A2/AS Music Revised Curriculum Support

Specification GuidanceMusic

REVISED GCE AS & A Level

This guidance document supports the teaching and learning of the Music specification

GCE Music

Contents Page

Introduction: Purpose of the Guidance 1 Making and Appraising Music

Guidance for Teachers 10Guidance for Students 11

Multi-track recording task 16 Sequenced arrangement task 21

Responding to Music

Bach – Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F 30 Mozart – Symphony No. 40 in G minor K550 32 Haydn – Symphony No. 94 in G (Surprise) 34 Beethoven – Violin Concerto in D, Op. 6 36 Dvořàk – Symphony in E minor, Op. 95 (From the New World) 38

Optional Area of Study 1: Chamber Music, 1750 to 1830 41 Optional Area of Study 2: Music for Solo Piano, 1825 to 1890 47 Optional Area of Study 3: The Musical, 1900 to Today 59

Debussy – Prélude à ‘l’Après-midi d’un faune’ 72 Stravinsky – Pulcinella Suite 74 Bartók – Concerto for Orchestra, fourth movement, Intermezzo Interotto 77 Bernstein – Symphonic Dances from West Side Story 79

Optional Area of Study 1: English Secular Vocal Music, 1580 to 1620 81 Optional Area of Study 2: New Directions in Twentieth Century Music 87 Optional Area of Study 3: Jazz in the USA, 1930 to 1960 95

AS/A2 Performance 6AS/A2 Composition

AS/A2 Optional Music Technology Tasks

AS/A2 Test of Aural Perception 26

AS 2 Compulsory Area of Study: Music for Orchestra 1700 – 1900

A2 2 Compulsory Area of Study: Music for Orchestra in the Twentieth Century

Specification Guidance

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Introduction: Purpose of the Guidance This guidance is designed to support the teaching of CCEA’s Specification for Advanced Subsidiary (AS) and Advanced (A2) GCE in Music. It should be read in conjunction with the specification and (when they become available) the exemplar assessment materials. This and subsequent support material, including exemplar assessment materials can be found on our subject microsite: www.ccea.org.uk/music. This document is available on the microsite as a Word document so that teachers may add their own supplementary notes. The support commences with guidance for AS 1 & A2 1 – Making and Appraising (Unit 1), followed by guidance for AS 2 – Listening and Appraising (Unit 2), and finally guidance for A2 2 – Listening and Appraising (Unit 2). We hope that you find this aspect of our support useful in your teaching. Best wishes Roger Trigg Subject Officer Music E-Mail: [email protected] Telephone: (028) 9026 1200


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Summary of assessment requirements The AS content of the GCE Music qualification is assessed in two units (AS 1 and AS 2). This is normally the first year of the full A Level course with assessment at the end of the year. However, it is also possible for a student to take the AS units at the end of the second year, as either a stand alone AS qualification or as part of the full A Level. Students may choose to re-sit any of the AS units and the best result will count towards the qualification. Similarly, the A2 content of the GCE Music qualification is assessed in two units (A2 1 and A2 2). This is the second year of the full A Level course with assessment at the end of the second year. Students may choose to re-sit any of the A2 units and the best result will count towards the qualification. AS 1 & A2 1: Making & Appraising Music 1 & 2 Assessment Unit 1: Making & Appraising Music in both AS and A2, is a compulsory unit. Unit 1 provides students with the opportunity of selecting an option that best suits their skills and capabilities. Students must choose one option at AS and one option at A2 from a list of four. The options are as follows: AS 1 Options • Opt. A: core solo or ensemble performance + composition task • Opt. B: core solo or ensemble performance + multi-tracking task • Opt. C: core solo or ensemble performance + sequenced arrangement task • Opt. D: core composition task + solo or ensemble performance Note: Performances also include a viva voce. Composition and music technology tasks also include a commentary. A2 1 Options • Opt. A: core solo or ensemble performance + composition task • Opt. B: core solo or ensemble performance + multi-tracking task • Opt. C: core solo or ensemble performance + sequenced arrangement task • Opt. D: core composition task + solo or ensemble performance Note: Performances also include a viva voce. Composition and music technology tasks also include a commentary. AS 2: Responding to Music 1 Assessment Unit 2 in AS is a compulsory unit. Unit 2 is assessed in two parts: • A one hour test of Aural Perception based on familiar (set extracts from works) and unfamiliar

music; and • A 75 minute written examination, divided as follows:

I. a short, printed score extract from one of the set works from the compulsory Area of Study (Music for Orchestra, 1700 to 1900) followed by a number of short-answer questions; and

II. one essay question on the chosen Area of Study (Chamber Music, 1750 to 1830; Music for Solo Piano; 1825 to 1890; or The Musical, 1900 to Today).


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For more detail refer to page 25 of the specification. A2 2: Responding to Music 2 Assessment Unit 2 in A2 is a compulsory unit. Unit 2 is assessed in two parts: • A one hour test of Aural Perception based on familiar (set extracts from works) and unfamiliar

music; and • A 90 minute written examination, divided as follows:

I. a short, printed score extract from one of the set works from the compulsory Area of Study (Music for Orchestra in the Twentieth Century) followed by a number of short-answer questions; and

II. one essay question on the chosen Area of Study (English Secular Vocal Music, 1580 to 1620; New Directions in Twentieth Century Music; or Jazz in the USA, 1930 to 1960).

For more detail refer to page 36 of the specification. Entry Codes for Units For the purposes of entering candidates, each assessment unit has a basic entry code. In Unit 1 (AS & A2), this code will differ depending on the option chosen. In Unit 2 (AS & A2) the unit entry code will be the same for every candidate. AS 1 (4 options) Opt. A: core solo or ensemble performance (AU111) + composition task (AU112) Opt. B: core solo or ensemble performance (AU111) + multi-tracking task (AU113) Opt. C: core solo or ensemble performance (AU111) + sequenced arr. task (AU114) Opt. D: core composition task (AU115) + solo or ensemble performance (AU116) AS 2 Test of Aural Perception (AU121) Written Examination (AU122) AS cash-in: S7012 A2 1 (4 options) Opt. A: core solo or ensemble performance (AU211) + composition task (AU212) Opt. B: core solo or ensemble performance (AU211) + multi-tracking task (AU213) Opt. C: core solo or ensemble performance (AU211) + sequenced arr. task (AU214) Opt. D: core composition task (AU215) + solo or ensemble performance (AU216) A2 2 Test of Aural Perception (AU221) Written Examination (AU222) A Level cash-in: A7012


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Availability of Assessment The two AS units will be available for first examination and assessment during the summer series of May/June 2009. An additional AS Unit 2 assessment will be available in the January series of examinations from 2010. All four assessment units (two for AS and two for A2) will be available during the summer series from 2010. An additional AS Unit 2 and A2 Unit 2 assessment will be available in the January series of examinations from 2011.


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Making and Appraising Music


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Performance At both AS and A2 levels students must undertake one of the following: Options A, B and C: a core solo or ensemble performance with a viva voce (5-8 minutes AS level, 10-

12 minutes A2 level) Option D: a solo or ensemble performance option with a viva voce (3-5 minutes AS level,

5-8 minutes A2 level) Marks and assessment The visiting examiner will assess the student’s performance and award marks according to the following criteria: • Technical control and accuracy;

• Interpretation, sense of style and communication through the music; and • Viva voce. Students should aim to perform music which is technically manageable so that they can concentrate on the expressive nature and interpretation of the music. Ensemble performances will also be assessed according to an additional criterion: • Sensitivity to other members of the ensemble.

Programme Students must present a balanced and varied programme. They must sing and/or play an instrument or instruments of their own choice. Students performing on one or more instruments should be mindful that marks are awarded for the quality of a performance and not for versatility. Students may perform their own composition(s) as part of their performance programme provided the composition makes sufficient technical and expressive demands on them. At A2 level students should select a solo or ensemble programme which includes at least two contrasting pieces or two contrasting movements from a larger work.


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Accompaniment If a student’s performance needs an accompaniment, a competent accompanist should be provided. If no live accompaniment is available students may present a solo performance supported by a backing track, which should not detract from the student’s performance and allow opportunity for expressive interpretation. Backing track recordings should not include the part being played by the student. Singers should ensure that piano accompaniment parts do not generally double the vocal line. Music composed with an accompaniment should not be performed unaccompanied. In solo performances requiring a more substantial accompaniment, such as a small jazz ensemble, small string orchestra or pop group, the student should have a clear solo role throughout the piece. Performance duration It is important that the programme chosen meets the required time limits. A penalty system operates for those programmes which are shorter than the minimum time specified. Students and teachers should take into account the possible effect of nervousness on the timing of a programme. Similarly the maximum time limit should be observed as it is not in the student’s interests to perform for longer than is necessary. Technical standards The standard of performance for both solo and ensemble should be at a level equivalent to at least Grade 4, at AS level, and to at least Grade 6, at A2 level, of the accredited graded music examination boards. The minimum grade standard applies to the student’s individual part in an ensemble and not to the ensemble and not to the technical demands of the ensemble as a whole. Performances judged to be of a lower standard than the minimum requirement will result in a deduction of marks. At both AS and A2 level, credit will be given to students performing successfully above the minimum standard, up to 12 marks in the Core Solo/Ensemble performance and up to 8 marks in the Optional Solo/Ensemble performances. Programmes may consist of a range of pieces with varying technical and expressive demand and students will be given credit according to the demands of the programme as a whole. Students should be advised to choose music appropriately so that they best demonstrate their ability and skills rather than be overambitious and overextend their technique and musicianship. Students should be aware that, to perform a programme at the minimum standard, confidently and accurately, will be more likely to produce a high mark than performing a more difficult and ambitious programme insecurely and with technical difficulties and errors.


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Ensemble performance The music selected for the ensemble performance should enable the student to demonstrate fully the skills required for ensemble playing. The ensemble should normally consist of at least three performers and the student’s part in the ensemble must be: • clearly distinguishable from those of other performers; and

• substantial enough to be assessed individually. It is not necessary for all members of the ensemble to be examination students. Ensembles should not be conducted as the conductor carries the overall responsibility for the performance rather than allowing the individual student to demonstrate fully his/her sensitivity to the music and the other members of the group. It is possible for pianists to demonstrate their ensemble skills through piano duets or by accompanying one or more performers. Viva Voce At AS level, students must engage in a meaningful discussion about points arising from the performance programme. At A2 level students must show a wider perspective than that demonstrated at AS level and be able to show some knowledge of the relevant repertoire beyond their chosen programme. Students must be able to discuss points arising from their performance and associated vocal/instrumental repertoire with the visiting examiner. The focus of the discussion is the chosen programme and for each piece students should be prepared to talk about why the music was selected and thereafter about the: • technical challenges encountered; and

• issues the student has considered in relation to the style and musical interpretation of each individual

piece. Singers should have considered the meaning of the text. Students are not required to talk in detail about socio-biographical information. Students do need to prepare for this aspect of the examination in order to avoid one word answers and comments at a superficial level. General points Students and teachers should bear in mind the following issues for both solo and ensemble performances: • Instruments should be tuned accurately and thoroughly at the start of the performance and

throughout the programme as necessary;

• The layout of the examination room should enhance the overall balance and communication between performers and/or accompanist;


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• The volume of the piano should not overpower the soloist; • In order to communicate effectively singers should generally not be reliant on music or stand behind

music stands; and • The balance and volume of rock and pop groups in particular should be checked prior to the start of

the examination to ensure that individual parts are clearly distinguishable.


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Composition Tasks – guidance for teachers

What is the requirement for composition? The requirement is for students to write sustained compositions within the time constraints outlined in the specification. Students choosing core composition at A2 level will be issued with a choice of three stimuli in September of the year prior to the examination. Students choosing all other composition elements are free to choose their own brief, style and resources. There should be an emphasis in all compositions on how musical ideas can be sustained and developed to create a piece of the required length. Students will therefore need to explore a range of structural and expressive devices and further develop their harmonic knowledge and understanding. It is also important to emphasize the need for the creation of good musical starting points which have the potential for development throughout a piece. This may involve tuition in basic melody writing, with balanced phrases, cadential focus, modulation, and formal structures. Many students will need to curtail their creativity in order to stay within the upper time limits of the specification, perhaps by using fewer musical ideas and/or reaching their climactic points sooner. A2 students will note from the specification the necessity to use tonal harmony in their compositions. A more than basic harmonic knowledge is anticipated at this level. Where appropriate, compositions may use primary and secondary chords, dominant and secondary sevenths, chromatic chords, chordal extensions (9ths, 11ths and 13ths), gradual or abrupt modulations and tonal shifts. Is the commentary important? Students must recognise the importance of their written commentary as it demonstrates their understanding of the compositional process and provides the examiner with insight into the work. It is also a way of achieving additional marks which may make a difference to a final grade. The commentary should be sufficiently detailed in providing the required background to the composition. Specifically, it should set the context by stating the choice of stimulus, the resources used, intentions, chosen style etc. and draw the listener’s attention to techniques, keys, harmonies, performance issues etc. It is also essential to identify any genres, styles, works and personalities which may have had a bearing on the compositional process as this often assists the examiner in understanding the student’s intentions. Where music technology is used, the commentary must include full details of equipment and program(s) used in the composition. How is it marked? It is important that students are made fully aware of the criteria against which their compositions will be marked, as this will give them a better understanding of what their compositions must demonstrate. It would also be helpful for them to be aware of the mark band descriptions available from CCEA’s Music microsite (www.ccea.org.uk/music/). This site also contains pupil friendly guidance on the composition process and past examiner reports containing many helpful hints on specific types of composition, what seems to work and what doesn’t, hints for success and dangers to avoid.


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Composition tasks – guidance for students Composition gives students the opportunity to create and develop their musical ideas. Below are some tips to help students compose music:

Inspiration • Listen to the music of composers who inspire you. Examine how their songs/works are constructed

– the style, the tone, how the different instruments work together. • Take ideas from your favourite composers and blend them into your own style. • Inspiration comes from all around us: our emotions, relationships, experiences and surroundings but

mostly from the music we play and listen to. • Have fun! Remember, you first started writing music because you love music. • There is no right or wrong way to write a composition. Some melodies are catchier than others but

you can always make changes and revisions. Define your goals • In what genre of music do you want to write? • What instruments do you want to use? • Who is your audience? • What mood do you want to create? Beginning the composition • Read the brief in the specification carefully. Also, read the mark scheme to see how you will be

assessed. • How long has the piece to be? – Remember, you rarely have a free hand in this but have to keep

within given limitations. It is often a good idea to plan the form of your piece at this stage and roughly how long each section is to be.

