Silverback, Silverxxx, SimonP, Sir Lewk, SirVulture,Sjakkalle, Sjdfisher, Sjschen, Sk8er 4533, SkiBumMSP, Skull365, Sladen, Slakr, Slippered sleep, Smidydevil, Smith609, Smmf1, Snailwalker, Snori, Snowmanradio, Snoyes, Soakologist,Sobolewski, Sohailstyle, Sohmc, Solipsist, Soriamic, Souljaboytellem44, South Bay, South Birmingham OK, Sp, Spangineer, Spatulli, SpeakFree, Spearhead, Specter01010, Speeddemonvegas,Spellcast, Spick And Span, SpigotMap, Spike Wilbury, Splintax, Spookfish, SpookyMulder, SportWagon, Springeragh, Sqash, Staceybabesx, Stagerd.thomas, Stalfur, Stapian, Stars4change,Steel, Steinsky, Stephan Leeds, StephanGFX, StephenMacmanus, Stephenb, SteveBaker, Steven Zhang, Stewacide, Stickman sam, Stombs, Stoopered, Stuartclift, Stude62, StuffOfInterest,Sunroof, Super edd, SuperDude115, Superkevin95, Supertouch, Swift, Symane, Syrthiss, Syvanen, TACD, TBadger, Talking goat, Tannin, Tasc, TastyCakes, Tbjablin, Tbonnie, Tcotrel, Teddey,Teilas, Teklund, Tellyaddict, Terps21, Terra-rent, Terrorist420x, Teryx, Teutonic Tamer, TexasAndroid, Thalia42, The Evil Spartan, The Giant Puffin, The Ronin, The Transhumanist, Theundertow, TheBlazikenMaster, TheKMan, TheNewPhobia, Thelacerator, Themanwithoutapast, Themfromspace, Theonlycarmire, Theuion, Thewalrus, Thingg, Tiddly Tom, Tifego, Tiptoety,Titoxd, Tkeller62, Tolu600, Tom harrison, Tomdobb, Tone, Topory, Toppersjcc, Tpbradbury, Train of thought, Trekky3012, Trekphiler, Trent, Trevor MacInnis, TrippingTroubadour,Tristarmotors, Trozig, Trusilver, Truth or consequences-2, Tstingert, Tsunaminoai, Ttwaring, Tucson Arizona Mexico, TurboBoostMan, Typ932, UNIXCOFFEE928, Ultratomio, Ultravioletscissor flame, Ummakynes, Ummit, Uncle G, UniQue tree, Unibond, User27091, Vaceituno, Val42, Valuecityauto, Van helsing, Vanished User 4517, Vanished user 39948282, Velho,VeryVerily, Vgranucci, Vildricianus, Vsbhogadi, W4zz0, WJBscribe, WODUP, Waggers, Waldopepper, WalrusRescue, Walton One, Watti Renew, Wavelength, Wayward, Welsh, Wetwilli,Whale plane, WhaleyTim, Whiteshoes, Whomp, Wickethewok, Wik, WikEditor, Wiki alf, Wikibofh, Wikicalvin299, Wikidudeman, Wikiklrsc, Wikipedia brown, Wiktionary4Prez!, Wilt, Wimt,Winchelsea, Wingspeed, Winjay, Wipe, Wknight94, Wmahan, WojPob, Wolfkeeper, WongFeiHung, World arm lamp, X3ni, Xagent86, Xcentaur, Xen 1986, Xerocs, Xezbeth, Xkfusionxk,Xymmax, YELKENN, Yamaea, Yamaguchi先生, Yankees9043, Yazeed M, YellowMonkey, Yelsent, Yidisheryid, Yihfeng, Yitscar, Ylbissop, Ylem, Ynhockey, Yoasif, Yoshi348, Youngoat,Youpli, Your vexation, Z.E.R.O., ZS, Zafiroblue05, Zazou, Zeno Gantner, Zeno of Elea, Zepheus, Zigger, Zmajjlu, Zombiebaron, Zondor, Zoney, Zsinj, Zzuuzz, Τις, 2389 ,כל יכול anonymousedits

Sedan (automobile)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457599883  Contributors: 842U, A2 supersonique, ALadinN, Abeg92, Adyason, Ajshm, Alecsescu, Ali mehmood zaki,AliceJMarkham, ApolloBoy, Asterion, Barfoos, Barnstarbob, Bathrobe, BhaiSaab, Bhk858, BobShair, Borgx, Bravada, BrendelSignature, Bull-Doser, Burdenj, Bustago, CZmarlin, Caerwine,Camaro96, Capital photographer, Casper2k3, Chameleon, Chief tin cloud, Chris the speller, Cvalda, CvetanPetrov1940, Damuna, Daniel C, Darklilac, Darklock, Deepak, Deflective, Deor,DocWatson42, Donbert, Drbreznjev, Dvulture, ESkog, EVula, Ehn, Fabiform, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fatsamsgrandslam, Felixludwigpaul, Fluence, Folksong, Funandtrvl, Fuzzy Logic, GL,Gary King, Gene Nygaard, GeorgeOne, Hannolancia, Hede2000, Herjazz, Hetar, Howcheng, IFCAR, Icd, Imnotminkus, J.delanoy, JackLumber, Jagvar, James086, Jeff3000, Jh12, Joffeloff,Johnnymartins, Jst enthar, Karrmann, Kbh3rd, Kwekubo, LeaveSleaves, Liftarn, Lightmouse, M-le-mot-dit, MADI13, MMuzammils, Malcolma, Manop, Mark Wheaver, Matt Deres, MattTM,Matthead, Mattnad, MeToo, Mediumsilver21, Meelar, Melaen, Mercury McKinnon, MetsFan76, Michelet, Mickeymicks, Mikael V, Morcus, Mulad, NaBUru38, Nbarth, NewGuy4, Niteowlneils,NorthernThunder, OSX, Obsessiveatbest, Ogu1234, Ojigiri, Oliver202, Olivier, OnkelFordTaunus, Pegasus1138, Peterblaise, Pion, Racky pt, Rap raz, Regushee, Richard W.M. Jones, RivGuySC,Rmhermen, Royote, Runedance, Sacxpert, Saidferid, Saintswithin, SamH, Scheinwerfermann, SchuminWeb, Section6, Sesshomaru, SidP, SimonP, Slicing, Sobolewski, Sonett72, Stombs,Syndicate, Tavilis, TedColes, Teixant, TeunvsT, Tkynerd, Tom Pippens, Trilobite, Typ932, Typhoon, Ugur Basak, Varco, Velho, Vinay412, Vincenzo.romano, Volathor1, WikiuserNI,Woohookitty, WooteleF, Writegeist, Zeno Gantner, Zoney, ^demon, 204 anonymous edits

Minivan  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458540549  Contributors: 24.93.53.xxx, 842U, Alecsescu, AlexiusHoratius, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, ApolloBoy,Arthena, Aruton, Aschwieter, Aurevilly, Ayame28, Azer Red, BD2412, Bachcell, Bavaria, Bavaria II, Billlion, Blackshaw000, Bluedisk, Bob20102010, Bobber100, Bobblewik, Brabblebrex,Brighterorange, Brossow, Butterfly0fdoom, CLI, CPStapleton, CZmarlin, Camaro96, Celerityfm, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Cliff, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, Cst17, Cvalda,CyanideSandwich, DJ Clayworth, DanCBJMS, DeFacto, DetroitTiger2121, Doug, Drdisque, Ebyabe, Elm-39, Elmwood, Enthusiast10, Es330td, Essesense, Eternalnoob, Evil saltine,EvilEuropean, Facts707, Fdtdguy, Feťour, Fh1, Flomobile, Fred amyett, FunPika, G3150, Gaius Cornelius, Gekedo, Giant89, Gogo Dodo, GreenLineMan, Guroadrunner, H falcon, H005, HairyDude, Hajhouse, Heinrich L., Hektor, Hephaestos, Hezery99, Hkw2121, Hmains, Howcheng, Hyline79, IFCAR, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jamieli, Jeffreyhermann, Jelliott4, Jellyfish dave, Jesse's Girl,Jetgraphics, Jgp, JimMatczak, Jimgawn, Jjlasne, Jkolak, Jnelson09, Johnneal, Joy, Jrleighton, Justinboles, Justme89, K3v1n, KNHaw, Karrmann, KillerKris, Kitsunegami, Koavf, Kurrurrin,Liftarn, Lost tourist, Love Krittaya, LtPowers, Luckas Blade, Luna Santin, Mac, Mahanga, Mahjongg, Markb, Mattbrundage, Mbezoyan, Mboverload, Mendel, Michaelsbll, Microbike, MiguelAndrade, Mike384, Minivanone, Mjl0509, Mjnbrn, Morcus, Morven, MosheZadka, Mrschimpf, Mulad, Murtasa, Mwtoews, My76Strat, NHRHS2010, NaBUru38, Nandesuka, NewGuy4, NickNumber, Niteowlneils, Nlu, Nono64, NotWaving, Ogriofac, PJ Pete, Panicum, Patsw, Peter Horn, Petri Krohn, Pil56, Pineapple fez, Pmeisel, Pmj, Pnkrockr, Postdlf, PrinceGloria, Pskykosys,Quadell, Quai-de-Javel, R'son-W, Rama, Reedy, Reelcheeper, Regushee, Ridge Runner, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Robth, Ryguy611, SCEhardt, SFGiants, Sable232, Sable24V, Samw, Sava9e,Scat King, Scootey, Sdechant, Sfoskett, SilkTork, SimonP, Spinoff, Splash, Steve B., SteveBaker, SteveCof00, Superbeecat, TEAKAY-C II R, TGC55, Temurjin, That Guy, From That Show!,The Lonely Celia, Thehelpfulone, Thomas Blomberg, Thruston, Tinton5, Tommyjr, TruckMatt, Truthdowser, Typ932, Tzartzam, UberMan5000, UdovdM, Uhai, Vegaswikian, Versageek,Victor-435, Vincentszupica, Vossanova, Wiarthurhu, Wikipe-tan, Will Beback Auto, Woohookitty, Xavier86, Yaubrandon, Z10x, ZZZico, Zoney, Zzuuzz, Žmogus, 액티언, 337 anonymous edits

Crossover (automobile)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457945886  Contributors: 123Scalian123, 2o6, 842U, AK Auto, Alecsescu, AlexJola, Amehyaro,Ancientphoenixians, Andros 1337, ApolloBoy, Atlant, Barticus88, Becker911, Bkpedia, BrendelSignature, Brossow, Bull-Doser, CZmarlin, Chester Markel, Ckatz, Cmdrjameson,CommonsDelinker, Cornela, Craxyxarc, Davidbspalding, Delband, DelphinidaeZeta, Denimmonkey, Denis1210, DocWatson42, Dogface, El monty, Entoaggie09, Equinoxe, Evanreyes,Fatsamsgrandslam, Fh1, FilMys, Fxhomie, Gilliam, Giulit, Gogiva, GoldDragon, Grahill, Grendelkhan, HiMadden, Howcheng, I love SUV's, Invader Poonchy, IstvanWolf, Jbl1975, Jdh8711,JeffTL, JonathanDP81, Jro78, Kainophobia, Kenshi22, Killerdove, Koopa turtle, Krazychris81, L21logan99, Lathrop1885, Leszek Jańczuk, Leugim1972, Liftarn, Lozowski, MJBurrage, Mac,Matt434, Meggar, Michael Hardy, Milkmandan, Mkhbgpa, Monedula, Morenus, NaBUru38, Nickj, Nintendude, Ntedualng, PS2pcGAMER, Pattidude, Paul Fisher, Pc13, PorscheRacer711,Publicly Visible, Pundit, R'n'B, Randroide, Raven in Orbit, Rawja, RedWolf, Regushee, Rgvis, Rickjpelleg, Ridge Runner, Roadstaa, Robert, Robth, Rondread444, Sable232, SamH,Sarveshkarkhanis, Sbrianhicks, Semievolvedsimian, Sfoskett, Shaylot, SimonX, SiobhanHansa, Sklocke, Snessi32, Somegeekintn, Stacecom, Stepho-wrs, SteveLoughran, Stombs,SuperDude115, SuperXero07, Swaq, Sycthos, Taifarious1, TheHeat3, Theda, Tregoweth, Tri400, TruckMatt, Typ932, Vegaswikian, Vicenarian, Victor-435, Virinderv, Wanderer77, Wdfarmer,Wiarthurhu, WiiKiBoyz, WikHead, WikiSkeptic, Wikiuser100, Woohookitty, Xezbeth, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Zman4000, 低体温, 275 anonymous edits

Commercial vehicle  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444650244  Contributors: 777sms, Abdefo, BD2412, Biscuittin, Bjankuloski06en, Buckthegr8, Crossmr,Dawnseeker2000, DeFacto, ErgoSum88, H falcon, Immunize, Interiot, Mion, Muzammil786, NaBUru38, Oatmeal batman, Otr500, Rich Farmbrough, SAllen22, SMasters, The Cre8r, Trilobytefossil, Vegaswikian, Wiz9999, 22 anonymous edits

Bus  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458538620  Contributors: *drew, -Kerplunk-, 07181972ko, 111000wipnug, 1exec1, A. B., A.arvind.arasu, ADS190, ATS 500, Aaronbuck, Abdullais4u, Abe Backman, Accountants Son, Adam.J.W.C., AdamW, Adsda118, Ae7flux, Aesopos, Aflm, Afri, After Midnight, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akamad, Alanmak, Alansohn, Allamericanbear, Altermike, Alx 91, Amicon, Amolnaik3k, Anders Torlind, Andrewpmk, Andy Dingley, Ang342, Anna Frodesiak, Antandrus, Apparition11, Arcturus, ArglebargleIV, ArnoldReinhold, Arpingstone, Arsenikk, Art LaPella, Artur Oliveira Silva, Awesome cris, Awk500007, B58PMCSA, BIL, BLEBBLEB, BRG, BW52, Backifran, Backpack kiwi, Badgernet, Beniles,sfms, Berendale1, Big Bird, Billinghurst, Bkell, Blackbirdfly, Blackflag5, Blackrose0728, BladesCrusade, Blanchardb, Blimpguy, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobyoy, Bongwarrior, Borisgh, BouncingDragon, Brianga, BrownsSB, Bubba23, BulldozerD11, Busesireland, Bushes and gentlemen, CALR, Cab88, Cabe6403, Callum3242, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carolinatourbus, Catgut, Cccc3333, Chaleyer61, Chargeball, Charleca, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chmouel, Chris j wood, Chrishmt0423, Chrislk02, Chun-hian, CiTrusD, Cimp3, Clawed, CliffC, Colbyjrocks, Colonel Warden, Cometstyles, Commander Keane, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Coolcaesar, Covalent, Crazycomputers, Crohnie, Cst17, D34thsp4wn, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVdm, Dachshund, Daf, Damdes, Dante Alighieri, Darkcore, Darthali, Darthgriz98, DavidCane, DavidLevinson, DavidSpanel, Dawn Bard, DeadEyeArrow, Death973, Deb, Debresser, Deflective, Deli nk, DerHexer, Diamondland, Discospinster, Djflem, Dmacgr 22, Donald Albury, Doremo, Dori, Downthroughthere, Dura-Ace, Dysprosia, Eagle4000, Eco84, Edanstone, Edson Rosa, Egmonster, El C, El monty, Elcago, Electrolite, Emerson7, Enotayokel, Enviroboy, Envirocorrector, Epbr123, Epleku, Erebus Morgaine, Erik9, EscapingLife, Euryalus, Excirial, Fa95bri, Falcon8765, Fasouzafreitas, Father Llymic, Favonian, Fertuno, Fillefolle, Finbarr Saunders, Finchr04, Finn-Zoltan, Flewis, Fnfd, FoeNyx, Foxmulder, FrFintonStack, Fraggle81, Frankie0607, Freakmighty, FreplySpang, Fresh start, FriedMilk, Furrykef, Gaius Cornelius, Garfield226, Gayman5, Geniac, Genisock2, Geniu, Geo Swan, Gerald Farinas, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Gimmetrow, Glass Sword, Glen, Gnevin, Gogo Dodo, Gohiking, Goldi12, GraemeL, Grafen, Graham87, Gravitan, Greatgavini, Grunt, Gtg204y, Guanako512, Gwernol, Gypsum Miner, Gzornenplatz, HFret, HalJor, HammerHeadHuman, Hansjorn, Hasannur, Hassocks5489, Hcheney, HenryLi, Heroes1008, Heron, Hi878, Hmains, Hoo man, Hooperbloob, HorsePunchKid, Hydrargyrum, ILovePlankton, Iamajpeg, Iamawesomesmartperson, Icairns, Icy Chev, Ida Shaw, Iking, Ilovevancouver90909, Indon, Infrogmation, Instantnood, Interestingstuffadder, Iridescent, IsarSteve, Istig Kite, J. 