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Aalborg Universitet

Digital terrestrial TV

Allocation of resources and licensing - A cross country study of selected EU countries

Tadayoni, Reza; Skouby, Knud Erik; Henten, Anders

Published in:Nordic and Baltic Journal of Information and Communications Technologies

DOI (link to publication from Publisher):10.13052/nbjict1902-097X.2017.005

Creative Commons LicenseCC BY-NC 4.0

Publication date:2017

Document VersionPublisher's PDF, also known as Version of record

Link to publication from Aalborg University

Citation for published version (APA):Tadayoni, R., Skouby, K. E., & Henten, A. (2017). Digital terrestrial TV: Allocation of resources and licensing - Across country study of selected EU countries. Nordic and Baltic Journal of Information and CommunicationsTechnologies, 2017(1), 65-90. [005]. https://doi.org/10.13052/nbjict1902-097X.2017.005

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https://doi.org/10.13052/nbjict1902-097X.2017.005

https://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/4f9480c8-1339-4fb3-b1c6-6841cf867070

https://doi.org/10.13052/nbjict1902-097X.2017.005

Digital Terrestrial TV: Allocationof Resources and Licensing – A Cross

Country Study of Selected EU Countries

Reza Tadayoni*, Knud Erik Skouby and Anders Henten

Center for Communication, Media and Information Technology, CMI,Aalborg University Copenhagen, Denmark*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Received 27 July 2017;Accepted 15 August 2017

Abstract

The paper provides an overview of the digital terrestrial TV in 11 selectedEU countries with different number of TV channels available in the ter-restrial networks. The idea is to discuss the reasons for these differencesand the parameters that affect the number of TV channels/services indifferent countries. The paper discusses to what extent economic, socialand political interests, framing the analogue era, continue to influencethe organizational and institutional set-up when switching to digital TV.From a purely technological point of view, one would expect that thenumber of TV channels made available in the different countries withgiven spectrum resources would vary only a little taking cross-border fre-quency interference into consideration. In fact, there are large differencesbetween the various countries, which can be explained by the differencesin economic, social and political interests and a certain degree of path-dependence in the organizational and institutional set-up in the differentcountries.

Keywords: Digital TV, Convergence, Multiplex operator, Spectrumresources, Digital dividend, Regulatory framework, MUX, HDTV.

Journal of NBICT, Vol. 1, 65–90.doi: 10.13052/nbjict1902-097X.2017.005c© 2017 River Publishers. All rights reserved.

66 R. Tadayoni et al.

1 Introduction

The expectations regarding the switch-over from analogue to digital terrestrialTV were high in the first decade of the millennium. The European Commissionrecommended that the switch-over should be completed in EU countries by1 January 2012, and though most EU countries followed this recommendation,there have been a few late-comers. The general expectations were 1) higherefficiency of digital infrastructures in utilizing the scarce spectrum resources,enabling a radical increase in quality of TV signals and/or a radical increasein the number of TV services on the market, 2) the possibility for interactivityand user participation, 3) convergence and synergy between the developmentof TV broadcast and Internet based services, and 4) the possibility for mobilereception.

The realities have turned out to be an increase in the number of TV services(channels) and an improved audio-visual quality. The other expectations havenot been fulfilled and have been by-passed by Internet developments (Tadayoniand Henten, 2013). The potentials for interactivity have not been developed –digital TV has stayed as a one-way mode of communications; the convergenceof broadcast and Internet has happened on the Internet with OTT services orvia managed IP services as IPTV; and, mobile broadcast reception has alsodeveloped as an Internet based service.

Digital terrestrial TV is, however, still an important area of mass-communication and will remain so for the coming decade – though to adecreasing extent – and the aim of the paper is to analyse the experiencesof various EU countries with digital terrestrial TV. The paper provides anoverview of a detailed cross-country case study of 11 selected EU countrieswith different number of TV channels available in the terrestrial networks.The idea is to discuss the reasons for these differences and the parameters thataffect the number of TV channels/services in different countries. The focus ishere on the licensing procedure, content, prices and prerequisites to be ableto apply for a TV license. Moreover, there is information on the number ofTV licenses. The counties included in this study are the following: Austria,Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal,Romania and Spain.