• Also, think carefully about the instruments you want to use. Ask yourself if your chosen instruments match the type of music you want to create. Do the instruments balance and blend with each other or will there be performance difficulties with the finished piece?

• If you decide to develop your composition using a computer program, take care with your use of instrumental voices. This is particularly important if you intend your composition to be played by acoustic instruments.

• Make sure you know the range and technical limitations of the instruments you are using. • Start by forming melodic, harmonic and rhythmic ideas - record these electronically or on

manuscript paper. Apply compositional devices to these ideas and develop a bank of useful resources for your composition. Remember, the creation and development of musical ideas are major factors in the success of your piece.


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• Choose your metre and key. This will help determine the mood. Be creative, don’t be afraid to experiment. Don’t just stick to the most familiar tonality and metre if you want to create interesting music.

• Choose tempos carefully, ensuring that your chosen speeds can be played. • For your A2 composition you need to show that you can use tonal harmony. Decide on a harmonic

pulse (e.g. minims) and keep it consistent with logical progressions, cadences and modulations. Be sure your melodic material fits with the supporting chords and vice versa - don’t be afraid to make adjustments to make them fit together.

Developing the composition • If you are using a pre-planned structure you should have a good balance of variety and unity within

your piece. However, if the sections are very clear-cut your piece could sound very fragmented - like three or four different pieces stuck together. You may need to blur the boundaries a little by using material from one section in another, perhaps as a subtle decoration or accompaniment.

• Check to see if your phrases balance. Does your piece have a sense of direction or does it wander aimlessly. Careful use of keys, chord progressions and modulations are essential. Remember the basic rules of harmony, e.g. don’t use the same chord on each side of a barline because it interrupts the harmonic pulse.

• Make sure your teacher hears your composition at various stages of development. He/she has to sign a statement of authenticity before it is handed in for assessment, but, more importantly, they can give you feedback at regular intervals. It is also a good idea to keep recordings or software files of each milestone in the development of your piece as a back-up in case something goes wrong or gets lost.

• Aim to finish your piece a good three weeks before it is due for assessment to allow for the finishing touches.

Finishing touches • Remember that you must submit your composition as a recorded performance. This can be a

sequenced recording on a computer or a real performance. We recommend you stay well away from recording studios, or at least until your piece is complete. Studio musicians can transform a piece of music into something quite amazing, but it is no longer your piece and you will be heavily penalized.

• A recording must be submitted on CD, MiniDisc or audio file, in other words, one that can be played on any standard CD player or MiniDisc player. If you simply hand in a Sibelius file it will be returned to you unmarked!

• You must write a commentary for the composition, so remember to keep all your manuscript sketches from the planning stage and make brief notes as you go along. The purpose of your commentary is to guide the listener to points of interest, not bore them with a bar-by-bar analysis. Describe how you started, who or what influenced you and how the piece developed. Use technical language when appropriate to show your understanding but don’t waffle.


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• Finally, read through the mark scheme one final time. How would you assess your piece? Have you directed the listener/examiner to all the strengths or are you assuming they will be drawn to them instinctively?


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Optional Technology Tasks


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Multi-Track Recording Task This task requires the student to create a multi-track recording of a performance consisting of at least 4 (AS level) or 5 (A2 level) independent vocal and/or instrumental parts. At AS level, students should submit a rough-mix stereo recording and a final stereo mix. At A2, the requirement is for a rough-mix stereo recording and two contrasting final mixes. Both levels also require the submission of a detailed commentary detailing the work of the student. This option will be a new area for many students and the guidance suggested below is intended to give all students a better understanding of what is required. In order to complete the recording task effectively, students will need an understanding of the process as outlined below and this will require considerable study and research on their part. What type of equipment and facilities does the student need? Appendix 2 at the back of the Specification lists the following for the multi-track options. In order for students to undertake the multi-track options, they should have access to the following resources: • At least one good-quality microphone (preferably a condenser microphone). • A multi-track tape recorder (minimum 4 tracks). (A digital recorder or hard-disc computer

software/hardware would be preferable). • A mixing desk capable of controlling and manipulating the input and output levels of individual

tracks, the panning (stereo placement) of each track, the EQ (treble and bass) of each track, and the ability to produce a stereo mixdown with added effects such as reverb, chorus or delay as required.

• An effects unit or signal processor capable of producing a range of digital or analogue effects (such

as reverb, chorus and delay) which may be used to enhance an individual track and/or the final stereo mix. This equipment is often incorporated into other devices such as mixing desks or software programmes.

• High-quality stereo speakers (with amplifier) and/or headphones for high-level monitoring of work

and to ensure quality of final submission. • A digital recorder such as a MiniDisc recorder or CD writer/burner to record and submit the

finished work. (Please note that an analogue recorder such as an audio cassette tape is no longer acceptable for the submission of a final mix.)

Most schools have a lot of this equipment already but may not have used it to produce a multi-track recording. If you wish to take this option you should consider the following steps carefully if you want to produce a decent result. (The number of students who think it’s just a matter of connecting up some microphones and mixing 4 parts to a CD are now very few.)


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Students obtaining high marks in the multi-track options are those who are well organized and have given sufficient time and attention to the main stages of the process. The main stages of your task are: • Planning • Preparing • Recording of main tracks • Overdubs (more recording and re-recording!) • Producing your ‘Rough Mix’ • Mixing your tracks • Mastering to produce 1 or 2 Stereo Digital Recordings Teachers and students new to this process are strongly recommended to follow the steps below twice. The first ‘dry run’ could be done in the first term and a diary of challenges, problems and solutions could prove useful when you attempt the real thing! 1 Planning your project Give careful consideration to what and whom you are going to record. You don’t need to have Oasis or the Ulster Orchestra but the better the performers, the easier you may find it to get a reasonable result. You might consider the following about your performers: • Do they know the piece well? • Can they play in tune? • Is it easy to get hold of them perhaps a few times? • Will they be understanding and tolerant of your developing studio skills? • Will you be able to direct them sufficiently to get the results you need? (“Sorry Miss, but I think you

were out of tune. Could you sing that again please?”) 2 Preparing for your initial recording sessions Meticulous planning is crucial to ensure that your session time with the musicians is not wasted. Here are some helpful tips. • Where to record? It might be your studio or classroom but you may choose another location to

obtain a preferred acoustic. For example, many classical recordings are done in churches. • Make arrangements to minimize distractions (e.g. school bells, hangers on etc.). • Make a list of the equipment you will need. Consider which of your available microphones would

best be suited for each instrument. • Check all equipment well in advance of the session. • Listen to a performance of the track to be recorded to check the concerns of the previous section.

don’t bring musicians into the studio until they’re ready to record.


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• Think about how you are going to record the tracks. You might need to record some tracks at the same time but in most school/home studio recordings the tracks are recorded individually. This requires a bit of planning but you will have full control of each track afterwards at the mixing stage. But think about it; can the guitarist play without the drummer keeping time? Does the drummer need to hear the singer or the bass in order to keep his beat going? You may need to record a ‘click’ track to ensure the performers play together.

3 Recording of Initial Tracks This is where the fun begins but the key tools that you will need here are your ears and the time to listen many, many times to each recorded section. As you do, consider the following: • The clean recording of each individual track free from noise and distortion • Ensure that each track is recorded at a healthy level but doesn’t distort at any time. • The intonation, note accuracy and timing of each recorded track. • Is the performance the best you could hope for or could it be improved? • It’s best to avoid recording any effect with individual tracks. It is easier to add effects at the mixing

stage. However, many guitarists and singers like to hear the effects as they record to help them perform. This may require practice.

After you have recorded individual tracks, listen to each track on its own and with other tracks as appropriate (for example, it might be an idea to listen to the singers on their own without the instruments to check for tuning etc.) 4 Overdubs You may record all your tracks in one session but it is more than likely that you will need a number of sessions to get all that you need, so allow enough time for this in your planning. As you record more tracks you may need to correct little bits from before. These are called ‘overdubs’. This is a good time to remind you of all the time and effort you have spent so far, so make sure your recorded tracks are stored in a safe place and that they cannot be easily deleted or recorded over. 5 Producing your ‘Rough Mix’ Once all the tracks are recorded you can now create your rough stereo mix. Without adding any effects or adjusting the EQ etc, and with the levels all fairly even, record, in stereo, onto a digital format (e.g. MiniDisc or CD). This is one of the requirements of the specification and will give the examiner more of an appreciation of the work you have done to produce your final mix(es).


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6 Mixing your Tracks In advance of your final exam submission, you should have spent a great deal of time practicing and experimenting with each piece of equipment used in the mixing process. When producing a ‘final mix’, allow lots of time and consider the following: • The adjustment of equalisation (EQ) (ie treble, mid, bass) settings of each individual track (again

listen individually and together with other tracks). • The use of effects such as delay or reverb to enhance each track. • The balance of parts in the mix. These may be static throughout your piece but often you may have

to adjust a level many times (e.g. to avoid losing your singer in the middle of verse 2. Bear this in mind at the recording stage!)

• The appropriate use of panning for effective stereo placement of each track. • The consideration of the final arrangement to enhance the overall effect. Sometimes this can be

very hard at the beginning but, despite the 2 days spent on that fancy sax part, if you don’t think it fits in with the way your piece has developed, don’t be afraid to leave it out of the mix. (You will have to do some of this anyway if you’re doing an alternative mix at A2 level!)

7 Mastering Process – Recording your Mix onto a Digital Stereo Format This isn’t always as straightforward as it seems and also requires lots of time and patience (and definitely NOT the day before the submission deadline!). Again take care that your stereo levels are healthy and that you avoid distortion at all times. Listen back to your final stereo recording a number of times and in a few places if possible. Try to listen through your normal system to compare your result with what you’re used to listening to (eg at home or in the car on your mp3 player). Please note the above 7-step guide will almost certainly not have covered every aspect of how you might complete your recording project but it might help some students appreciate the different stages involved along the way.

Teachers are advised to listen to students’ work at various stages of development. A statement of authenticity must be signed by the student’s teacher before it is submitted for assessment, but more importantly, so the student receives feedback at regular intervals. It is also a good idea for students to keep recordings or files of each milestone in the development of their piece, just as a back-up in case something goes wrong or gets lost. Students should aim to finish their work a good three weeks before it is due for assessment to allow for the finishing touches. Finishing touches Multi-track recordings must be submitted as set out in the Specification and as stated above on Digital Format such as CD or MiniDisc.


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Each CD/MD should be clearly labelled with: • Centre Number • Candidate Number • Year of entry • Track Information Commentary The purpose of the commentary is to inform the examiner how you produced your final recordings. The details required are set out in the specification but should be an honest account of the process you undertook. Problems encountered and solutions tried should also be detailed along with a comprehensive list of the facilities and equipment which were at your disposal. It is useful for teachers and students to keep a diary or log charting their progression. Finally, teachers and students are encouraged to refer to the assessment criteria at all stages in the process. Good luck!


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Sequenced Arrangement Task (of set stimulus) The challenge of the sequenced arrangement task is to create a performance outcome from the student’s own musical arrangement. All aspects of the task must be completed by the student. What technical knowledge does a student need for this option? In order to complete the sequenced arrangement effectively, students will need an understanding of MIDI, including MIDI files, channels and controller messages, methods of data input, quantization, editing, tempo and dynamic control and the creation of MIDI data to control performance directions. What equipment is appropriate? Specialised sequencing software will provide the most appropriate tool for this option. Sibelius is essentially a notational tool and may be useful for students who prefer to work from a score, but it may be necessary to transfer the completed arrangement to a sequencing package (for example Logic or Cubase) to achieve a good quality performance with phrasing and expression. Students who meet the assessment criteria for sequencing through the use of Sibelius at AS level will not be penalized if their commentary demonstrates they have undertaken and understand the features of MIDI outlined above. It is very important to note, however, that the Sibelius package is not acceptable for the performance element of the A2 sequenced arrangement task. From an assessment viewpoint it is worth noting that the technology used in the sequenced arrangement should be subservient to the musical intention rather than used indiscriminately for effects which might obscure the musical content. How should a student approach the sequenced arrangement task? Some students may prefer to complete their arrangement before sequencing it, but this misses the opportunities available through sequencing software to play around with melody, rhythm, texture and timbre as the piece develops. Careful planning is essential to determine the number of parts (refer to specification), the type of ensemble, the balance of instruments, the form and duration of the piece. The student must also decide at this early stage whether the arrangement is to performed by a real ensemble - in which cases they must be aware of the technical and expressive capabilities of each instrument and the ensemble as a whole - or whether it is to use computer generated sounds (for example pieces by Jean-Michel Jarre) - in which case they must be aware of the technical and expressive capabilities of their chosen software and hardware.


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What about editing? During the editing process students should be encouraged to pay particular attention to aspects such as:

• tempo (to take account of subtle shifts in tempo including accelerando, rallentando etc. and aspects

of rubato); • articulation (where appropriate, sensitive repositioning of note on/note off values); • phrasing and dynamics (combining velocity and volume to achieve expression); • panning (to reflect the positioning of players in an authentic performance or for special effects); • program changes (to take account of subtle changes in instrumental timbre, for example, arco to

pizzicato strings); • reverb and chorus (to create ambience and a denser texture); • quantization (musically sensitive use of this facility to avoid mechanical reproduction); • pitch bend (a feature of much modern music, especially jazz and blues idioms which can be used to

add authentic effects to individual parts); • modulation (also applied to instrumental parts where it would be considered appropriate in live

performance); and • portamento (most appropriate for modern music or music with rich chromatic harmony).

Teachers are advised to listen to students’ work at various stages of development so the student receives feedback at regular intervals. A statement of authenticity must also be signed by the teacher before it is submitted for assessment. It is also a good idea for students to keep recordings or software files of each milestone in the development of their piece as a back-up in case something goes wrong or gets lost. Students should aim to finish their work a good three weeks before it is due for assessment to allow for the finishing touches. Finishing touches Sequenced arrangement tasks must be submitted as recorded performances on CD, MiniDisc or audio file, in other words, one that can be played on any standard CD player or MiniDisc player. The student’s work must also be submitted as a standard MIDI file on a separate CD. Each CD/MD should be clearly labelled with: • Centre Number • Candidate Number • Year of entry • MIDI File or Audio Recording Work submitted without an audio recording will be returned to the centre unmarked!