'mach' wust, J04n, JBsupreme, JForget, Jackehammond, Jackohare, Jacquerie27, Jaded-view, Jadtnr1, Jaffaguy, Jake Wartenberg, Jaknouse, Jalnet2, Jamesontai, JamieS93, JavierMC, JayC, JayHenry, Jaybird vt, JeffMGreen, Jeffrey Mall, JerryTheWin, Jesster79, Jim.henderson, Jimdevlin, Jimguot, Jnelson09, Jobie29, Joe2395, Johann Wolfgang, John Broughton, JohnCFC125, Johnjohncoo, Johnnydno7, Johnwalton, Jon84, JonMoore, Jongleur100, Jonik, Joojooflop, Joost P. Vermeer, JosephBarillari, Joshii, Joshua Scott, Jotel, Joyous!, Jp347, Jpatokal, Jpom, Julesd, Jusjih, JustAGal, Jwinston1111, K man21, KF, KGasso, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kafziel, Katalaveno, Keilana, Kelisi, Kimera Kat, Kinkijui KNK, Kjecko10, Klzabc, Kmoksy, Kprateek88, Kschang77, Kuru, Kuwaitsoccer, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, L.vivian.richard, LHOON, LOLBREDBUSLOL, Lancehchrist, Lara0303, Laurapg, Lazulilasher, LeaveSleaves, Leszek Jańczuk, Leutha, LiDaobing, Liftarn, Lights, Lihoujun, Likelife, LilHelpa, Liliankwk, Linnell, LittleOldMe, Logan, Lohengrin1991, Lord Emsworth, LordFoppington, Lradrama, Lugnad, Luk, Lulzbus, Luna Santin, Luniz97, M1xmast3r, MER-C, Mac, Magnus Manske, Mailer diablo, Malinaccier, Mapmark, MarsRover, Marshall Williams2, Martarius, Martg76, MathKnight, Matt Brennen,

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Matt037291, Matthewedwards, Matticus78, Max.coke, Megaman en m, Mentifisto, Mephistophelian, Merdfrog, Michael Dorosh, Michael Hardy, MichaelBillington, MickMacNee, Mikau735,Mike Rosoft, Mike88chan, MilkTheImp, Mirsadkannur, Moebiusuibeom-en, Morwen, Motorworld, Mschilz24, Msr69er, Mulad, Murdockh, Murraypaul66, Mxn, Myanw, N12345n, Nankai,NewEnglandYankee, Nickypedro, Nictrain, Night Gyr, Nivix, Nixeagle, Nomnomhammer, Non-dropframe, Nopetro, Norm, NotACow, NuclearWarfare, Nudecline, Numbo3, Nv8200p,Octahedron80, Oda Mari, Ohevami, Ososessy, Ouro, Oxymoron83, Oysterguitarist, Ozebus, PTSE, Palica, Palmiped, Pan32, Patrick, Patstuart, Pauli133, Pawyilee, Pebkac, Peter Horn,PeterEastern, Pewwer42, Philip Trueman, Phillip J, Photnart, Piano non troppo, Picaroon, Piellas Athena, PierreAbbat, Pigsonthewing, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Planesrock, Plasmoe, Plentonk, Plrk,Poopie-longbum, PrestonH, Prolog, Pumpie, Q5967, Qrsdogg, QuantumEleven, Quintote, Qweasdzxc12312345678910987654321, Qwyrxian, Qxz, R'n'B, RHaworth, RXUYDC, Radagast,Ranjithrnath, Rcsprinter123, RedWolf, Redrocketboy, Reedy, Reznako, Ricardocolombia, Rich Solano, Richard Bowman, Rickey145, Rickyrab, Ridernyc, Rintrah, Robbiex, RobertG, Ronline,Roxxyroxursox, Rpyle731, RuairiQuinn, RxS, Ryank808, SAUNDERS, SCEhardt, SDC, SJ Morg, SNIyer12, Sabbut, Sahrin, Saikokira, SaltyBoatr, Samsara, Samtheboy, Scanbus, Scarian,SchuminWeb, Sciovanni, ScottDavis, Sebwite, Seidenstud, Seksen iki yüz kırk beş, Seth Ilys, Sewing, Shaelyn123, Shantavira, Sharkmkd, Signalhead, Silence, SimonP, SimonTrew, Sintaku,SiobhanHansa, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Siva1979, Sjakkalle, SlackerMom, Sladen, SlimVirgin, Slon02, Smjg, Smlowe5, Snowmanradio, Snowolf, Snoyes, Solipsist, Sommers,Soundoftoday, Spmarshall42, SpuriousQ, Spyder GSR, Squids and Chips, Stanzilla, StarbucksFreak, Stephenb, Steve Dufour, Stevenspall, Stu pendousmat, Sujithbhakthan, Supersaiyanplough,Supsup747, Swarmtime, Synchronism, TAS, THEL3G1TASSASSIN, Tarquin, TastyPoutine, Tawker, Tcr25, Technopat, Teiresias84, Tellyaddict, Thai H. Nguyen, The Anome, The Thing ThatShould Not Be, The.aviation.expert, TheCoffee, Thenthornthing, Theo F, Theroadislong, Thomas Larsen, Thunderboltz, TiagoTiago, Tide rolls, Tillman, Timc, Titansfan007, Tkynerd, Tony Fox,Torstein90, Tpbradbury, Tradalj, TriviaKing, Triwbe, Twinxor, Typ932, Ugur Basak, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Unisouth, Useight, User2004, Valdezlopez, Vandylist, Vanka5, Vaoverland, Vardion,Vegaswikian, Vernk, Vgy7ujm, Villager57, Viriditas, Vlatko.mk, Wafulz, Walkingschoolbus, WatermelonPotion, Wendell, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Wheels on the bus, WhisperToMe,WhiteDragon, Whitebox, Whitejay251, Wiarthurhu, WideArc, Wiki alf, WikiArlo*k, Wikiadrie, Willking1979, Wizardist, Wjejskenewr, Wknight94, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Woopdededoop,Woot99, Wtmitchell, Ww2censor, X!, Xdenizen, Xxchangwoo0120xx, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yath, Yeryerbuggy, Yidisheryid, Yintan, ZKibler, Zac4b, Zacharie Grossen, Zagaboy,Zimmer550, Zsero, Zzzzzzus, 975 anonymous edits

Truck  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458499642  Contributors: *drew, -hiphop-, 12.234.49.xxx, 165.123.179.xxx, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, A D 13, A8UDI, ABF, ATS 500,AVX, Aaronfeldman, Acroterion, Adam fillips, Addshore, Adityagadgil, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alansohn, Aldis90, Aleenf1, Alex.muller, AlexiusHoratius, Aleyland96, Allstarecho, Alois Musil,Alphachimp, Altermike, Anclation, Andonic, Andrewpmk, Andy Christ, Andyjsmith, Andyluciano, Angusmclellan, Anlace, AnnaFrance, Annmarie94, Anonymius, Anonymous Dissident,Ansell, Antandrus, Ante Aikio, Anthony Appleyard, Apgeraint, Ariedartin, Aris Katsaris, ArmadilloFromHell, Arpingstone, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Artmartxx, Ascidian, Ashley ob, Astral,Athaler, Autocracy, BKnoss, BMAN44, Backslash Forwardslash, Barek, Barneca, BarretBonden, Barry Zell, Bart133, Baseball62, Bastien Sens-Méyé, Bcorr, Beastfromouteast, Beastlyskillzz,Beaver, Benny55, Bettertom, Bggoldie, Bigdumbdinosaur, Bine Mai, Biscuittin, BlastOButter42, Blood Red Sandman, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bogdan, Boing! said Zebedee,Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boothman, Bossonova, BritishWatcher, Bubbaandgumpshrimps, Bunnyhop11, Buron444, Buttcruncher, Bwil, Bwileyr, C'est moi, COMPFUNK2, CZmarlin,Calliopejen1, Camaro96, Cameron, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Captain-n00dle, Carey Evans, Castagna, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Cheesemike, Chill doubt, Chillum, Chmod007,Chris the speller, Chrishmt0423, Chtito, Cimmerian praetor, Ckatz, Clawed, Closedmouth, Coldsweetvengance, Colewilliamgilmore, Colinstu, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Conversionscript, Corpx, Cosmicsqueaker, Credema, Crunch13, Crzrussian, CumbiaDude, Cumulus Clouds, Cureden, CurranH, Cwhite, Cwmhiraeth, Cyanolinguophile, Cyfal, Céçaquiéça, DC, DDerby,DO'Neil, DabMachine, Daduzi, Dahlis, DanTD, Daniel J. 