The paper illustrates that economic, social and political interests, framingthe analogue era, continue to influence the organizational and institutionalset-up when switching to digital TV. From a purely technological point ofview, one would expect that the number of TV channels made available in the

Digital Terrestrial TV: Allocation of Resources 67

different countries with given spectrum resources would vary only a littletaking cross-border frequency interference into consideration. In fact, thereare large differences between the various countries, which can be explainedby the differences in economic, social and political interests and a certaindegree of path-dependence in the organizational and institutional set-up in thedifferent countries.

The data in the paper comes from different sources: national regulatorybodies; academic literature and newsletters from industry associations. Also,direct contacts to the representatives of regulatory bodies in selected countrieshave provided us with valuable information.

Section 2 includes a brief discussion of the important issues related tothe technology, market and regulation. Section 3 provides in tables/a figure anoverview of the case studies of the selected countries, based on the parametersidentified in Section 2. Section 4 presents the conclusion of the paper. Section 5is references.

2 Technology, Market and Regulation

2.1 General Issues

At the beginning of the millennium, the different countries, regions andcountries should decide if they would make the transition from analogueto digital TV as recommended by the EU and if so, what would the mainbenefits be; which standards should they follow; and what were the majorchallenges in this transformation. The challenges identified were complex andwere related to various aspects, including the technological, market/businessmodels and regulatory issues (Tadayoni and Skouby, 1999).

Amajor advantage of digital TV versus analogue TV was the more efficientutilisation of the spectrum resources in digital TV compared to analogue TV.The same spectrum band being occupied by one analogue TV channel couldbe shared by several digital TV channels. The number depended on the desiredtechnical quality of the signal, e.g., Standard Definition TV (SDTV) or HighDefinition TV (HDTV), etc. (Jaksic et al., 2014). This spectral efficiency wasthe major parameter forcing the transition from analogue to digital.Apart fromthis, some of the other driving forces were seen to be the possible convergencewith Internet services and the possibility for interactivity enabling end-userparticipation in specific programs, time-shift, place-shift and possibility forpersonalisation.


For the satellite TV, the decision on transition from analogue to digital TVwas straight forward as spectrum is a costly resource in satellite networks andthe change to digital would obviously reduce transmission cost. Consequently,satellite TV was one of the first TV platforms to go digital even when therewere costs at the end user side related to the replacement of the analogue settop boxes to digital.

The digital transition in cable TV was also based mainly on the trans-mission costs. However, there was enough spectrum in modern cable TVnetwork to introduce digital TV gradually without stopping the analoguetransmission. The cable TV operators therefore for some years (in Denmarkuntil 2016), provided simulcast analogue and digital TV. The pressure onstopping analogue transmission came mainly from the general technicaldevelopment towards high quality digital TV content including HDTV andalso from the development of broadband, as cable TV networks became animportant infrastructure for broadband development, and to accommodatethis, more spectrum resources were needed.

With terrestrial TV, the focus of this paper, the change to digital wasa complex process including different actors with different interests andagendas influencing the process. On the one side, the mobile industry pushedfor getting access to the valuable spectrum resources used for TV, arguingthat less spectrum was needed for TV and, therefore, there was room forallocating part of the spectrum to mobile communication. This was actuallydone by re-allocating parts of the spectrum, known as the digital dividend,for other purposes than TV services. Some actors from the mobile indus-try went further and argued to out-phase terrestrial TV transmission, assatellite and cable were considered more appropriate for TV transmission,and as broadband networks showed potentials for TV transmission in thefuture.

Today even players from the broadcast industry are open to the ideathat dedicated Digital Terrestrial TV (DTT) platforms will not survive ina 10 to 20 years’ perspective. On the other hand, the TV industry and theinstitutions behind it want to keep the spectrum for further development ofdigital TV and has argued that digitalisation gave new qualities that wereneeded for this development (Iosifidis, 2006). The major argument for keepingthe allocated TV spectrum for digital TV has been the possibility for creatinga terrestrial multi-channel platform to and that terrestrial networks weresuperior to the other networks as cable and satellite could not deliver mobilityand portability. Furthermore, the provision of local TV, and a geographic


regionalisation of TV was easier and more cost efficient to offer in terrestrialnetworks.