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Commentary The purpose of the commentary is to guide the listener to points of interest, not bore them with a bar-by-bar analysis. Examiners are more interested in the creative and technical processes so students are encouraged to describe how they started; who or what influenced them and how the piece developed. Students should draw the listener’s attention to points of musical interest, especially the use of musical devices. They should use detailed technical language when appropriate to show understanding but not re-type the software manual! Finally Teachers and students are encouraged to refer to the assessment criteria at all stages in the sequenced arrangement task.


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Responding to Music


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AS/A2 Tests of Aural Perception These tests, which last approximately one hour, will consist of 5 questions, all of which must be attempted. Questions may be open ended or involve a multiple choice format. To prepare for the aural perception test students will need to have engaged in wider listening in class and for homework in order to broaden their knowledge of the Western classical tradition from 1700 to the present day. At A2 level students should extend their musical appreciation to include music from 1450 to the present day; they should gain a good perspective of the periods of musical history and knowledge of the main styles, genres and characteristics of each period. At AS level students will be expected to recognise the specific period of musical history, for example, Baroque, Romantic, Twentieth Century while at A2 level students will be expected to suggest a possible date of composition or composer. At both levels students should be prepared to suggest reasons for their answers. When answering questions in the test of aural perception it is vital that students have a clear understanding of, and can distinguish between, the various musical elements such as melody, rhythm, texture, tonality, harmony etc. The wording of the questions will be straightforward and may ask students to focus on one or two of these elements at a time. Students will be expected to be able to use musical terminology accurately and provide detailed comments in their answers. Vague statements such as ‘a thick texture’, ‘repetition’ or ‘a solo instrument enters’ will not gain marks without further clarification or detail. The summaries of learning outcomes on pages 7, 12 and 13 of the specification give a clear indication of the range of musical genres, elements, forms, devices and features of which a student should develop a knowledge, understanding and aural appreciation through regular listening and appraising activities. Recognition of instruments should be specific and in identifying percussion instruments in particular students should avoid generalised answers such as ‘a drum plays’. Longer open ended questions are designed to allow students to recognise aurally a wide range of musical features and devices within an extract. Often these may be in the context of contributing to the mood, style or period of composition. The wording of the question will take account of the character and style of the music chosen and will suggest some helpful pointers. Comments on aspects such as dynamics and tempo, while creditworthy, should not form the bulk of the student’s answer. Instrumentation should be understood to include the use of voices. In answering questions on the musical setting of a text students should bear in mind that it is often beneficial and insightful to place any comments in the context of a specific line(s) of the text provided. Students may be required to compare two passages and identify similarities and/or differences in aspects such as instrumentation, use of material and musical style. The two passages may be taken from the same piece of music or from different pieces. The AS aural perception test will include one question on unfamiliar music related to the compulsory Area of Study (Music for Orchestra, 1700 to 1900). This may be an extract from a movement of a symphony or concerto composed from 1700 to 1900 and may exemplify one of the forms studied; that is sonata, ritornello, variation, rondo or ternary form. One question on the AS and A2 Aural perception papers may include a skeleton score with students required to recognise keys, chords, cadences and musical devices. Students are not expected to name specific keys but show an understanding of simple key relationships such as a modulation to the


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dominant, subdominant or relative major or minor. Students will not be expected to recognise chromatic chords other than the diminished seventh. Students will not be asked to complete rhythmic or melodic dictation. The A2 paper will include one contextual-style aural perception question on unfamiliar music which will require students to write an extended answer highlighting aspects of the music and suggesting a possible genre, composer and date of composition. This may relate to the compulsory area of study and be an extract from a piece of music in impressionistic, neoclassical or nationalistic style or showing the influence of jazz. Written Examination The time allowed for this paper is 75 minutes for AS level and 90 minutes for A2. Students will not be required to take any scores into the examination. The first question on each paper will take the form of a short printed extract from one of the set works from the compulsory Area of Study followed by a number of questions on the printed extract. These will focus on aspects of the musical style, structural features, resources used, musical devices and other aspects such as tonality and harmony. Students are not expected to provide long extended responses in this question but show a clear knowledge and understanding of the music through using appropriate musical terminology. Answers for this question may be written in continuous prose, in note form or with bullet points as convenient but in all cases the student’s response should be clear. Answers in the second section of the written paper should be in continuous prose (essay style). Two questions will be set on each of the optional Areas of Study and students are required to answer one on their chosen Area of Study. Students will be assessed on three criteria: 1. The content of their answer and the knowledge and understanding shown of the chosen area of

study;

2. The structure and presentation of their ideas and approach to the question; and 3. The quality of written communication, spelling, punctuation and grammar and use of musical

vocabulary. Students should bear in mind the following points when writing essay style questions; • Read the question very carefully and aim to answer it specifically and accurately;

• If asked to comment on, for example, three specific works, ensure that three are identified and

discussed in order to access the full marks available; • Keep the introduction very brief and get straight to the point; • The emphasis should be on musical knowledge and detail as opposed to background and

biographical information; • Avoid reproducing a previously learnt essay which does not focus on the question being answered;


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• Provide specific musical examples for most points being made; • As well as naming specific examples or works, provide more detail which reveals an understanding

and depth of knowledge of the music being studied; and • Keep the conclusion brief, as there is limited value in repeating material already covered.


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AS 2 Compulsory Area of Study: Music for Orchestra 1700 - 1900


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J S Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F, first movement Bach composed the six Brandenburg Concertos during the years leading up to 1721. He dedicated the set to the Margrave of Brandenburg, whom he had met on several occasions and who had expressed a wish to hear more of Bach’s work. The six concertos represent a range of concerto styles popular at this time. The third and sixth are orchestral concertos, in which the contrast typical of the concerto genre is achieved by setting different parts of the orchestra against one another. The first and fifth show some evidence of the development of the solo concerto, while the fourth and the second, the set work, belong to the concerto grosso type. Bach was strongly influenced in the composition of his concertos by the work of Vivaldi, some of whose violin concertos he arranged for harpsichord. As well as the Brandenburg group, Bach’s concerto output includes solo and double concertos for violin and solo, double and triple concertos of his own for harpsichord. He was a pioneer in the composition of keyboard concertos. As a concerto grosso, the second Brandenburg Concerto features an ensemble of soloists and an orchestra. Bach’s soloists here are a mixed, high-register ensemble of recorder, trumpet, oboe and violin. Although he makes some minor adjustments to his thematic material to allow for the differing capabilities of his solo instruments, the solo parts are not individualized and are not provided with unique thematic material. He uses a string orchestra with continuo, typical of Baroque concerto practice. Bach generally – though not always – used the three-movement concerto form popularised by Vivaldi. The set concerto, with its fast first movement, Andante second and Allegro assai third, fits that pattern. In the first movement, which is in F major, Bach makes use of the ritornello form favoured by Vivaldi and other contemporary composers. In its broad outlines ritornello form produces striking contrasts of sound, with its alternation of sections for the orchestra (tutti/ripieno) and for the solo group (concertino). In this movement Bach presents a slightly more complex version of ritornello structure. The second movement of the concerto is scored more lightly: the solo ensemble is reduced to recorder, oboe and violin and is accompanied by continuo only. The movement, in D minor, is based on imitative textures. In the third movement, in F major, the full solo group is restored. The movement is fugal, starting with the four solo instruments entering one at a time in statements of the fugue subject. Students’ study of the first movement should include the following: • The work is a concerto grosso. The concertino section consists of four soloists: recorder, trumpet,

oboe and violin. The ripieno section is a string orchestra with keyboard continuo. • The movement is structured in ritornello form, with tutti statements of the ritornello theme

alternating with solo episodes. • The ritornello theme, first presented by the full ensemble in the opening bars, comprises a series of

motifs. In subsequent ritornello sections, the ritornello material is sometimes shortened by focusing on a limited number of these motifs.


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• The ritornello sections outline the series of keys through which the movement passes. It begins in F major and passes through contrasting keys such as C major, the dominant, and D minor, the relative minor, eventually ending with a tonic statement.

• In the solo episodes, the instruments of the concertino feature in a range of combinations:

individually (the violin only), in varied pairs, as a trio and as a complete group. • In some episodes, the solo instruments develop material from the ritornello theme. • In some solo episodes, the soloists are accompanied by continuo only. In others, Bach provides an

orchestral accompaniment, using a range of textures including sustained notes, triadic figures or motifs developed from the ritornello theme itself.

• Throughout the movement, the instrumental writing is typical of Bach’s style in its balance between

energetic harmonic progression and complex polyphonic textures. Recommended score: Eulenberg


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Mozart: Symphony No. 40 in G minor K550, first movement Mozart completed this symphony in July 1788, towards the end of his short but musically prolific life. He composed more than fifty symphonies in total. As a late work, this symphony illustrates clearly the elements of Mozart’s mature compositional style, including bold, clear-cut harmony, striking counterpoint, adventurous exploration of tonality and sensitive use of instrumental colour. During the Classical period, the symphony came to hold a central position in instrumental music, eventually becoming the most important type of absolute music. Its overall form grew from that of the Italian overture (an orchestral piece in three sections, fast-slow-fast) into a four-movement work based on the pattern of the sonata cycle, illustrated in the diagram below. Movement Character Form Tempo First Dramatic, substantial Sonata form Fast Second Lyrical Various, e.g. ternary, theme and variations,

modified sonata form Slow

Third Dance-like Minuet and trio or scherzo and trio

(Quite) fast

Fourth Lively, or dramatic and triumphant

Various, e.g. rondo, sonata form, theme and variations

(Very) fast

The first movement of a Classical symphony, which is usually in sonata form, can be analysed in a range of ways. One of the most established conceptions of this form, features of which can be heard in the set movement, is shown below. Exposition Development Recapitulation (Optional slow introduction) First theme, or group of themes, and its expansion (tonic key)

First theme, or group of themes, and its expansion (tonic key)

Transition/bridge (modulates to contrasting key)

Transition/bridge (does not usually modulate)

Second theme, or group of themes, and its expansion (contrasting key)

Themes and motifs from the exposition are developed, manipulated and fragmented. A range of foreign keys are explored, with frequent modulation

Second theme, or group of themes, and its expansion (tonic key) Cadential, closing passage (tonic key)

Cadential, closing passage (contrasting key) (Exposition may be repeated)

Possible transition passage (modulating back to tonic key) Coda (tonic key)

Sonata form is built on the following concepts: • The contrast between the tonic key and another key (frequently the dominant or the relative major),

with drama created by the establishment of the tonic, the move away from it to the contrasting key, further movement into increasingly unrelated tonal areas, and the eventual return to the tonic;

• The opposition and interaction of two themes, or groups of themes, which in some cases are quite different in style. The two themes are often linked to the two contrasting keys;

• The potential for development of the thematic material.


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It should be noted that not all symphonic first movements from the Classical era fit this pattern. Haydn, for example, sometimes wrote monothematic movements, based on a single theme. The second movement of the set symphony is an Andante in E♭ major, also in sonata form. The third movement follows with a minuet and trio in G minor. The energetic finale, opening with a swiftly rising ‘rocket’ theme (popular during this era), is another sonata form movement, in G minor. During the Classical period the orchestra began to be based around the four ‘families’ of instruments which are still in use today. Orchestras often consisted of thirty to forty players, with a full string section, varied combinations of woodwind and brass, and a percussion section including timpani, along, sometimes, with other instruments such as bass drum or triangle. The set symphony by Mozart uses quite a full woodwind section, but the brass section is limited to horns, and there are no timpani. Students’ study of the first movement should include the following: • The work is scored for strings, one flute, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons and two French

horns. • The movement is structured in sonata form, with a repeated exposition section. • The two main themes are of contrasting characters. • The opening three notes of the first theme become an important motif in the movement. This

motif is the focus of the development section, where it is developed in a range of ways, including modulation, extension, inversion and antiphonal presentation and is used as the basis of a sequence.

• The tonic key of G minor is contrasted with the relative major, B♭ major. During the development

section, Mozart uses rapid modulation to explore a wide range of foreign keys. • Mozart’s scoring is colourful and lively, with frequent contrast and conversation between the string

and wind sections. Recommended score: Eulenberg


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Haydn: Symphony No. 94 in G (Surprise), second movement Haydn’s Surprise Symphony is one of a group of twelve which he composed for performance during his visits to London in the early 1790s. These works are among the most popular of his symphonies, of which he wrote over 100 in total. The Surprise Symphony epitomises in many ways the characteristics of the Classical symphony. It is scored for two each of flutes, oboes, bassoons, French horns and trumpets, along with strings and timpani. It is structured in four movements, following a pattern typical of the sonata cycle. The first movement consists of a slow introduction, followed by a Vivace in sonata form. The second, the set movement, is an Andante, structured as a theme and variations. The third movement is a fast minuet and trio, and the fourth is an energetic Allegro, also in sonata form. The first, third and fourth movements are all in the tonic key of G major. Students’ study of the second movement should include the following:

• The symphony is in G major. This movement is in C major, the subdominant. • Haydn uses his complete orchestra (flutes, oboes, bassoons, horns, trumpets, timpani, strings) for

this movement. • The movement is structured as a theme followed by four variations. • The theme is in binary form, with each section repeated with altered scoring. The A section, with its

triadic melody, ends with the ‘surprise’ of the symphony’s title: an unexpected tutti, fortissimo chord. The B section opens with a more disjunct melody, then returning to the style of A.

• Variation I features countermelodies from flute and first violins. • Variation II is considerably more complex. It plunges into C minor, the tonic minor, later using E♭

major; the relative major of C minor. A unison statement of A for strings and woodwind is followed by more varied textures, with a prominent falling scale motif. The variation ends with a bridge passage for first violins only.

• Variation III opens with an oboe presentation of A in repeated semiquavers. The succeeding

texture contrasts flute and oboe duet with first and second violins. Horns provide brief support, while lower strings drop out entirely.

• The full orchestra returns to open Variation IV. A strong statement of A is set against violin

sextuplets and off-beat string chords. A is rescored on its repeat for strings and bassoon, with rhythmic alteration, and the first statement of B is in similar style. The repeat of B is for full orchestra again, with some re-use of the initial style of the variation.

• A short bridge passage ends on a sustained diminished seventh chord.


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• The quiet coda makes use of the A melody, with pedal notes and chromatic harmonies, ending on a repeated tonic chord.