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S. Shaw, RCinfoweb, RONRON61093, RadioActive, RandomXYZb,Ranjithrnath, Realmenonly, Rebroad, RedHillian, Reperspliter, Responsible?, Rhys Bowen, Rich Farmbrough, Rich Janis, Richard New Forest, Ricky81682, Ridge Runner, Rjwilmsi,Rlobkovsky, Rmhermen, Robert Merkel, Rocket000, Rodhullandemu, S3000, SJP, ST47, SWAdair, Saintswithin, Sam8, Sanderrl, Sannse, Sceptre, Scimitar, Sciurinæ, ScottDavis, Scratali,Scriberius, SeamusHC, SeanMack, Seaphoto, Sephia, Seraphim, Sesu Prime, Setanta747, Shadow1, Shanes, Shell Kinney, Shogunpk, Shulaah, Sietse Snel, SimonP, SiobhanHansa, Sir-wiki, SkyAttacker, SkylineEvolutionIII, Sladen, Slakr, Smith1656, Snorre, SoLando, Some jerk on the Internet, Sonett72, Spence500, Spike Wilbury, Spitfire, Splash15, Sportstar22, Spydercomp, SrđanPopović, Ssryry2, Staffwaterboy, Stan J Klimas, Stanistani, Steevm, Steinberger, Stemonitis, Stephen G. 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Tractor  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456325923  Contributors: -Midorihana-, -js-, 95j, 99DBSIMLR, A Softer Answer, A.w.stephens, ABF, Acroterion, Adam.J.W.C.,AdamUnrath, Addihockey10, Alan Liefting, Alan4124, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Algonquin247, Alphachimp, Altenmann, Anclation, Andre7775, Andreas Kaganov, Andrevruas, Andrewjuren,Anna512, Anthony Appleyard, Anthonyhcole, Apparition11, Aqualize, Arabiska Natt, Arbitrarily0, ArglebargleIV, Arthena, Arthur77, AshLin, Ashby10, Astronautics, Atif.t2, Atlant, Avoided,BD2412, Baby gift idea, Barts1a, Bazza 7, Beetstra, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Berean Hunter, Bggoldie, Bidgee, Bilboon, Billertl, Billhpike, Billst, Billwhittaker, Biscuittin, Bjf, BlckKnght,Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boomshadow, Bossonova, BritishWatcher, Brown1990, Brumpz, BulldozerD11, CPStapleton, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Cessator, CharlieTango, Chebchetra, Cheese be good, Chibiabos, Chris Roy, Chris Ssk, ChrisCork, Chrissy385, Clover77, CommonsDelinker, Cralize, Creeknet, CustardJack, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,DGVAS, DR04, Da Joe, Danharibo, Daniel Christensen, DanielDeibler, Dannycarpet, Danyoung, DeadEyeArrow, Delta Tango, DerGolgo, DerHexer, Deutschgirl, Dicklyon, Dina, Discospinster,DividedByNegativeZero, DotHQ, Dr Black Knife, DuncanHill, Dustimagic, ENeville, Easel3, Eating Tomatoes, EdJogg, Edward, Eighthundredeight, Elcajonfarms, Enigmaman, EoGuy,Epbr123, Epimorph, Epp, Eraser123, Eric Herriman, Eric outdoors, Erodium, EronMain, Escape Orbit, Evil joey, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Extra999, Factorator, Faradayplank, Farmboy4864618,Favonian, Fingal, Fir0002, FisherQueen, FlipmyAPC, Foobar, Formermarine, Forwarder Boy, FrancisTyers, Frickeg, Funandtrvl, Furledd, GB fan, Gary D Robson, Gazdaspaz, Gbleem,George2001hi, Gfoley4, Gilliam, Glob.au, Gnarkill, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Grantmidnight, GregorB, Grika, Grim..., Gsl, Gurch, Gwernol, Gökhan, Hailey C. Shannon, Hairy Dude, Halibutt,Heegroid, Heimstern, Heron, Hick ninja, Hmains, Hogne, Hornlitz, Hphparts, Hunting dog, I already forgot, Ianb, Ibbn, Icairns, Imaginenow, Imbacknblack, Independent Journalist, J neish,J.delanoy, JForget, JNW, JSpung, Jamesgpeck, Jan1nad, Jauhienij, Javit, Jesster79, Jjkr, Joedamadman, JohnCD, Jojhutton, Joyous!, Jrdioko, Jua Cha, Julesd, Junglecat, JuniperisCommunis, Justplain Bill, JustinTime55, KF, KVDP, Karanne, Katieh5584, Keanu, Kingpin13, Kneiphof, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kostisl, Kotiwalo, Kozuch, Kslattery, Kukini, L Kensington, Lankiveil, Lanky,Lear's Fool, LeaveSleaves, Leebo, Leonard G., Liftarn, LightCMM, Lights, Limesap, LindsayH, Lingosalad, Linmhall, Liquidryan, LordPaulyman, Luk, Lumbercutter, Mac, Malcolma,Mandarax, Marcusmax, MarkusHagenlocher, MathKnight, Matmota, Matt Deres, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mcr hxc, Melensdad, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Mervyn, Metrax, Michael Calwell,Michael Hardy, Microtony, Mike Roch132, Modster, Morven, Mrh30, Mulad, Mzajac, N5iln, NameIsRon, Nathan, Natkeeran, NawlinWiki, Neelix, Neutrality, NewEnglandYankee, Newportm,Nikola Smolenski, Ninly, Nohat, Noisy, Nopetro, Northamerica1000, Oleg Alexandrov, Omodaka, OneArmedBUSINESS, Orphan Wiki, Oscarthecat, Ospalh, OverlordQ, Oxymoron83, PCock,PPalmer, Parker007, Patrick, Paul Erik, Pearle, Peter Horn, Pgk, PhilKnight, Phorner87, Phreed100, Piano non troppo, Picaroon, PierreAbbat, Pissant, Pit, Plasticup, Pollinator,Pollypollypollywee, Potaaatos, Prashanthns, Proyster, Quadell, QuantumEleven, Quidprowhat, Quinobi, Rak716, RandomCritic, RedSoxFan7, RedWolf, Reyk, Rich257, RifeIdeas, Ripples101,Rjstott, Rmhermen, Rmt2m, Rnb, Rocastelo, Rpvdk, Rrburke, Saebjorn, Sam Hocevar, SamH, Samnelsonnn, Sannse, Satori Son, Sciurinæ, Scott Ritchie, ScottDavis, Scoty6776, Seanatyeo,Sempersububi, SidneyWeston, Sigma 7, Sigmundg, SimonP, Skäpperöd, SlayerK, Smjg, Snek01, Soliloquial, Solitude, Soup man, Spaceout man, Spartian, Spenelson, Sprintstar, SpuriousQ,Steven J. Anderson, Studerby, Stwalkerster, Sunderland06, Supersmarty, Svetovid, Switchercat, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Teles, Tellyaddict, TenPoundHammer, The Thing That Should NotBe, Themfromspace, Thomas Larsen, Three-quarter-ten, Tide rolls, Timtrent, Tmaull, Tomcrisp7, Tompkin2k9, TractorMania, Tractornewman, Traumrune, Trevort2012, Uhhhhhh, Useight,Vegaswikian, Vegetaman, Veinor, WFWW?, Webenner3, West wikipedia, Whoiskennedy, WikHead, Wikipelli, Wizard191, Woohookitty, XalD, Xiahou, Xowets, Yoganate79, ZeBoxx,Zephyrnthesky, Zereshk, Zzorse, Zzuuzz, Δ, Саша Стефановић, האחד והיחיד, יוסי ישראלי, రవిచంద్ర, 655 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Japan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, MifterFile:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, MifterFile:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Sweden.