The majority of the literature from the beginning of the millenniumfocused on the discussions raised above, including the advantages anddrawbacks of a transition to digital and the political, economic and technolog-ical aspects of this transition (Iosifidis, 2006; Adda et al., 2005). Trinidadet al. (2006) provided an overview of the digital TV switch-over in theUS, Europe and Japan. That paper illustrates the different strategies usedin the three regions, i.e., the fact that from the outset in the US, digitalTV was almost synonymous with HDTV, while in Europe and Japan, acombination of SDTV and HDTV was used – in Europe in the beginningmainly SDTV.

Kevin & Schneeberger (2015) discuss two of the aspects of access to TVplatforms, namely the must carry rules and access to free DTT services inEurope. The statistics and the data from the report are extensively used in thispaper.

2.2 The Number of TV Services in Terrestrial Networks

Digital Terrestrial TV (DTT) in a country is organised in a number ofMultiplexes (MUXes).According to DigitalUK, “ADTT multiplex is a bundleof TV services that have been digitised, compressed and combined into a data-stream for transmission to the consumer over a single channel. The receiverseparates each service from this compressed data-stream and turns it into aform which can be viewed”1. The frequency bandwidth of a MUX in the UHFband is 8 MHz. Depending on the geographical extent of a MUX, i.e., if it iscountrywide, regional or a local MUX, one or more 8 MHz TV channels areused to compose the MUX.

How much spectrum is available for DTT in a country depends on severaltechnical and administrative/political parameters:

1. Spectrum allocations: The allocation of spectrum for different uses isdone by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) at radiofrequency conferences. The national governments can influence theallocations at these conferences but when the allocation is decided, theymust follow the decision.

1http://www.digitaluk.co.uk/operations/multiplexes


2. Harmonisation of spectrum with neighbouring countries: The spectrummust be planned so that the interference with the neighbouring countriesis minimised.

3. Analogue-digital switch-over: As far as there is simulcast of analogueand digital TV, part of the spectrum is occupied by analogue TV.The analogue-digital switch-over makes it possible to utilise the wholespectrum allocated for TV for digital TV.

4. Single Frequency Network (SFN) versus Multi Frequency Networks(MFN): In digital TV it is possible to use the same frequencyin the neighbouring channels without creating interference. This iscalled SFN and it enables much more efficient utilisation of spectrumresources.

5. Digital dividend: This is the part of the spectrum re-allocated for otheruses which obviously influences the amount of spectrum that can beused for digital TV and, consequently, the number of multiplexes ina country.

In an analysis by DiGiTAG and Analysis Mason (2014) on roadmaps forthe evolution of TV, the technology parameters are listed as: Channelformats, transmission, encoding, On Demand (e.g. HBBTV), portabilityand mobility and devices. The number of multiplexes discussed aboveis related to the ‘transmission’ while ‘channel format’ and ‘encoding’relates to the quality of the signal and the level of compression, i.e.,whether SDTV, HDTV, UHDTV, etc. are delivered and the compressiontechnologies deployed, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, etc. Statistical multiplexingis also an important parameter for how many services can be offeredin one MUX.

2.3 Framework for the Analysis of the Digital Transitionin the Case Study Countries

The digital transition has been heavily influenced by political processes.There are a number reasons for this – the major one being that terrestrialradio and television has always been regulated by the national govern-ments based on political cultural concerns. Therefore, the provision ofterrestrial broadcast has been made by state owned companies or pub-lic service and commercial companies tightly regulated by the nationalgovernments.


In Europe and in particular the European Union, harmonised regulation ofmedia has been important for its development. The major directives, first TVwithout frontiers and later the AVMS directive, put specific requirement onbroadcast content. And, when it comes to DTT, the harmonised switch-overdates at the EU level and recommendations on the use of digital dividendspectrum have been important for the development.

In different European countries, various institutions are involved in theregulation of broadcast. In some countries, the content issues are dealt with inthe ministry of culture whereas the spectrum locations have been dealt with bydepartments under the ministry of communications. The convergence processhas influenced the institutional set-up and converged regulatory authoritieslike OFCOM in the UK have been constructed.