Recommended score: Eulenberg


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Beethoven: Violin Concerto in D, Op. 61, third movement This concerto was first performed in 1806. Seven concertos composed by Beethoven remain in existence – one for violin, five for piano, and the Triple Concerto for piano, violin and cello. Of these, Op. 61 is the sixth, written after all but the fifth piano concerto. Beethoven composed his concertos in the context of works by Haydn, Mozart, and other concerto composers of the Classical era. By this time the solo concerto had become the most popular type within the genre, and the newly available piano and the violin had become the most common solo instruments. Common structural practice for the Classical concerto represented a compromise between the concerto forms of the Baroque period and the sonata cycle, which had become standard for many instrumental genres in the Classical period. So the concerto remained a three-movement work but incorporated some sonata cycle structures, as shown below. The first movement, for example, combined some of the principles of ritornello form with aspects of sonata-allegro form to produce a structure sometimes known as double exposition sonata form. Movement Character Form Tempo First Various, e.g.

dramatic, lively First-movement concerto form (double exposition sonata form); includes a cadenza

Fast

Second Lyrical Various, e.g. ternary, modified sonata form, theme and variations

Slow

Third Lively Various, e.g. rondo, sonata rondo; may include a cadenza

(Very) fast

Beethoven’s concertos were composed towards the end of the Classical period and can generally be analysed in the terms presented above. One important structural development, however, which he made use of in his later piano concertos (though not in the violin concerto), was the presentation of material for the solo instrument at the start of the first movement; the movement would then proceed in standard first-movement form. This dramatic gesture became popular and later influenced changes to first-movement form during the Romantic period. The first movement of his violin concerto, an Allegro in D major, is a very substantial one in double exposition sonata form. The second movement, a Larghetto, is a theme and variations in G. The third, the set movement, is a rondo form Allegro in the tonic, D major. This concerto is a large-scale work, with a playing time of about 45 minutes. In this respect, contemporary audiences would have found it quite different from the shorter, lighter violin concertos of Haydn, Mozart and others. The large orchestra includes trumpets and drums, and the orchestral writing is symphonic in style, with considerable development of musical ideas, particularly in the first movement. These characteristics look forward again to aspects of the Romantic concerto. It also demands from performers a level of virtuosity greater than most previous violin concertos. The violin writing is technically challenging throughout, and each of the three movements includes an opportunity for the soloist to play an improvised cadenza. (Beethoven did not leave any written cadenzas of his own for this work, although at this time many composers provided their own cadenzas for concertos, rather than relying on the improvisatory skill of the soloist.)


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Students’ study of the third movement should include the following: • The work is scored for one flute, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two French horns, two

trumpets, timpani and strings. • The movement is structured in rondo form, A-B-A-C-A-B-A, with the cadenza preceding the final

A section. • The movement is in D major, with A major and G minor used as contrasting keys in the B and C

sections and considerable modulation in some passages, such as the move to A flat major after the cadenza.

• The rondo theme is a lilting 6/8 melody. Its first five notes form a motif which is used as a focus for

development throughout the movement. • The violin part is technically highly demanding. Examples of virtuosic passages include the two-part

writing from Bar 64 and the semiquaver passage-work, including double stopping, which follows from Bar 68.

• The relationship between the solo violin and the large orchestra is a dramatic one. The solo violin

opens the movement (this is not unusual or ground-breaking in the third movement of a concerto) and is echoed by the orchestra. Throughout the movement they exchange ideas, provide contrasting points of focus and seem at times to be leading the music in different directions. This relationship is highlighted by Beethoven’s dramatic use of tonality and by the various recurrences of the rondo theme.

Recommended score: Eulenberg


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Dvořàk: Symphony in E minor, Op. 95 (From the New World), second movement * Please note that this symphony is sometimes catalogued as No. 5 and sometimes as No. 9. The Op. 95 designation is consistent. Dvořàk was a Czech composer who spent three years, during his fifties, working in New York. The symphony From the New World, composed in 1893, dates from this period. Dvořàk composed a total of nine symphonies. During the Romantic period, the symphony continued to be viewed as the most important and exalted form of orchestral music. Developments in symphonic style reflected general Romantic tendencies. Orchestras had increased in size. Melodic, harmonic, tonal and rhythmic style had become more flexible and complex. Some composers expressed their nationalist ideals in their symphonic music. The four-movement symphonic structure of the Classical era, based on the sonata cycle, continued to influence composers during the Romantic period, but it too was treated with some flexibility. Occasionally composers altered the number or order of movements. Forms for individual movements were more varied. The fourth movement in particular was often very substantial, forming a structural balance for the dimensions and character of the first. Romantic symphonies were generally longer and more expansive. Dvořàk’s symphony From the New World is structured in the standard four movements. The first movement, in E minor, consists of an Adagio followed by an Allegro. The second, the set movement, is in ternary form, in D flat major. A scherzo and trio and a long Allegro, both in E minor, follow. Dvořàk perceived the symphony as having been influenced by his stay in America. Musical features which reflect influences from Native American and African American musical idioms include pentatonic writing, flattened leading notes, plagal cadences, drone accompaniments, particular harmonic progressions, rhythmic ostinati and strongly syncopated rhythms. Aspects of the orchestral colouring and the scale of the work can also be interpreted as American in character. Dvořàk associated the second and third movements with parts of Longfellow’s poem, Hiawatha’s Wedding Feast. The second movement may be based on a section of the poem called Hiawatha’s Wooing. However, the music also reflects elements of Czech folk music, which Dvořàk, a nationalist, incorporated into much of his output.


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Students’ study of the second movement should include the following: • The symphony is scored for double woodwind (flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons), four French

horns, two trumpets, three trombones, tuba, timpani and strings. (The scoring varies slightly from movement to movement, with a triangle, for instance, added in the third.) In the second movement, a cor anglais plays a prominent role.

• The second movement, a Largo, is in ternary form. The outer sections are in D flat major. The

central section is in C sharp minor (the tonic minor, spelt enharmonically). • The melodic focus of the A sections is a calm, thoughtful melody presented initially by cor anglais. • The slightly faster B section is more complex in texture and in melodic, harmonic and rhythmic

content. It includes an orchestral climax and a quotation from the symphony’s first movement. • Chromatic harmonies, muted instrumental sonorities and intense, dramatic dynamics contribute to

the movement’s overall mood in a typically Romantic style. Recommended score: Eulenberg


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Optional Area of Study 1: Chamber Music, 1750 to 1830


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Chamber Music, 1750 to 1830 The term ‘chamber music’ is used to describe music composed for performance in a room or chamber rather than a large concert hall. The idea of chamber music (sonata da camera) as a distinct tradition from that of church music (sonata da chiesa) has existed since the seventeenth century. Even before this time the tradition of domestic music, which could be sung or played on instruments, was a popular form of music making. Although the term in its broadest sense may include vocal and solo works, it more generally refers to works for instruments only, played by two or more musicians composed from around 1750 to the present day. The Classical period marked the development of domestic music making and chamber music soon came to occupy a more important role in public life. This development was encouraged by the loosening of the patronage system, increased commercial opportunities and the rise of the social middle classes and the wider circulation of printed music. Domestic music-making among family and friends became an important social activity in both aristocratic and middle-class circles as the ability to play a keyboard instrument and sing were viewed as important social skills. Commercial concert life developed in the late eighteenth century, particularly in London, and provided a platform for chamber music performed by professional musicians. Concert programmes from the 1770s regularly included items of chamber music, particularly quartets and quintets, and by the 1840s chamber music concerts were an established part of the European concert scene. Some works were specifically composed with a particular performer in mind, intended to highlight their technical ability and talent. The key characteristics of chamber music include: • the allocation of one player to a part • the intimate and sophisticated nature of the music and interaction of a small number of musicians • while each instrument is expected to assert itself fully the general emphasis is on the ensemble rather

than on any individual part The repertoire included trios, quartets and quintets for strings alone or with piano or wind instruments. The increasing range, power and expressive capability of the piano had begun to be explored by composers and was subsequently incorporated into chamber works of great breadth and power. Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert established the chamber music style and expanded the genre to include music for larger groups such as sextets, septets and octets. Whatever the combination of instruments involved, chamber works were usually structured in four movements as follows: 1. a fast movement in sonata form; 2. a slow, lyrical movement, often in ternary form or theme and variations; 3. a moderate dance form such as a minuet and trio or scherzo; 4. a fast finale, often in rondo form, sonata form or a mixture of both


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Piano Trio This is a piece of music for piano and two other instruments, usually violin and cello. Notable variants to this scoring include Mozart’s trio K498 for clarinet, viola and piano and Beethoven’s trio Op. 11 for clarinet, cello and piano. The genre developed in the mid eighteenth century from the Baroque duo and trio sonatas as the emphasis shifted to the keyboard. Haydn’s early piano trios were Baroque-like in some of their features but his later works illustrate the development of dialogue-style writing between the violin and the piano and imaginative formal and tonal schemes. Mozart’s later trios feature independent writing for the string parts and the loosening of the cello as simply a harmonic support to the other instruments. This stylistic feature continued in the trios of Beethoven and Schubert, who both followed the four movement scheme. Beethoven’s ‘Kakadu’ Variations for Trio Op. 121a are an example of a single movement work. String Quartet The string quartet (two violins, viola and cello) was the most popular and influential chamber music genre during the period. Its four line texture was ideal for exploring the ‘classical’ concepts of form, elegance and balanced part-writing and conversational style. Haydn, although not the inventor of this genre, was the composer most responsible for its development, composing 68 quartets in total. Early Haydn string quartets vary in structure and style, with his Op. 1 and 2 in five movements with two minuets. From 1780 onwards string quartet composition was characterised by concise motivic development, a light popular touch and integration of the various movements into a whole. Finales were characterised by a simplicity of texture, regular phrasing and harmonic change and more emphasis on solo passages for all four instruments. Haydn’s later quartets regularly feature equal-voice texture, counterpoint and soloistic display. Examples of quartets composed for specific individuals include Op. 58 (1787) for Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia and Op. 54-5 and Op. 64 for the violinist Johann Tost, which exhibit virtuoso violin writing, chromaticism and the use of high positions. Op. 71 and 74 exemplify more orchestral sonorities and adventurous tonal relationships between movements and between minuets and trios. Haydn’s last quartets are the epitomy of his quartet writing with minor key finales and fast scherzos replacing the minuet third movement. Op.76 No. 6 in E♭ is unusual for its opening set of variations followed by a fugue, slow movement in the distant key of B major and sonata form structure of the finale. Mozart composed six quartets between 1782 and 1785, characterised by four part writing, range of motivic ideas, chromaticism and elaborate, decorative slow movements. Beethoven’s early quartets of 1798 - 1800 reflect the influence of Haydn and Mozart and include slow movements with complex harmony and intensity of expression. His middle period quartets reflect his general changing musical style with more personal expression and intensity, increased use of counterpoint, for example, the fugue in the finale of Op. 59, No.3, and general expansion of structure and form. His Op. 74 and Op. 95 mark the beginning of the pattern of single works rather than quartets in cycles of three or six. Op. 130 to 132 offer examples of five, six and seven movement works, more unusual tonal schemes and the use of fugue, for example, Op. 130 is conceived in six movements in five different keys. Among Schubert’s quartet output is the noteworthy ‘Death and the Maiden’ Quartet in D minor of 1824 which illustrates an expansion of Beethoven’s style and the influence of the lied in the slow


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movement. The main theme is characterised by intense, tarantella-like rhythms and the work exhibits virtuoso playing in all the parts, use of dissonance, abrupt silences and sudden dynamic contrasts. Piano Quartet This form developed from accompanied keyboard divertimentos of the 1750s to 1780s and is a composition for the piano and three other instruments, usually violin, viola and cello. Examples include Mozart’s works of 1785 and 1787 (K478 and K493) and Beethoven’s Op. 16 arrangement of his piano and wind quintet. String Quintet This is a composition for five solo instruments whose origin can be traced back to the Italian sinfonia or concerto. Due to the extra string instrument the writing was often more orchestral in style, and the form was first cultivated in Austria during the 1750s and early 1760s. The scoring was usually two violins, two violas and cello and Mozart’s quintets were the earliest ones to be composed on the four movement plan and to investigate the textural possibilities of the medium such as antiphonal writing and five part polyphony. During the 1790s the form was second in popularity to the string quartet, and one of the most famous examples of the form is Schubert’s D956 (1828), which is scored for two cellos. String Trio This is a composition for three stringed instruments, usually two violins and cello or, violin, viola and cello, which was a development of the Baroque trio sonata. Early examples in the Classical period used a three-movement plan and Haydn preferred to compose an opening Adagio or Allegro and extended minuet for the second or third movement. A well known example of the form is Mozart’s Divertimento for violin, viola and cello K563, in six movements. Piano Quintet Like the piano quartet this form developed from the accompanied keyboard sonatas or divertimentos during the second half of the eighteenth century. It was a composition for piano and four other instruments, usually a string quartet, and many of the composers writing piano quintets were successful pianists. Some notable examples of the form with wind instruments include Mozart’s K452 and Beethoven’s Op. 16. After 1800 a double bass was an alternative to a second violin and the famous example of this is Schubert’s ‘Trout Quintet’ D667. Sextet and Septet These were pieces of music composed for six or seven solo instruments. Well known examples includes Beethoven’s Septet in Eb Op. 20, composed in 1800 for clarinet, bassoon, horn, violin, viola, cello and double bass, and his Wind Sextet in E♭, Op. 71, composed in 1796. In the sextet the clarinets and bassoons carry most of the interest.


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Octet This term was first used at the beginning of the nineteenth century to describe a piece of music for eight solo instruments. Schubert’s octet, written in 1824, is an example of the standardised combination of instruments: clarinet, horn, bassoon, two violins, viola, cello and double bass. The work was inspired by Beethoven’s Septet Op. 20 and is structured in six contrasting movements including a theme and variations, and both a minuet and trio and a scherzo and trio.