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Spain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: special commission (ofcode): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. Colors according to Appendix No. 3 of czech legal Act 3/1993. cs:Zirland.File:Flag of South Korea.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VariousFile:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, MifterFile:Flag of Romania.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Romania.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AdiJapanFile:Flag of Pakistan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abaezriv, AnonMoos, Badseed, Dbenbenn,Duduziq, F. F. Fjodor, Fry1989, Gabbe, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Juiced lemon, Katarighe, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Minna Sora no Shita, Mollajutt, Neq00, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Srtxg,TFCforever, ThomasPusch, Túrelio, Zscout370, 9 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors)File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: SKoppFile:Flag of Malaysia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Drawn by User:SKoppFile:Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 555, Bestalex,Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk,Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Sasha Krotov, Shizhao, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, ZooFari, Zscout370, 72 anonymous editsImage:Benz-velo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benz-velo.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:SofteisImage:2000cardistribution.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2000cardistribution.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NevetsjcImage:World vehicles per capita.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_vehicles_per_capita.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: TastyCakes (talk)Image:CarlBenz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CarlBenz.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: -Image:1885Benz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1885Benz.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Buch-t, Infrogmation, Jaranda, Milkmandan, Saforrest,Semnoz, TaisyoFile:Berthabenzportrait.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Berthabenzportrait.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bühler, MannheimImage:Olds2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Olds2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Karrmann at en.wikipediaImage:Henry ford 1919.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry_ford_1919.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hartsook, photographer.Image:Late model Ford Model T.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Late_model_Ford_Model_T.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:RmhermenFile:2011 Nissan Leaf WAS 2011 1040.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2011_Nissan_Leaf_WAS_2011_1040.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran OrtizFile:Car crash 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Car_crash_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jaranda, MB-one, Thue, 1 anonymous editsFile:Hands-free Driving.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hands-free_Driving.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Steve JurvetsonFile:Three body styles with pillars and boxes.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_body_styles_with_pillars_and_boxes.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: 842U (talk). Original uploader was 842U at en.wikipediaFile:Wagon and sedan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wagon_and_sedan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 842U (talk)File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Mirithing,Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 13 anonymous editsFile:Chevrolet Impala in light blue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chevrolet_Impala_in_light_blue.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Felix I.File:Magazine41PlymouthBackRight.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magazine41PlymouthBackRight.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Infrogmation of New OrleansFile:Opel Kadett B Automatic Heck.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Kadett_B_Automatic_Heck.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: RobotriotFile:1958 Ambassador 4-d hardtop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1958_Ambassador_4-d_hardtop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:CZmarlinFile:2004-2005 Chevrolet Malibu MAXX LS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2004-2005_Chevrolet_Malibu_MAXX_LS.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:IFCARFile:Luxury Car 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luxury_Car_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: BrendelSignature, 2 anonymouseditsFile:Sedan-chair.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sedan-chair.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chepry, Crux, Darwinius, Infrogmation, Kneiphof, Olivier2,RanveigFile:Dkw-schnellaster-bus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dkw-schnellaster-bus.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploaderwas DKW-Schnellaster-Freund at de.wikipediaFile:Kia Carnival front 20071031.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kia_Carnival_front_20071031.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Rudolf StrickerFile:Fiat 600 Multipla.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiat_600_Multipla.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: CLIFile:Samba(1).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samba(1).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Voogd075 at nl.wikipediaFile:1986 Dodge Caravan Smithsonian National Museum of American History.