TV resources are, as mentioned, organised in DTT multiplexes (MUXes)and a need for a multiplex operator has emerged. Multiplex operators aresituated between the service/content providers and the end users and are incharge of delivering the content to the end users and clearing the paymentfor the commercial services. The multiplex operators are the gate keepers forterrestrial TV and their organisation and regulation has been important for thenational governments.

In the following cases studies, we identify the DTT landscape in 11EU countries. This includes the number of TV services; the legal basis formedia regulation in different countries and the institutions involved in thisregulation; the requirements and prerequisites for obtaining licenses for theprovision of DTT services; specific regulations of the multiplex operators andthe TV service providers; the organisational models for multiplex operators indifferent countries and the relationships between the multiplex operators andthe service/content providers.

3 Country Cases

The tables and the figure below summarizes the analysis of the DTT landscapein the 11 countries. It shows that they are at different levels of develop-ment when it comes to the legal basis, licensing conditions, number ofmultiplexes, number of TV services available in the terrestrial networks,etc. The data for Table 2 and Figure 1 are mainly from the MAVISEdatabase2.

2http://mavise.obs.coe.int/

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mun

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Table 2 Number of FTA and Pay TVCountry FTA TV Pay TVAT 14 6BG 9 3CY 10 0CZ 32 0FR 31 10DE 15 4IT 104 32PL 17 3PT 6 0RO 12 0ES 24 1

Source: MAVISE database.

Figure 1 FTA and Pay TV

Source: MAVISE database.

4 Conclusion

As seen in the different country cases, the frequency spectrum for digitalterrestrial TV is assigned to one or more MUX operators in a country, andTV providers obtain licenses or authorisation from the government appointedauthorities, and in some cases the license holders further negotiate with theMUX operators to be included in a specific MUX. The conditions for obtaininglicense/authorisation and negotiation with MUX operators differ from countryto country.


The major limiting factor for the number of TV services in the terrestrialplatforms is obviously the amount of spectrum assigned, i.e., the number ofMUXes that are planned in a country. This number is very different acrossEurope as illustrated in the case studies presented in the paper with the Italyas one extreme case having 100+ FTA TV services and some pay services inthe terrestrial platform, and Portugal as another having only 6 FTA channelsin the terrestrial platform.

In a number of countries, there are no fees for getting a license for TVprovision, and in some countries like Cypress and Romania, specific feesmust be paid for each TV broadcast channel or the fees can be based on theannual turnover like in Austria. In the countries with no fee, there can be someadministration cost to the authorities and cost to the MUX operator. In othercountries like Portugal, there is no need for a license, and an authorisation isgranted for the applicants fulfilling minimum requirements.

Austria, France and Spain have assigned 6 to 8 MUXes in the DTT. Thesecountries are comparable with many other European countries like Denmark,Sweden, the UK, etc. It seems that in these countries the assignment follows theinternational allocations for TV and the difference in numbers can be explainedby the coordination/harmonisation with neighbouring countries and the choiceof quality, i.e., HDTV, SDTV, etc. Even though the numbers of MUXes and bythat the number of TV channels are similar in these countries, the organisationof MUX operators and the collaboration between the TV content providersand MUX operators, and the number of commercial and FTA TV channelscan be different.

A group of countries including the Czech Republic, Germany and Polandwith 4 MUXes seem to underutilise the allocated spectrum but still theyhave created multi-channel TV provision in terrestrial platform. Looking atthe viewing behaviour of mainstream consumers, where the majority viewa handful TV channels (mainly national TV channels), the DTT platform iscapable of competing with other multi-channel platforms like satellite andcable TV.

Romania, Cypress, Bulgaria and Portugal are the countries performingpoorest in the assignment of MUXes. In particular Portugal has assignedresources far below what is possible in the framework of internationalallocation of spectrum for TV. The reason for this is definitely not technicaland is mainly due to historical, structural and political factors.

Italy is the other extreme with 19 MUXes. The explanation can be seenin, that in Italy a number of regional and local MUXes has been assigned.This decision has roots in the Italian TV landscape/structure and the viewingbehaviour of the consumers.