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Optional Area of Study 2:

Music for Solo Piano, 1825 to 1890


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Music for Solo Piano, 1825 to 1890 The piano in society The piano played important roles in both domestic and public aspects of nineteenth century European society. As the most popular instrument in the homes of the middle and upper classes, it dominated the world of amateur music-making. Piano playing was a regular evening entertainment in the home. Solos and duets would have been performed, and the piano would have accompanied singing and played chamber music with other instruments, as well as providing the music for dancing. The ability to play the piano was seen as a desirable social accomplishment, particularly for women. The domestic popularity of the piano is reflected in the large number of pieces for piano published during the set period, including arrangements of many pieces not originally composed for piano. Improvisation was an important skill used in concert performances by many pianists of this era. A piano recital might begin with a short improvised prelude, or improvised transitions might link two pieces in contrasting keys. Thalberg, a rival to Liszt in the 1830s, was celebrated for his ability to improvise on popular tunes of the day. Meanwhile, on a public scale, social changes across Europe since the late eighteenth century had resulted in the rise of the new “bourgeoisie”, a middle class who enjoyed hearing music performed in public concert halls. The piano was very frequently played at these concerts. As the piano grew in favour with the public, a new breed of virtuoso musician emerged. The virtuoso pianists travelled a concert circuit of European capitals including London, Paris, Vienna, Berlin and St. Petersburg, astonishing audiences with inventive new techniques and textures, unheard-of speeds and Romantic extremes of drama and excitement. Some of the virtuosi composed or arranged their own music, designed to show off their abilities to best effect. The development of the piano In the early nineteenth century the piano was a comparatively new instrument, still undergoing considerable development and refinement. Technical innovations by piano manufacturers enabled composers and performers to achieve increasingly expressive and subtle effects. At the same time, the tastes and demands of composers, performers and their audiences influenced the directions in which these innovations proceeded. Overall, the piano evolved in the direction of greater strength, a bigger sound and wider dynamic range, with a richer variety of textures and timbral effects made possible. Iron frames, rather than wooden frames, became the norm. This allowed for heavier strings, strung at a higher tension, producing a fuller tone and potentially louder volume. Overstringing increased the sustaining power of the instrument. In general, the tone of a piano varied considerably more widely between its registers than does that of a modern piano. Contrasts between the powerful bass and the brilliant upper range are exploited in many pieces of the period. Refinements were made to the action of the piano, allowing greater control on the part of the performer in techniques such as repeated notes. The usual range of the instrument increased from about six octaves (in the 1820s) to seven, or seven and a third by the 1860s.


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Pianos differed noticeably in sound according to the manufacturer. Chopin, for example, favoured the intimate sound produced by Pleyel pianos. Others appreciated the more powerful and brilliant tone that could be created on an Erard piano. Dozens of other manufacturers also flourished, particularly in Vienna, England and North America, making instruments with a range of distinctive sounds. After 1860, piano production shifted gradually from a craft basis to a factory system, increasing output and reducing the cost of instruments so that they became available to fairly modest households. While the grand piano remained important, smaller upright pianos were popular for domestic settings. Piano technique One of the most important developments in the sound of the Romantic piano was a new emphasis on the sustaining pedal. Chopin, for instance, usually supplied very precise and detailed instructions for pedalling in his piano music. Also of key importance was the development of virtuoso piano techniques. Chopin and Liszt were viewed by their contemporaries as being the most outstanding virtuosos. The piano studies which they composed include examples of their demanding techniques, such as fast playing in octaves, scales in thirds, wide leaps, rapid reiteration of notes and glissandos. Piano repertoire Three main types of piano music can be identified during the set period. Genres popular in the Classical era, such as the sonata, were still in use, though to a lesser degree. Sonata composers often made use of traditional sonata structures, but treated these with a considerable degree of freedom. Some sonatas were given descriptive Romantic titles. The new genre of the character piece emerged. Character pieces were often short and tended to have simple structures, such as ternary form. Their focus was on conveying emotion, expressing ideas or communicating a programme, and many were lyrical in style. A third category focussed on the virtuosity of the performer and/or celebrated the developing capabilities of the piano itself. Some pieces contained elements of more than one of these categories. Nationalism, an important general trend in musical Romanticism, influenced some aspects of the piano repertoire. Some composers based their music on the songs or dances of their homeland: both Chopin and Liszt made use of folk dance styles. Others composed programmatic pieces celebrating their countries’ customs, history or landscapes.


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Fryderyk Chopin (1810 – 1849) Chopin, born in Poland, worked in Warsaw, Vienna, Mallorca, and, for most of his adult life, Paris. He left a successful career as a concert pianist in order to concentrate on composing. Most of his large output was for piano. Genres Chopin composed a large number of pieces for piano, only some of which are mentioned here. Larger-scale pieces Scherzos Chopin’s four scherzos are all based on the traditional scherzo-trio-scherzo structure, with some variation in his use of introductions, codas and repeated sections. The large scale of the scherzos is a result of Chopin’s use of several contrasting themes within each. For example, the B♭ minor Scherzo (Op. 31, 1837) is based on three themes: an upbeat triplet run followed by chords, a brilliant figure accompanied by chords, and a lyrical phrase accompanied by broken chords. In each case, the trio section contrasts with its scherzo, as was customary. The trios are generally slower, more subdued and more lyrical. Ballades The ballade was a form devised by Chopin himself, who saw it as a musical version of the poetic ballad. He composed four ballades, all based on the principle of using one main theme in varied form, corresponding to the idea of the strophic form of the poetic ballad. In the Ballade in A♭ major (Op. 47, 1841) the main theme is presented in contrasting lyrical and heroic styles and is also transformed into a secondary theme and then back to its original form. Chopin’s ballades feature compound time signatures, relating again to the typical rhythms of the poetic ballad, and they give the impression of communicating dramatic, but unspecified, narratives. They are large in scale and technically challenging. Sonatas Chopin composed three sonatas. He based them on the traditional forms of the sonata cycle, although he treated some aspects of the forms in unorthodox ways. The first movements are in sonata form, with repeated expositions. In the recapitulation sections he reverses the expected order of the themes, with the second theme appearing before the first. His second movements (rather than third) use traditional minuet or scherzo forms. The slow third movements are in ternary form; the Marche funèbre of the Sonata in B♭ minor (Op. 35, 1839) is particularly striking. Two of the sonatas finish with rondo movements, but the last movement of Op. 35, unusually, is a short, fast, étude-style piece. Overall, Chopin’s piano writing in the sonatas draws together elements from many of his earlier, shorter pieces.


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Smaller-scale pieces Nocturnes Chopin’s 21 nocturnes are influenced by those of the Irish composer John Field, which established the nocturne as a piece in which an ornamental, aria-style melody was accompanied by widespread arpeggios, played with the sustaining pedal. Chopin’s own nocturnes are quite varied in style and form. Many begin in the manner of Field’s model but introduce a contrasting central section in a new key, with different thematic material and a different pianistic style. Impromptus The impromptu was an established Romantic form. Chopin, who composed four, used the expected ternary form with a contrasting central section. The impromptus are on a larger scale than the nocturnes, more musically complex, less lyrical and more technically demanding. Etudes Although études are designed primarily to improve a pianist’s technical ability, Chopin’s also resemble virtuoso character pieces. The Op.10 études (1832), for example, each address one principal piano technique, while succeeding artistically as pieces in their own right. They illustrate aspects of Chopin’s own playing technique, such as his use of a flexible wrist and supple hand and his acceptance of the imbalance between different fingers. Most of the études use a ternary form in which the central section is similar to the outer sections in style and mood but modulates into distant keys. Preludes Chopin was inspired by Bach’s 48 Preludes and Fugues to create a set of preludes (Op. 28, 1839) which form a complete cycle of all the major and minor keys. These pieces were innovatory in that, though very short, they could be performed independently, rather than ‘preluding’ more substantial pieces. Most of the preludes are monothematic, although their styles vary considerably, from rapid, agitated figurations (such as the Agitato in C major, Op. 28i) to more lyrical moods (the Cantabile in B♭ major, Op. 28xxi). Dance-style pieces Mazurkas Chopin’s 60-odd mazurkas are an important expression of his Polish identity. In them he used elements of Polish peasant music – such as modal scales (lydian, mixolydian and phrygian), drone basses (to represent the bagpipe-like Polish dudy) and characteristic rhythmic and melodic patterns – alongside contemporary piano techniques to create a new model for stylising folk idioms. The mazurkas are structured in a range of ways, although they are generally based on a number of repeated sections. They are not particularly virtuosic. Chopin’s ideas in developing his mazurkas would become influential for later Eastern European nationalist composers. Polonaises Chopin composed nine or ten polonaises, based on another Polish dance style. These are larger in scale and more virtuosic than the mazurkas, and they use a range of structures. An interesting example is the Polonaise in F# minor (Op. 44, 1841), which opens and closes with a main theme in typical polonaise rhythm; in between are several episodes, including one in mazurka style.


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Waltzes The waltz was the most popular international dance of Chopin’s time. Most of his own waltzes are elegant and brilliant, structured in several short, contrasting sections. Piano writing Chopin was perceived by his contemporaries as having created a unique piano style. In it he drew together aspects of bravura style (influenced by Mozart and Hummel) with elements of lyrical style (influenced by composers such as Clementi and Field). His piano writing takes account of the properties of the piano itself, such as the way in which every note, once sounded, undergoes a diminuendo, and the capacities of the sustaining pedal. It is also idiomatic in its treatment of the player’s two hands and the various ways in which they can relate to each other. Examples of the piano textures he created include: • A straightforward dance-like style (e.g. the mazurkas and waltzes); • A legato, aria-like, ornamental right hand part, impulsive in character, supported by a rhythmically

stable left hand based on widespread broken chords (e.g. the nocturnes); and • A texture based on a range of distinctive figurations (e.g. the études). Musical style Chopin’s melodies tend to fall into two types: • Balanced eight-bar melodies, similar to those of the early nineteenth-century operatic aria; and • More freely structured, continuously unfolding melodies, more similar to operatic arioso or

recitative. The expressive characters of his melodies often derive from elements such as copious, unpredictable ornamentation, constant variation, development and transformation, and intensification by the addition of contrapuntal layers. His harmonies tend to be fundamentally diatonic, but are elaborated on the surface with chromatic chords and progressions and some strong unresolved dissonances. He often avoided using the dominant chord for long passages, saving its strength for the last possible moment. He frequently started pieces with chords or keys other than the tonic. As noted above, he used modal scales in some of the mazurkas. Two common, contrasting approaches to form can be identified: • A continuous, directional form; and • Sectionalised ternary form. Each of these approaches can be found in both short pieces and more extended works. Although some of Chopin’s music can be described as character pieces, such as the impromptus, scherzos, nocturnes and etudes, these works do not have specific literary or programmatic associations (though the ballades convey some sense of a general, undefined programme). In this respect Chopin’s approach was different from those of Schumann and Liszt.


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Robert Schumann (1810 – 1856) Schumann was a German composer and music critic who worked in Germany and Austria. Piano music formed an important part of his output, which also included songs, symphonies, chamber music and many other genres. His strong interest in literature influenced both his compositional style and his music criticism, in which he argued on behalf of musical Romanticism and through which he influenced many later European composers. As a writer, Schumann sometimes used the device of dialogue between imaginary characters representing different viewpoints. Such characters also appear in his music. Of particular interest are the imaginary Florestan, Eusebius and Raro, who correspond to aspects of Schumann’s own personality and appear in a number of his compositions. Genres Schumann composed a large number of pieces for piano, only some of which are mentioned here. Character pieces The character piece is probably the most important genre in Schumann’s piano music. Some of these are grouped in suites or cycles, related in subject matter and/or musical themes. Others are grouped in sets but are unrelated. Still others are larger-scale independent pieces. Cycles of the first type include the following. Papillons (Op. 2, 1831) is a set of 12 short, dance-like pieces, using simple, sectional forms. Carnaval (Op. 9, 1835) contains 21 pieces, many of them named after friends and colleagues of the composer. The musical cipher (see section on ‘Musical Styles and Influences’) A-S-C-H appears prominently. The short pieces, mainly in binary form, are arranged to provide tonal coherence for the set as a whole. The eight pieces of the Fantasiestücke (Op. 12, 1837) are a little broader in scope and more structurally self-contained. They alternate between the styles of the characters Florestan and Eusebius. Kreisleriana (Op. 16, 1838) represents in music a literary character who alternated, like Schumann himself, between depression and rapture; virtuosity and lyricism in the music are often linked with the tonal areas of G minor and B♭ major respectively. Faschingsschwank aus Wien (Op. 26, 1840) contains elements of sonata form but can also be viewed as a cycle of character pieces. Groups of pieces of the second type include the Novelletten (Op. 21, 1838), in which Schumann experimented with diverse textures and new approaches to small and large-scale form, with three or five-part structures organised into binary forms. Bunte Blätter (Op. 99, 1836 – 1849) and Albumblätter (Op. 124, 1832 – 1845) are alternative versions of generally unrelated pieces composed during the 1830s and 1840s. Larger-scale independent pieces include a number of works in which Schumann favoured versions of rondo form. One, the Humoreske (Op. 20, 1839), is a good example of how he interlinked small and large scale structures: its many miniatures can also be understood in terms of four or five larger movements. Sonatas Schumann composed two sonatas, a sonata-like Concert sans orchestre or Grande Sonate, and a sonatina. He used the four-movement plan typical of Beethoven and Schubert, with sonata-form first movements and sonata or rondo finales framing slow movements and scherzos in ternary or variation form.


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The first sonata, in F# minor (Op. 11, 1835), includes references to music by Clara Wieck, the pianist and composer who was eventually to become Schumann’s wife. The second, in G minor (Op. 22, 1838), includes many Romantically expressive effects. The Concert sans orchestre, in F# minor (Op. 14, 1836), has a slow introduction in the first movement, and presents one main theme rather than two. Variations The Abegg Variations (Op. 1, 1830) is the first of Schumann’s works to make use of a musical cipher (A-B♭ -E-G-G) as its basis. In particular, the first two notes of the theme are used as the basis of motivic development. The Blumenstück (Op. 19, 1839) uses a rhapsodic version of variation form, based on two musical ideas. Etudes Schumann (and later Liszt and Brahms, among others) based his first set of studies (Op. 3, 1832) on the virtuoso Paganini’s Caprices for solo violin. The Etudes Symphoniques (Op. 10, 1833) are structured in a free version of variation form and are technically very challenging. Their characters vary considerably and they cover a range of techniques, such as sforzando chords and wide left hand leaps. Fantasias The C major Fantasy (Op. 17, 1838), in three movements, is a good example of how Schumann used his alter egos Florestan and Eusebius in his music. It also quotes from Beethoven’s final song, and is based on a sonata form design, interrupted by smaller-scale structures. Music for young people Towards the end of his composing career, Schumann produced a number of pieces designed for young people learning to play the piano. The Drei Clavier-Sonaten für die Jugend (Op. 118, 1853) were composed for his daughters, Julie, Elise and Marie. Album für die Jugend (Op. 68, 1848) was another important pedagogical project. Piano writing Schumann stated his own belief that there were three key characteristics of good piano writing: “richness of part-writing and harmonic change (as in Beethoven and Schubert), … use of the pedal (as in Field) … [and] volubility (as in Czerny and Herz)”. These can be observed in his own piano music, which demonstrates features such as: • Rapidly changing harmony, often boldly chromatic; • Use of the sustaining pedal, often in innovatory ways; • Cross-rhythms and syncopation; • Very varied accompanimental figures; and • (In the early part of his career) use of the brilliant upper register of the piano.