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1986_Dodge_Caravan_Smithsonian_National_Museum_of_American_History.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CZmarlin, Daderot,Navigator84, TheodulfFile:MHV Lloyd LT600.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MHV_Lloyd_LT600.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MartinHansVFile:Renault Espace First Iteration Blois 1984.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Renault_Espace_First_Iteration_Blois_1984.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Charles01File:91PlymouthGrandVoyagerLE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:91PlymouthGrandVoyagerLE.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hkw2121File:Citroen Evasion front.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_Evasion_front.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Luc106,Para, Thomas doerfer

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 77

File:Fiat ulysse bj94.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiat_ulysse_bj94.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Thomas LangerFile:1st Ford Windstar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st_Ford_Windstar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IFCARFile:Seat Alhambra Facelift 20090706 front.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seat_Alhambra_Facelift_20090706_front.JPG  License: Attribution  Contributors:MatthiasFile:96-00 Dodge Grand Caravan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:96-00_Dodge_Grand_Caravan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IFCARFile:96-98 Mercury Villager -- 12-26-2009.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:96-98_Mercury_Villager_--_12-26-2009.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:IFCARFile:Opel Sintra front 20071011.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Sintra_front_20071011.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: RudolfStrickerFile:1st Honda Odyssey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st_Honda_Odyssey.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IFCARFile:Citroen Xsara Picasso front 20080103.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_Xsara_Picasso_front_20080103.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rudolf StrickerFile:Opel Meriva A 1.8 Cosmo Facelift rear-2 20100716.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Meriva_A_1.8_Cosmo_Facelift_rear-2_20100716.jpg  License:Attribution  Contributors: S 400 HYBRIDFile:Renault Espace black r.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Renault_Espace_black_r.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: 1-1111, Jamieli,StahlkocherFile:02-04 Honda Odyssey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:02-04_Honda_Odyssey.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IFCARFile:2002-05 Short Wheelbase Pontiac Montana.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2002-05_Short_Wheelbase_Pontiac_Montana.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bull-DoserFile:SeatAlteaXL.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SeatAlteaXL.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Thomas doerferFile:SsangYong Rodius 270 Xdi front 20100719.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SsangYong_Rodius_270_Xdi_front_20100719.jpg  License: Attribution Contributors: S 400 HYBRIDFile:Honda Elysion (first generation) (front), Serdang.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honda_Elysion_(first_generation)_(front),_Serdang.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: User:Two hundred percent.File:Zafirona b.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zafirona_b.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: EcogarfFile:Citroën C4 Grand Picasso front-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroën_C4_Grand_Picasso_front-1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: LuftfahrradFile:Kia Carnival front - 2006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kia_Carnival_front_-_2006.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Matthias93File:Ford C-MAX.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ford_C-MAX.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Thomas doerferFile:Citroen C4 Picasso rear 20071025.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_C4_Picasso_rear_20071025.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rudolf StrickerFile:2009-2010 Toyota Innova Ph.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009-2010_Toyota_Innova_Ph.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:Mike384File:Citroen C3 Picasso Tendance Thoriumgrau.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_C3_Picasso_Tendance_Thoriumgrau.JPG  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: Thomas doerferFile:Proton Exora.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Proton_Exora.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PaultantkFile:Opel Meriva B ecoFlex.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Meriva_B_ecoFlex.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: ThomasdoerferFile:VW Sharan (1).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VW_Sharan_(1).JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: El montyFile:Chevrolet Orlando LTZ 1.8 – Frontansicht, 16. April 2011, Hilden.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chevrolet_Orlando_LTZ_1.8_–_Frontansicht,_16._April_2011,_Hilden.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: M 93File:2009 Dodge Journey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_Dodge_Journey.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IFCARFile:Fiatpalioadventure2010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiatpalioadventure2010.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LozowskiFile:07-Saturn-Outlook-XR.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:07-Saturn-Outlook-XR.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IFCARFile:Arriva T6 nearside.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arriva_T6_nearside.