We have in this study seen that in some of the elven case countries (likemany other counties) the assignment of spectrum for digital terrestrial TVdoes not follow the international allocations, and many countries underutilisethe resources. The technology and technical assignment mechanism does notvary much between the countries. There are some harmonisation issues forcountries with many neighbouring countries and some issues related to theextent to which single frequency or multi frequency networks are possible ordesirable in a specific country. Other technical parameters like the choice ofcoding standard or quality levels (HDTV or SDTV) also have some influence,and they are decided by the governments and market players. Leading tothe conclusion that it is not technical limitations, but cultural, political,institutional and economic factors with a clear element of path-dependencethat explain the differences – as it is very clear when comparing the situationin Italy and Portugal.

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[4] DigiTAG andAnalysis Mason (2014). Roadmap for the Evolution of DTT– A Bright Future for TV. Brussels: DigiTAG.

[5] EPRA (2017). Media Legislation Overview. Available at: http://www.epra.org/articles/media-legislation

[6] Grece, C., Lange, A., Schneeberger, A., and Valais, S. (2015). “The deve-lopment of the European market for on-demand audiovisual services,” inProceedings of the European Audiovisual Observatory under a Contractwith the European Commission’s DG Connect, Strasbourg.

[7] Iosifidis, P. (2006). Digital switchover in Europe. Int. Commun. Gaz. 68,249–268.

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Access to free-DTT European, Audiovisual Observatory for the EuropeanCommission. Brussels: DG COMMUNICATION.

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Biographies

Reza Tadayoni (born 1962) is associate professor at CMI (Center forCommunication, Media and Information Technologies) atAalborg University.He holds a M.Sc.E.E. from DTU (Danish Technical University) specializedin broadband communication, and holds a Ph.D. from DTU in the field ofmedia convergence. His main research focus is on the ICT developmentand media convergence. Reza Tadayoni has developed a number of courses


at undergraduate, graduate and Ph.D. level in the field of communica-tion and media technologies. He has participated in a number of Danish,European and international research projects and he has supervised a numberof Ph.D. projects and master and bachelor thesis, and he has published+100 of scientific papers and research reports.

Anders Henten is professor at center for Communication, Media andInformation technology (CMI), Aalborg University. He is a graduate in com-munications and international development studies from Roskilde Universityin Denmark (1989) and holds a Ph.D. from the Technical University ofDenmark (1995). His main areas of research are ICT markets, ICT-basedbusiness models, information and communication technology innovation,communications policy and regulation, service innovation and internation-alisation, socio-economic implications of information and communicationtechnologies. Anders Henten has worked professionally in the area of com-munications economy and policy for more than 25 years. He has participatedin numerous research projects financed e.g. by the European Community,the Nordic Council of Ministers, Danish Research Councils and Ministries,and in consultancies, financed by World Bank, UNCTAD, ITU, DanishMinistries, etc. He has published nationally and internationally – more than250 academic publications in international journals, books, conference pro-ceedings, etc. He presently holds academic positions as member of the boardof directors of the International Telecommunication Society, member of theeditorial board of Telecommunications Policy, member of the editorial boardof Communications & Strategies.


Knud Erik Skouby is professor and founding director of center forCommunication, Media and Information technologies, Aalborg University-Copenhagen – a center providing a focal point for multi-disciplinary researchand training in applications of CMI. Has a career as a university teacher andwithin consultancy since 1972. Working areas: Techno-economic Analyses;Development of mobile/wireless applications and services: Regulation oftelecommunications

Project manager and partner in a number of international, European andDanish research projects. Served on a number of public committees withintelecom, IT and broadcasting; as a member of boards of professional societies;as a member of organizing boards, evaluation committees and as invitedspeaker on international conferences; published a number of Danish andinternational articles, books and conference proceedings. Editor in chief ofNordic and Baltic Journal of Information and Communication Technologies(NBICT); Board member of the Danish Media Committee. Chair of WGA inWireless World Research Forum; Dep. chair IEEE Denmark. Member of theAcademic Council of the Faculty of Engineering and Science, AAU.

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