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Musical style and influences Throughout Schumann’s career, his music seems to have been influenced by the rhythms of dance and of lyrical verse, and by keyboard-based improvisation. Many of Schumann’s pieces allude to literary ideas. Literary or pictorial titles were sometimes added to works originally composed in other contexts, such as Papillons. He frequently quoted or alluded to music – his own, Clara’s, popular or traditional music or that of other composers. An autobiographical element is often present. He loved to use ciphers (translations of names or words into musical themes). He also enjoyed using themes or ideas whose significance sprang more from the circumstances in which they were conceived than from their intrinsic musical content. Schumann’s forms are often fairly simple. He frequently worked with short structures, grouping together a number of small units by means of contrast or relationship, as in the Blumenstück. In larger-scale works, he tended to develop ideas by means of quasi-improvisatory variation, rather than a more Classical motivic development. However, other aspects of his style tend to result in a sense of ambiguity rather than of clarity: • Tied notes and syncopations may obscure the beat; • Beats are subdivided in changing ways – into two, three or more; • Chromaticism, suspensions and unresolved dissonances are common; • The tonic chord is often placed on weak beats; • The melody is often fragmentary; and • The melody may wander from part to part within the texture. Franz Liszt (1811 – 1886) Liszt was a Hungarian composer and pianist – perhaps the greatest virtuoso of his time. He developed influential new methods in composing and performing and was one of the leaders of musical Romanticism. During his spectacular performing career he gave concerts throughout Europe, and he associated with all the leading musicians and writers of his time. Like Schumann, he wrote about music and musical life as well as composing. Genres Liszt composed a large number of pieces for piano, only some of which are mentioned here. Etudes The six ‘Paganini’ études (S. 140, 1838, 1851) and the 12 ‘Transcendental’ études (S. 139, 1852), along with other sets, are evidence of Liszt’s astonishing virtuoso technique. He revised these pieces over the course of his performing career, demonstrating through his revisions the progress he made in his own technique. For instance, Mazeppa began as a study in thirds but eventually evolved into a piece where a slow octave melody is accompanied by fast chordal figuration across the whole range of the keyboard. The études focus on particular technical or musical devices. These include echo effects and glissandi in the fifth ‘Paganini’ study, and the sensational ‘Liszt octaves’ in the second ‘Paganini’ study. Some require a lyrical style rather than virtuosic bravura. Many have passages which combine slow cantabile melodies with fast virtuosic figuration.


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Most of the études are in sectional form, often ternary, and often including some variations. Thematic transformation is frequently in evidence; central sections are often based on the same material as the outer sections. Rhapsodies Liszt composed 19 Hungarian Rhapsodies. He based these on what he believed to be Hungarian gypsy melodies. Although the music he used was in fact composed for salon entertainment, it does include many features of Hungarian folk music. These include the gypsy scale, certain melodic and rhythmic elements, melodies in parallel thirds, and passages where the piano imitates the sound of the cimbalom. The rhapsodies are also highly virtuosic and are loosely structured as series of contrasting sections. A typical opening section is slow and melancholy; the final section is generally dramatic and brilliant. Character pieces Character pieces are a very important part of Liszt’s piano output, and he composed a large number of them. In them he demonstrated his typically Romantic belief that music could express ideas, emotions and impressions of all sorts. He often based his subject matter in these pieces on the work of writers and artists, such as Victor Hugo, Schiller, Raphael and Michelangelo. The Années de pélerinage (S. 160, 161 and 163, 1835 – 1877) are three collections of pieces evoking natural scenes or works of art. The effects Liszt recreates include thunderstorms, the singing of birds, running water, pastoral scenes, mourning and lamentation, heroic moments and tolling bells. Virtuosity, while present, is less important in the character pieces than in the études and rhapsodies. Each of the first two collections includes one much longer piece. In the second set, Après une lecture de Dante is a dramatic, virtuosic, sectional piece. The slow introduction features the augmented fourth of the “diabolus in musica”; the succeeding sections are related by their use of four main themes and their transformations. Other character pieces include a number from the 1860s based on religious themes. These include the Miserere (d’après Palestrina) (from Harmonies poétiques et religieuses, S. 173, 1852), in which Liszt presents his version of a sixteenth century style by means of simple, diatonic chords and the absence of time signatures. Sonata Liszt composed one sonata, in B minor (S. 178, 1853). It is a very substantial and original work, both powerful and lyrical, with frequent changes of mood. Its structure can be seen as one long, continuous movement, or as four linked movements, forming the sections of a large-scale sonata form. Within each of the four broader sections are many shorter, contrasting sections, some recurring. Such ambiguity of form is typical of many large-scale Romantic pieces. The sonata includes striking examples of Liszt’s development technique of thematic transformation, with the two motifs of its one principal theme developed separately and together. Arrangements Liszt was a prolific keyboard arranger, producing around 200 works. He classed his own arrangements as either paraphrases (in which he varied the originals and wove fantasies around them) or transcriptions (more accurate re-creations of the originals). His operatic paraphrases (of works by Mozart and a range of Romantic composers) were particularly inventive and successful. Other works Liszt also composed many short piano pieces of various kinds. These include a number from the late 1840s in forms favoured by Chopin, such as ballades, polonaises, a mazurka and waltzes.


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Piano writing The chief characteristic of Liszt’s piano music is its virtuosity. The physical structure of his hands influenced his playing, and therefore his composing techniques. His hands were long and narrow, with little webbing between the fingers. His fingertips were blunt rather than tapered, and his fourth fingers were very flexible. Reflecting this, his piano music often involves wide stretches and very fast speeds. (As a performer, he produced a very wide dynamic range, sometimes breaking strings or hammers on lighter pianos.) Characteristics of Liszt’s piano music include: • Scales in thirds, sixths, octaves or full chords; • Dense chordal or octave passages; • Wide-ranging arpeggios; • Wide leaps; • Fast, colourful changes of register; • Cadenza and recitative-style passages; • Vibrato/tremolando figurations; and • Glissando passages. His textures are very inventive, and he tended to avoid stock patterns and devices. He sometimes used what was called his ‘transcendental’ technique to make the piano sound like a full orchestra, with complex, original layers making use of the entire range of the keyboard.


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Musical style and influences Many of Liszt’s pieces are monothematic and feature development by means of thematic transformation. His harmonic style was influenced by that of Chopin and earlier Romantic composers, but gradually became more boldly chromatic. He used many augmented and diminished chords, chromatic and whole-tone scales and a ‘gypsy’ scale including augmented seconds. One of Liszt’s most important achievements was the establishment of the piano recital. He introduced the idea of a whole evening of serious piano music; previously, pianists would have formed part of a varied entertainment along with other artists. He also greatly increased the scale of such concerts, sometimes performing for several thousand people. Acknowledgements and suggested reading Kirby, F. E. (1995), Music for Piano: A Short History. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus. Excellent sections for the teacher in Chapters 4 and 5 on the set composers, with some musical examples. Chapter introductions give useful background information about the development of piano music. Machlis, J. & Forney, K. (1999), The Enjoyment of Music. New York: Norton. An excellent general textbook on the history of music, which provides good background information on Romanticism. Appropriate as a textbook for pupils. Associated scores and recordings are available for use alongside the musical examples. Sadie, S. and Tyrrell, J. (Eds.) (2001), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. Articles on: Pianoforte; Keyboard music; Chopin; Robert Schumann; Liszt. Authoritative information for the teacher, with useful musical examples. Todd, R. L. (Ed.) (1990), Nineteenth Century Piano Music. New York: Schirmer. Includes useful chapters for the teacher on the piano’s position in nineteenth century society. Certain aspects of the piano music of the set composers are discussed in considerable detail.


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Optional Area of Study: The Musical, 1900 to Today


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The Musical, 1900 to Today The Broadway musical, 1919 – 1942 During this period the musical was coming into focus as a genre in its own right. In the early years of the century operetta was a flourishing form. It was to influence the musical with its integration of music and drama. Musical comedy, which had originated in London and was a descendant of the music hall and vaudeville traditions, was also popular. It was to influence the musical in its use of popular song and dance styles. In the 1920s and 30s, works for the musical theatre were composed in both of these styles and sometimes with elements of both, and a range of terms, including ‘musical’ were and are used to describe them. Interesting and important works were created by Kern and Hammerstein, Rodgers and Hart, Cole Porter, the Gershwin brothers, Kurt Weill, and, in Britain, Noël Coward and Ivor Novello. Important features of musicals from this era include: • The use of contemporary popular song styles, including those influenced by jazz and ragtime; • An increasing number of shows in which songs were integrated into the action, creating mood,

revealing character or advancing the plot; • Popular dance as an important element in many productions; and • Dance band influences on the pit orchestra: the saxophone was often prominent, brass were

sometimes closely voiced and/or muted, and the piano was popular, playing in jazz styles or providing unobtrusive harmonic and rhythmic accompanying textures.

Possible works for further study include the following. Show Boat (1927; Kern/Hammerstein) • Show Boat was a particularly influential show, pointing towards the Broadway musical of the 1940s. • It is based on a realistic plot and characters. • It integrates songs, instrumental music, dance and crowd scenes into a coherent and credible drama. • The music is influenced by ‘black’ musical styles including ragtime, the spiritual and the worksong;

Kern provides pastiches appropriate to the contexts and changing time periods of the action. • Ol’ Man River is an important number, cast in a sophisticated popular song form and providing

material for musical leitmotifs for the remainder of the musical. • Other key musical motifs are used throughout, foreshadowing and reminiscing, unifying the work. • The first scene, including the opening chorus and the meeting of Ravenal and Magnolia, is a possible

choice for detailed study (see Block, 1997, pages 34 – 39). Anything Goes (1934; Porter) • Anything Goes is a show whose main strength is its strong numbers rather then its credibility or

coherence as a drama. • Key songs include I get a Kick out of You, You’re the Top, Anything Goes and Blow, Gabriel, Blow. • Porter uses a range of musical styles to create appropriate moods, including a shanty-like sailor song

and a parody of a hymn of praise.


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• Porter provides effective musical characterisation of the main female character, Reno Sweeney, using complex rhythms, with much syncopation and a recurring crotchet triplet figure, balanced with straightforward harmonies. Her character is a possible choice for detailed study.

Girl Crazy (1930; Gershwin/Gershwin) • Girl Crazy is one of the many musical comedies created by the Gershwin brothers in the 1920s and

early 30s. • Like other shows of this type and era, it was built around the personalities and abilities of its first

main performers, who in this case included Ethel Merman and Ginger Rogers. • Key songs include Embraceable You, I Got Rhythm, Boy! What Love has done to Me and But not

for Me. • The score includes some musical references to the action’s Western setting. • Some of the main themes are related musically to parts of George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue. • I Got Rhythm is a possible choice for further detailed study of an individual number. Porgy and Bess (1935; Gershwin/Gershwin) • Porgy and Bess may be viewed as an opera (‘folk opera’) or as a musical. • It includes declamatory recitative rather than spoken dialogue. • The musical idiom is influenced by Romantic style but includes elements of jazz such as flattened

notes and stylised spirituals. • Like Kern, Gershwin uses musical motifs for characters or ideas. He goes beyond Kern in the way

he develops motifs and melodies to communicate characters’ changing circumstances and relationships.

• The character of Porgy is a possible choice for further study. (The musical ideas which inform his music are discussed in Block, 1997, pages 76 – 79.)

Exploration and expansion, 1943 – 1959 Oklahoma! (1943; Rodgers/Hammerstein) is often seen as a pivotal work in the history of the musical in that it is particularly coherent and ‘integrated’, both musically and dramatically, qualities that became increasingly valued and usual. The period after Oklahoma! was one of dynamic growth, with a range of diverse styles co-existing. In addition to Rodgers and Hammerstein, influential composers and lyricists of this era were Cole Porter, Leonard Bernstein, Loewe and Loesser, and Kurt Weill. New developments during this era in recording, broadcasting and film helped to bring musicals to a wider audience, leading to longer runs of shows and more frequent revivals. Important features of musicals from this era include: • The conception of the musical as a form in which music and dance supported the drama by

advancing the plot and refining the characterisation; • Resulting developments in the conception of the role of the song and of other elements of the

music; • The dominance of popular singing styles, with the female belt voice and the male baritone

increasingly used for the main characters; • Developments in the use of dance and the role of the choreographer, with important dance scenes

in many musicals;


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• Strong big band influences in the orchestra, with emphasis more on reeds and brass than on strings; and

• The beginnings of amplification for the orchestra, and, in the late 1950s, influences from popular music such as the use of the electric guitar.

Possible works for further study include the following. Oklahoma! (1943; Rodgers/Hammerstein) • Oklahoma! was a very influential, ‘integrated’ musical play. • It brought together a range of quite innovative techniques, including an opening for solo voice

rather than chorus, psychologically revealing ballet, and songs used to develop character. • The music is influenced by Romantic style, with expressive use of chromaticism. • Many songs are reprised, sometimes developed or altered in various ways, to further the flow of the

drama. • Elements of the music and lyrics communicate the country setting of the story. • Minor characters are strongly drawn and are given important music. • The first scene, from Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin’ to People Will Say We’re in Love, is a possible choice

for detailed study (see Swain, pages 34 – 39). Carousel (1945; Rodgers/Hammerstein) • Carousel opens with The Carousel Waltz instead of an overture. This number establishes the musical

style of the whole show and provides musical material for many of the other numbers. • There is considerable use of melodrama, in which the characters speak to the accompaniment of

music from the orchestra, while much of the sung music is melodically and rhythmically flexible, allowing for smooth transitions.

• While Oklahoma! makes structural use of reprise, Carousel is based more on musical continuity for dramatic progression.

• The relationship between Julie and Billy is a possible choice for detailed study (see Block, chapter 8). Kiss Me, Kate (1948; Porter) • Kiss Me, Kate is based on Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew and is constructed as a ‘play within a

play’. • Porter contrasts a Renaissance-style musical idiom (including alternating major and minor modes,

and madrigalian vocal textures) with contemporary ones to characterise the two layers of the play and to create irony.

• Contemporary styles used for the present-day story are very varied, including, for example, parodies of an old-fashioned musical chorus, a blues, a Viennese waltz and an operatic number.