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arriva436File:Keiseibus-twinbus-20071013.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keiseibus-twinbus-20071013.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:LinearcityFile:WA Police Booze Bus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WA_Police_Booze_Bus.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Nachoman-auImage:Omnibus - Project Gutenberg eText 16943.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Omnibus_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16943.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: .:Ajvol:., Kersti Nebelsiek, Kneiphof, Mu, Tagishsimon, WstFile:Stagecoach in Newcastle bus 19442 Alexander Dennis Trident 2 Enviro 400 NK58 FNG in Newcastle 25 April 2009.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stagecoach_in_Newcastle_bus_19442_Alexander_Dennis_Trident_2_Enviro_400_NK58_FNG_in_Newcastle_25_April_2009.JPG  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Ultra7File:Praha, DOD 2006 Hostivař, Plošina autobusu Karosa pro invalidy.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Praha,_DOD_2006_Hostivař,_Plošina_autobusu_Karosa_pro_invalidy.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: A7036, Aktron, Jagro, Juiced lemon, Look2See1, Marek Banach, ŠJůFile:Ride On 5312 at Glenmont.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ride_On_5312_at_Glenmont.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ben SchuminFile:NYC Transit New Flyer 840.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NYC_Transit_New_Flyer_840.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Adam E. MoreiraFile:First Student IC school bus 202076.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Student_IC_school_bus_202076.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Adam E. MoreiraFile:KuwaitSCbusak.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KuwaitSCbusak.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Ahmadalshami at en.wikipediaFile:Ryujinbus 62.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ryujinbus_62.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: RsaFile:Viverolugobus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viverolugobus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknownFile:GMBus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GMBus.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: dave_7File:Red truck USA.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_truck_USA.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PRAFile:NW 1st lorry2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NW_1st_lorry2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: GwaftonFile:Truck carrying a large load in Indore (front view).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truck_carrying_a_large_load_in_Indore_(front_view).JPG  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Prateek KarandikarFile:Inside Mack Granite.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inside_Mack_Granite.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PanohaFile:Amo f 15 3.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amo_f_15_3.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kneiphof, Panther, 1 anonymous editsFile:Scania R470 topline.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scania_R470_topline.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: FAEP, Ferdinand Porsche, Kneiphof, Liftarn,MB-one, Morio, Thomas Blomberg, Zaphod, 1 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 78

File:Cummins Engine (LKW).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cummins_Engine_(LKW).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: selbstFile:Rear axles tandem.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rear_axles_tandem.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PanohaFile:Eaton Autoshift.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eaton_Autoshift.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PanohaFile:A truck chassis section.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_truck_chassis_section.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:PanohaFile:truck.car.transporter.arp.750pix.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truck.car.transporter.arp.750pix.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Arpingstoneon en.wikipediaFile:Isuzuelf6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isuzuelf6.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ypy31File:Actros182201.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Actros182201.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Klodo6975File:Iveco_Stralis_ITOY_2003.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iveco_Stralis_ITOY_2003.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denis1992, Klever, MorioFile:Renault Magnum-Palifor (B)-2004.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Renault_Magnum-Palifor_(B)-2004.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Klever,Liftarn, MorioFile:Quon-tractor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quon-tractor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ypy31File:Dutro130MDLXtreme.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dutro130MDLXtreme.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Celica21gtfourFile:Truck Sisu Kuorma-auto H4446 C.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truck_Sisu_Kuorma-auto_H4446_C.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Anneli SaloFile:Traktor na oranju.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Traktor_na_oranju.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PetarMiloševićFile:Harrison Machine Works 1882 tractor.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harrison_Machine_Works_1882_tractor.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Bill Whittaker (talk)File:1903 Tractor.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1903_Tractor.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: BillertlImage:field marshall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Field_marshall.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Grim...File:Volvo T 25.1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volvo_T_25.1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Erik ChristensenImage:Modern-tractor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern-tractor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: SolitudeImage:Wheat Planting Rig May 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_Planting_Rig_May_2007.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: ElcajonfarmsImage:OlderModelTractor.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OlderModelTractor.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KVDPFile:John Deere 3350 tractor cut.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Deere_3350_tractor_cut.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: KozuchImage:Modern John Deere Tractor IMG 0401.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_John_Deere_Tractor_IMG_0401.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: ElcajonfarmsImage:Tractor3pointhitchDubMay04.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractor3pointhitchDubMay04.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Jesster79Image:TractorPTOshaftMay04.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TractorPTOshaftMay04.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jesster79Image:Benin brown tractor 600.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benin_brown_tractor_600.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S.Department of StateImage:Tractorrearturnover.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractorrearturnover.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bdk, MB-one, Mac, 1 anonymous editsImage:RogerTractorLarge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RogerTractorLarge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bdk, Jeanot, ZaphodFile:JDTractor chisel-plough.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JDTractor_chisel-plough.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jesster79Image:TractorWithMountedRototiller.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TractorWithMountedRototiller.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KVDPImage:TractorPoweringWaterpump.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TractorPoweringWaterpump.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KVDPImage:Ueberladewagen (jha).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ueberladewagen_(jha).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:HinrichImage:Chelyabinsk tractor factory 1930s.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chelyabinsk_tractor_factory_1930s.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Augiasstallputzer, FrancisTyers, Man vyi, VizuImage:tractor fanguejant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractor_fanguejant.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: ShinxeniusImage:Backhoe and loader.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Backhoe_and_loader.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Fir0002, HighContrast, LosHawlosImage:Farm Tractor vs CUT vs Garden Tractor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farm_Tractor_vs_CUT_vs_Garden_Tractor.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: MelensdadImage:1subsoil1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1subsoil1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: MelensdadImage:Herd Seeder.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herd_Seeder.jpeg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: MelensdadImage:JD 71 Flexi Planter, 2 Row.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JD_71_Flexi_Planter,_2_Row.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: MelensdadFile:Oliver60RowCrop1944.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oliver60RowCrop1944.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: JdhoyesFile:Farmall regular web.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farmall_regular_web.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Caster23File:Ford epa tractor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ford_epa_tractor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Per Larssons MuseumFile:Volvo at Power Big Meet 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volvo_at_Power_Big_Meet_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: ChiemseeMan, Konstantin, Liftarn, MB-one, MartinHansV, Warrakkk, 4 anonymous editsFile:Duett-EPA-rear.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Duett-EPA-rear.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: LiftarnImage:Backing it in 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Backing_it_in_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Gbleem on en.wikipediaImage:UP Diesel 4453.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UP_Diesel_4453.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:SreeBotImage:Komsom 05.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Komsom_05.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Bukvoed, Joonasl, 2 anonymous editsImage:Trackmobile.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trackmobile.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:MorvenImage:PushbackCargolux.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PushbackCargolux.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ruud de Vries, http://www.ruudonline.comImage:Tractor-powered Roadroller.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractor-powered_Roadroller.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: AshLinImage:Wladimir Gawriilowitsch Krikhatzkij - The First Tractor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wladimir_Gawriilowitsch_Krikhatzkij_-_The_First_Tractor.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alexandrin, BLueFiSH.as, Daniel Baránek, Edward, Goldfritha, Liftarn, MartinHansV, Mikkalai, Pauk, Wst, 3 anonymous editsImage:Trator.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trator.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: -

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License 79

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/