• Porter made an effort to match the work of Rodgers and Hammerstein in the use of musical motifs to establish, develop and link characters.

Guys and Dolls (1950; Loesser) • Guys and Dolls was perceived as an integrated musical, although all the songs were written first and

the rest of the show was constructed around them. • Loesser achieves musical unity by associating particular rhythms with specific characters, e.g. triplet

crotchets for Adelaide, and even rhythms gradually becoming more syncopated for Sarah. • Loesser provides an unusual amount of counterpoint in this show; it is interesting to note how little

counterpoint, or even harmony between soloists, is evident in many musicals.


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• The opening scene, from Runyonland to The Oldest Established, is a possible choice for detailed study (see Block, pages 204 – 209).

My Fair Lady (1956; Loewe/Lerner) • My Fair Lady is based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. • The writers felt that they were taking a risk by departing from the model set up by Rodgers and

Hammerstein, in which there was a secondary love story. This musical focuses on one main story. • It is an integrated musical; the songs play a particularly effective role – often involving rhythmic style

or inter-relationships – in outlining the changing characters and outlooks of Eliza and Professor Higgins.

• Rex Harrison, the first actor to play Higgins, introduced a new kind of speech-singing to the musical.

West Side Story (1957; Bernstein/Sondheim) • West Side Story is based on Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. • It is generally seen as the most significant musical since Oklahoma! • It was the work of a team of four: Leonard Bernstein, the composer, Jerome Robbins, the director

and choreographer, Arthur Laurents, the playwright, and Stephen Sondheim, the lyricist. • The tragic plot was a new challenge, both for Broadway and for Bernstein as a composer. • There are several important dance numbers, all of which advance the drama and are set,

innovatively, to specially composed music. • It has exceptionally thorough motivic and thematic integration: key musical ideas include the tritone,

the flattened seventh, the triad with simultaneous major and minor thirds, and the hemiola. Strong links between songs are also significant.

• The musical style, typical of all Bernstein’s work at this time, combines symphonic and jazz styles. Latin rhythms and dance styles are also important, conveying the ethnic background of the Puerto Rican gang. In particular, he focuses on dissonant, chromatic and syncopated elements to create musical tension suitable for the story and its setting.

• The ensemble Tonight is a possible choice for detailed study (see Swain, 243 – 251). 1960 to the present day After 1960 a new generation of composers and writers began to develop the musical in a range of differing directions. The ‘concept musical’ was an important innovation in which initial ideas about staging influenced the musical and dramatic content. Examples include Sweet Charity (Coleman, 1966), Chicago (Kander/Ebb, 1975) and A Chorus Line (Hamlisch/Kleban, 1975). Stephen Sondheim created several important and influential works, including Follies, Sunday in the Park with George, Sweeney Todd and Assassins, in which he explored different styles and settings and pioneering new approaches to the musical. From the late 1970s onwards ‘megamusicals’ became particularly successful, generally opening in London and moving to Broadway. These works included those by Andrew Lloyd Webber and by Boublil and Schönberg. Film has been a strong influence on the later twentieth century musical. Some stage musicals have been translated into successful films, as was common from the 1930s to the 1950s, but, more frequently, successful films have been made into stage musicals (e.g. The Witches of Eastwick, 2000).


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Even cartoon musicals have been turned into striking stage works – a good example is Julie Taymor’s innovative adaptation of Disney’s The Lion King (1998). Important features of musicals from this era include: • Influences on musical style from rock and pop music; • Influences from a wide range of musical styles to suit the subject matter or setting of a musical (e.g.

1950s pop in Grease, Eastern sounds in Miss Saigon); • The continuing influence of pop singing styles, with the use of body microphones allowing more

intimate and breathy vocal tones; • For some musicals, a classic ‘Broadway’ orchestra, with big-band-style scoring supported by drum

kit and bass; • Greater flexibility of scoring, such as the use of rock-style ensembles (e.g. The Rocky Horror Show,

1973, Little Shop of Horrors, 1982) made possible by more sophisticated on-stage amplification; • The use of synthesizers to replace instruments such as strings, or to create special effects; and • Practices made possible by the use of sound systems, such as pre-recorded vocal lines for soloists or

to strengthen chorus numbers, or pre-recorded instrumental backing tracks added to the sound of the live band.

Possible works for further study include the following: A Chorus Line (Hamlisch/Kleban, 1975) • A Chorus Line is a concept musical about the experience of chorus dancers on Broadway. It was

conceived by the choreographer and director Michael Bennett, who then hired the composer Marvin Hamlisch and lyricist Ed Kleban.

• Because of the nature of the show’s frame story, featuring the characters at an audition, the main function of the songs is to define character rather than to advance action.

• Hamlisch’s score includes a range of twentieth-century popular music styles, such as 1930s jazz, rock and Broadway ballad.

• The show’s dances, appropriately, are important and work at various levels: as the show’s basic language, since its setting is a dance audition; as part of the characters’ stories, such as the tap dance I Can Do That; and to express characters’ deeper feelings, such as The Music and the Mirror.

• The scene Montage is a possible choice for detailed study (see Swain, 340 – 342). Evita (Lloyd Webber/Rice, 1978) • Evita is based on the true story of Eva Perón. • The music is strongly influenced by opera: the libretto is sung throughout. • Two musical styles dominate, each linked to a key mode of expression: Spanish-tinged soft rock,

used to communicate pretence and cynicism, and a more modern, somewhat syncopated and dissonant style, used to communicate genuine emotion.

• Lloyd Webber uses a contrafactum technique in which melodies are re-used from one song to another, with new words provided.

• The show was produced as a recording first and later presented as a stage show. Sweeney Todd (Sondheim, 1979) • Sweeney Todd, based on a Victorian melodrama, addresses themes of injustice and revenge. • It contrasts a dark tone and atmosphere with comic elements. • Sondheim’s musical style is unusual for a Broadway composer in its use of non-functional harmonic

language, influenced by composers such as Ravel and Copland, with modal melodies common (e.g. The Ballad of Sweeney Todd).


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• Sondheim makes use of leitmotifs for each character and dramatic theme (e.g. “obsession”). These are used in a Wagnerian way, to enhance the drama and to build musical unity. They often feature in accompaniments as well as in melodic lines, and counterpoint is a significant characteristic of the score.

• Epiphany is a possible choice for further detailed study of an individual number (see Swain, pages 374 – 378).

Les Misérables (Schönberg/Boublil, 1980/1985) • Les Misérables is based on the epic novel by Victor Hugo. The original version (1980) was in French.

Like all Schönberg and Boublil musicals, it is set against a background of war and includes an edifying message for the audience.

• The show is on a very large scale in terms of cast, staging and orchestration. Mass choral numbers (e.g. At the End of the Day, Do You Hear the People Sing? and One Day More) fulfil important structural roles in the work.

• There is some use of leitmotif (e.g. for characters such as Valjean) and much use of contrafactum. • Schönberg uses a rich, Romantic-style harmonic vocabulary, with expressive changes of key and

chromatic colour. • The final scene of the first act, One Day More, is a possible choice for detailed study (see Swain, pages

394 – 396). The Phantom of the Opera (Lloyd Webber/Hart and Stilgoe, 1986) • The Phantom of the Opera is based on a theme of unrequited love, telling a fantastical, opera-like story,

set in the Paris Opera. • The opera setting gives the show some of the qualities of the concept musical: it includes scenes

from three imaginary operas for which Lloyd Webber provides appropriate pastiche styles. There are particularly strong references to the music of Puccini.

• The sense of duality in the story is matched by Lloyd Webber’s general musical style, which includes both Romantic and pop/rock elements.

• Solo numbers are used to define the natures of the main characters (e.g. Angel of Music and Music of the Night for the Phantom, and Think of Me for Christine).

• The character of the Phantom is a possible choice for further study (see Snelson, pages 96 – 105.) Study of the set composers and writers may focus on the works and characteristics set out below. George Gershwin (1898 – 1937) and Ira Gershwin (1896 – 1983) The musicals of the Gershwin brothers include: • Lady, Be Good (1924) • Tell Me More (1925) • Oh, Kay! (1926) • Funny Face (1927) • Rosalie (1928) • Treasure Girl (1928) • Show Girl (1929) • Strike up the Band (1930) • Girl Crazy (1930) (see earlier notes) • Of Thee I Sing (1931) • Pardon My English (1933)


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• Let ’em Eat Cake (1933) • Porgy and Bess (1935) (see earlier notes) George Gershwin, America’s most famous composer in the 1920s and 1930s, was primarily a songwriter. He began work on Tin Pan Alley, and the success of his musicals depends largely on the strength of his songs. Many of his songs use standard AABA structures, with phrases rarely longer than eight bars. His musical language is essentially diatonic, but is enriched with striking key changes, with or without modulation, and some melodic chromaticism. His rhythms are varied: square-cut, declamatory rhythms (Swanee, from Sinbad), offbeat emphases (Someone to Watch Over Me, from Oh, Kay!) and strong syncopations (Fascinating Rhythm, from Lady, be Good!). Ira Gershwin, his brother, was a deft writing partner, who generally created his lyrics once the music of the song had been composed. After George’s death he formed a number of successful professional partnerships with other composers. Most of George Gershwin’s theatre works are musical comedies, conceived as a series of songs and often based round the abilities of a star performer. His works from 1930 onwards, however, are more integrated, with the songs advancing the action to some extent. Porgy and Bess, one of his last and largest-scale works, is of a different type altogether and can be classed as an opera because he uses a declamatory vocal style in place of spoken dialogue, and because of the demands on the singers in some of the ensembles. Jazz influences, though, are clearly heard, both as an appropriate style for the work’s setting, and to create dramatic effects at specific moments. Richard Rodgers (1902 – 1979) and Oscar Hammerstein II (1895 – 1960) The musicals of Rodgers and Hammerstein include: • Oklahoma! (1943) (see earlier notes) • Carousel (1945) (see earlier notes) • Allegro (1947) • South Pacific (1949) • The King and I (1951) • Me and Juliet (1953) • Pipe Dream (1955) • Flower Drum Song (1958) • The Sound of Music (1959) Prior to their first collaboration, on Oklahoma!, Rodgers had composed a string of successful musicals with Lorenz Hart, while Hammerstein had written the seminal Show Boat with Jerome Kern, along with other works. Oklahoma! proved to be hugely successful and influential. It was perceived as the first truly ‘integrated’ musical, bringing together a range of features which had been foreshadowed to some extent in Rodgers’s and Hammerstein’s earlier works with other collaborators. These features included, among others, the strong story, the way the songs emerged seamlessly from the plot and enhanced the audience’s perception of the characters, the use of long musical scenes, the strikingly simple opening and the use of dance styles as narrative (see Everett and Laird, page 127). The essentially patriotic message of the musical also suited its time, the mid-point of America’s World War II involvement.


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The characteristics of Oklahoma! set the pattern and tone for the continuing partnership of Rodgers and Hammerstein. The most successful of these, Carousel, South Pacific, The King and I and The Sound of Music, featured strong, tightly integrated stories, strong characters, particularly women, and many of the musical features heard in Oklahoma!. Rodgers’s musical style, based on a Romantic idiom, was particularly effective in supporting Hammerstein’s lyrics and librettos and in bringing characters to life. As well as his skills in the large-scale construction involved in a musical, he was an inventive and effective song-writer. His use of rhythm and harmony were subtle and nuanced, and his melodies are particularly strong. In his work with Hammerstein he used increasingly complex and continuous forms. He was influenced to some extent by jazz. A characteristic Rodgers number was the waltz, which featured in most of his shows with Hammerstein (e.g. Out of my Dreams from Oklahoma! and Edelweiss from The Sound of Music). Hammerstein’s lyrics are often deceptively simple, but simultaneously apt and penetrating. His subtle use of structure and rhyme can communicate complex ideas or emotions clearly and quickly. Leonard Bernstein (1918 – 1990) Bernstein’s musicals include: • On the Town (1944; Comden, Green and Bernstein) • Wonderful Town (1953; Comden and Green) • West Side Story (1957; Bernstein and Sondheim) (see earlier notes) • 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (1976; Lerner) Bernstein was an eminent composer and conductor. Like Gershwin, his compositional output included both serious and popular music; he composed successfully in many different genres. Bernstein’s musicals combine a fresh use of vernacular styles such as jazz and Latin music with considerable technical musical sophistication. On the Town, for example, includes blues influences (I Feel Like I’m Not Out of Bed Yet), boogie-woogie (Come up to My Place), Broadway stylings (Lonely Town), an Andrews Sisters parody (Do-Do-Re-Do) and dissonant jazz rhythms (New York, New York). His music is essentially tonal, while varying widely in surface style in order to communicate its context. Bernstein unified his scores by means of complex musical associations between individual numbers and by the frequent use of key small-scale motifs and intervals. West Side Story provides many examples of his techniques in this respect. For example, the tritone, an interval with a particularly striking effect, recurs frequently: at the start of Maria and Cool, early in Something’s Coming, and, in the accompaniment, at some important moments, during the Dance at the Gym. In each case the tritone is approached and resolved in a dramatically significant way. Other intervals are developed in comparable, though less prevalent ways. Bernstein was unusual among Broadway composers in that he sometimes orchestrated his own music; his instrumentation is frequently subtle and dramatically effective. He created symphonic suites from some of his musicals.


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West Side Story was the first Broadway musical in which dance and drama were fully integrated. Bernstein elevated the importance of dance scenes in his musicals by composing specifically for them. Although he sometimes quotes key themes or motifs in dance sequences, they stand as musical numbers in their own right, providing expression for inarticulate characters or fulfilling structural purposes. Bernstein’s collaborators played important roles in the success of his musicals. They included Jerome Robbins, Betty Comden and Adolph Green, Arthur Laurents, Stephen Sondheim and Alan Jay Lerner. Andrew Lloyd Webber (1948 – ) Lloyd Webber’s musicals include: • Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (1968; Rice, after Genesis) • Jesus Christ Superstar (1970; Rice, after the Gospels) • Jeeves (1975; Ackbourn, after Wodehouse) • Evita (1976; Rice) (see earlier notes) • Tell me on a Sunday (1980; Black) • Cats (1981; Eliot, Stilgoe and Nunn, after Eliot) • Starlight Express (1984; Stilgoe) • The Phantom of the Opera (1986; Hart and Stilgoe, after Leroux) (see earlier notes) • Aspects of Love (1989; Black and Hart, after Garnett) • Sunset Boulevard (1993; Black and Hampton) • Whistle Down the Wind (1998; Steinman, Knop, Edwards and Lloyd Webber, after Bell) • The Beautiful Game (2000; Elton) Lloyd Webber’s shows have been among the most popular, successful and long-running in the history of the musical. He has created a large number of enduring music theatre ‘heroes’, who tend to be united in their quests for personal immortality or deliverance. His music is characterised by a broad range of influences, used as appropriate to his subject matter. For example, rock and pop influences can be heard in much of his work (e.g. the Elvis-style Song of the King from Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, or Heaven on their Minds from Jesus Christ Superstar). Starlight Express includes rock, blues, gospel and country styles. Much of his output shows his knowledge of classic Broadway styles, along with Romantic influences on scoring (often luxuriant, with prominent strings and horn) and on harmonic and melodic structure. Specific Romantic operatic styles are pastiched in The Phantom of the Opera. Frequently he explores a variety of styles within the bounds of one musical. Characters are effectively brought to life by their music. In many cases, a musical uses noticeably different styles for each of the main characters. Clear examples of this include The Phantom of the Opera and Sunset Boulevard. The lyric ballad is a consistent element of Lloyd Webber’s work. These tend to exploit the characteristics and range of specific types of solo voice (e.g. the belt voice in Memory), and are often linked to strong dramatic moments in the musicals. His use of simple structures and memorable melodic material has resulted in success for many of his ballads as songs in their own right.


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Lloyd Webber often uses the compositional technique of contrafactum, in which melodies from one song are reused in another, with different words. While this technique provides a degree of musical unity, some critics consider that it lessens the dramatic impact of his melody because connections between the instances of a melody’s use are not always clear. There are some instances of musical ‘borrowing’ in Lloyd Webber’s work. Here he alludes to the work of another composer, or models his piece on another. Examples may include Memory, from Cats, and On this Night of a Thousand Stars, from Evita. Acknowledgements and suggested reading Block, G, (1997), Enchanted Evenings: the Broadway Musical from Show Boat to Sondheim. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Particularly helpful in its careful musical detail, with useful musical examples. Includes analysis of key scenes and issues in many of the musicals suggested for further study. Block, G, (2003), Richard Rodgers. New Haven: Yale University Press. A detailed consideration of Rodgers’s music. Everett, W, A, and Laird, P, R, (Eds.) (2002), The Cambridge Companion to the Musical. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fawkes, R, (2001), The History of the Musical. Redhill, Surrey: Naxos. An excellent resource for classroom use: a four-cd audio-book in which performer Kim Criswell tells the story of the musical from its earliest origins to the present day. Particularly useful are the large number of illustrative musical extracts included. Rosenberg, D, (1992), Fascinating Rhythm: the Collaboration of George and Ira Gershwin. London: Lime Tree. Provides detailed information, including detailed musical analysis and some lyrics, on the songs and musical of the Gershwin brothers. Sadie, S, and Tyrrell, J, (Eds.), (2001), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. Articles on the musical and on the set composers. Authoritative information for the teacher. Snelson, J, (2004), Andrew Lloyd Webber. New Haven: Yale University Press. An interesting and comprehensive consideration of Lloyd Webber’s music, full of detailed musical examples. Swain, J, P, (2002), The Broadway Musical: a Critical and Musical Survey. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow. Contains interesting accounts of many of the musicals suggested for further study, with helpful musical examples.


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A2 2 Compulsory Area of Study 1:

Music for Orchestra in the Twentieth Century


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Debussy: Prélude à ‘l’Après-midi d’un faune’ In 1892-94 Debussy (1862 – 1918) composed the miniature tone poem Prélude à ‘l’Après-midi d’un faune’, the first of his major works and one which established his reputation as one of the most significant originators of ‘modern music’. Debussy was determined to break away from the heavy Romantic style of German composers. The work is based on a symbolist poem by Stéphane Mallarmé and is impressionistic in style in its emphasis on programme music, mood and atmosphere. The poem tells of a faun, a mythological creature of the forest, who awakens and cannot recall whether or not he has dreamed about the visit of two beautiful nymphs. He will never know and in the warm sun he curls himself up and falls asleep. Impressionism was a term borrowed from the style of a group of French artists during the last quarter of the 19th century. Their paintings aimed to give an impression of vague, hazy outlines and the play of shimmering light and movement. In his orchestral pieces in impressionistic style Debussy explores new combinations of tone-colours, fluid rhythms, shimmering textures, unusual scales and uses chords for their expressive ‘colour’ effects rather than obeying musical rules. His orchestral works in this style also include La Mer, Nocturnes and Images. The scoring of Prélude à ‘l’Après-midi d’un faune’ is for three flutes, two oboes, cor anglais, two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, two harps, small antique cymbals and strings. Students’ study of this work should include the following: The piece breaks loose from diatonic tonality and exhibits a lack of dependence on the major/minor system. The overall form is free ternary (A B A1) with an imbalance within the ternary structure, as the first section A is half the total length of the piece. The use of short lyrical freer forms, often with titles, instead of large traditional forms such as symphonies and concertos, was typical of the impressionist style. The opening flute theme is the main motive throughout the work and each time it returns is transformed, expanded by embellishment or split into independent fragments or changed in some way. Debussy also unifies the work through the tonality and emphatic repetition of C# and A. Each time the C# reappears it is given a new harmonisation, for example, it appears as the top of a ninth chord, as part of a dominant 13th, an added sixth chord and also provides the bass line in section B. The orchestration also helps to establish both the motivic ideas and structure of the work.


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Other notable and impressionistic features of the work include the following: • Exploration of the tone colour and capabilities of each of the different instruments;

• Subtle colours and sonorities, delicate orchestral shadings and a transparency of texture, for

example, flutes and clarinets in the lower register, violins in the upper range, use of muted brass, use of harp glissandi, celesta, triangle, glockenspiel, antique cymbals;

• Emphasis on orchestral sounds and contrasting textures, for example, the second section contrasts

with the first due to the strings removing the mutes, use of pizzicato and solo clarinet rather than the flute;

• Lack of dependence on the major/minor system and shifting tonality and vague sense of key, with

music wavering between major and minor partly because of the tritone based opening melody;

• Use of dissonance as a value in itself without any need for resolution; • Use of the whole-tone scale in the melody and harmony; • Chromatic nature and narrow range of the opening theme; • Harmonic adventurousness and a lack of clear cadences; • Use of parallel movement of chords, often in fifths and octaves; • Use of ninth chords; • Rhythmic flexibility and fluidity resulting in music which obscures the pulse; tendency for melodies

to enter on the off beats; • Improvisatory quality of the music; and • Fluctuating tempos.


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Stravinsky Pulcinella Suite The music of the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) exemplifies almost every musical style of the first half of the twentieth century. His early works, of which the most famous is the Rite of Spring (1913), were characterised by unusual orchestral effects and combinations and innovative rhythms. In the following decade, wartime economy and Stravinsky’s desire for something new led to a change of style. His compositions during this period were for smaller instrumental combinations and included short piano pieces, songs and chamber music. Neoclassicism is the name given to a style in twentieth century music in which the composer shows a strong reaction to the Romantic style of the nineteenth century, avoiding rich orchestration and expression of intense emotion. Instead the composer aims for a balance and clarity of texture and purity, characteristic of earlier styles of music. New dance works by Stravinsky, Debussy, Ravel and others presented by the dance company Ballets Russes had made a profound artistic impact in Paris up to 1914. The war years were a lean time for the company and in the spring of 1919 the Russian ballet impresario, Diaghilev, invited Stravinsky to compose a ballet based upon the Pulcinella. Diaghilev suggested that Stravinsky should base his music on tunes by the Italian Baroque composer, Pergolesi. Research has concluded that 11 of the 21 movements in the ballet are actually based on pieces by composers other than Pergolesi. This was an important turning point in Stravinsky’s career, for it led him into this neo-classical style which was to dominate his output for the next several decades. Unlike his earlier ballets, which were characterised by huge orchestras and innovative rhythms, Pulcinella is relatively simple and sparse. It is scored for a chamber orchestra of broadly eighteenth century proportions: a pair of flutes, oboes, bassoons and horns, a trumpet, trombone and strings divided into concertino and ripieno. It also included three singers, a soprano, tenor and bass, whom Stravinsky prescribed should perform from the orchestra pit, emphasising their accompaniment role. The ballet was premiered by Ballets Russes at the Paris Opera in 1920 with sets designed by Picasso. It is now more familiar and popular as a concert suite, in which the vocal solos are replaced by instrumental passages, than as a ballet repertoire work. Even though Stravinsky used Pergolesi’s melodies and bass lines with little change, he made his own personal stamp on the music through his use of modern harmonies and occasional rhythmic changes. Other musical features of the work include: • Unusual combinations of instruments; • Unexpected phrasing; • Dramatic dynamic contrasts; • Precise articulation markings; • New decoration of the melody line; • Textural additions including pedals, ostinati and extra parts; and • Added dissonance.


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Pulcinella is the traditional masked heroic character of many Italian comedies of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He is witty and warm-hearted but a bit of a scoundrel who captures the hearts of the local girls of Naples. Enraged, their fiancés plot to kill him but he outwits them and substitutes a double, who feigns death and is then revived by a disguised Pulcinella. The young men return and Pulcinella arranges marriages for everyone and himself weds to produce the requisite happy ending. Sinfonia (Ouverture) The source of this opening movement is now known to be the first movement of a trio sonata by the Venetian composer Gallo. Features of the movement include: • Use of the orchestra in Baroque style as Stravinsky sets a group of solo string instruments against

the main string orchestra; • Tutti passages, for example, the opening tutti presentation of the elegant main theme; • Solo passages for the solo string group, cello, and oboes and bassoons; • Addition of performance directions and bowing; and • Addition of instrumental doublings, new countermelodies and additional notes. Gavotta (con due variazioni) The source of this movement is Pièces modernes pour le clavecin by Monza. Stravinsky uses the gavotte, a popular dance of the Baroque period, and adds two variations on the opening melody, which is initially presented in the oboe and flute. The music is scored for wind only. Variation 1 – note the following features: • Lilting 6/8 metre; • Solo oboe, bassoon horns and trombone scoring; • Soaring countermelody in the first horn; • Sequential writing and interesting use of pedal; • Contrapuntal writing in the final section; and • Introduction of dissonance. Variation 2 – note the following features: • Melody is shared between flute and horn supported by a bassoon accompaniment; • Romantic ornamentation; • Alberti style bass line and arpeggio figuration in the bassoon part; • Binary form structure; • Added countermelodies in the second section; and • Unprepared dissonance.


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Vivo The source of this last movement is from a Sinfonia for cello and bass by Pergolesi. Stravinsky gives Pergolesi’s original cello line to the solo double bass for the most part except for a seven bar passage where it is taken by the trombone. The movement is essentially a duet for this unusual combination of trombone, soloists and double bass. Features of this movement include: • A contrast of timbre between the sombre tone of the double bass and bright, aggressive, and even

rude, sound of the trombone playing, for example, the opening glissandi; • Use of the high register of the double bass; • Use of syncopation; • Deliberate lack of clarity in the cadential writing; • ‘Wrong note’ effect with clashing seconds; • Bitonality of the bass line at times; • Sudden change from tonic major to minor; and • Use of pedals.


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Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra, fourth movement, Intermezzo Interotto Bartók (1881-1945) was born in Hungary and along with another Hungarian composer, Zoltán Kodály, took an interest in the study of Hungarian folk music. Bartók published nearly two thousand folk tunes, chiefly from Hungary and Romania, and wrote books and articles on folk music. He also used folk tunes as the basis for compositions and developed a style in which he aimed to reproduce the folk element rather than quote the melodies themselves. As he explained: ‘what we had to do was to discover the spirit of this unfamiliar music and make it the basis of our own works’. Short of money, in poor health and in exile in America, Bartók wrote the Concerto for Orchestra in 1943 as a commission through the Koussevitsky Foundation for the Boston Symphony Orchestra. It was the first time in twenty years that he had written for a large orchestra and the work played a significant role in at last bringing Bartók’s music to the eminence it now occupies. The work makes more concessions to public taste than most of his earlier works and critics called it ‘commercialism’ and ‘pandering to the American masses’. The concerto is also a manifestation of how the folk idiom had been totally assimilated and become an integral part of Bartók’s musical vocabulary. Bartók wrote an interesting programme note for the first performance of the work explaining why he called it a ‘concerto’ rather than a symphony. Even though it is symphonic in length and structure he states that it is a concerto because of its ‘tendency to treat the single instruments or instrument groups in a “concertante” or “soloistic manner” ’. The work is in five movements, an example of mirror symmetry. The opening and closing movements are substantial, the central slow movement is profound and the second and fourth are shorter and lighter in texture. Bartók himself outlined a programme for the work, which, apart from the jesting second movement, is a gradual transition from the sternness of the first movement and death song of the third, to the life assertion of the finale. The entire work is pervaded by the interval of a fourth: the bass themes in both the first and third movements, the oboe melody in the fourth and the jazzy fugue subject of the finale. Melodic fragments often exist within the interval of the tritone/augmented fourth. Motoristic rhythms, irregular metres, off beat accents, homophony or imitative and canonic writing are all elements of his style. His harmony may be pentatonic, modal, whole-tone or use unusual scales, and chords are often built on fourths. The Concerto for Orchestra presents a fusion of Eastern European folk music sources and mid twentieth century musical principles and is a brilliant, exuberant work, full of humour and with all the hallmarks of Bartók’s dynamic style. Movement IV Intermezzo Interrotto ‘Intermezzo’ can mean music ‘played in the middle’, such as the pieces between the scenes or acts of an opera. Here Bartók writes an intermezzo between the third and fifth movements and describes it as an ‘interruption’.


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The overall form of the movement has been described as: A B A1 Interruption B1 A2 Bar 1 Bar 42/43 Bar 61 Bar 69 Bar 119 Bar 136 The following features should be noted: • The opening four note motive in the strings which contains a tritone.

• The following oboe theme and its metrical irregularity and insistence on the intervals of a second

and a tritone. • Use of inversion, sequence and dialogue between instruments. • The second theme, a cantabile melody presented in the violas and then in the violins and cor anglais.

This is a paraphrase of the aria “You are my lovely, you are beautiful, Hungary” from Vincze’s operetta and is characterised by its changing metre, opening circle of fifths and tonal movement from C minor to G.

• The interruption is introduced by a figure which is an inversion of the first four pitches in the

introduction, leading to a brief 3-3-2 quaver division in 8/8 time and tonic/dominant vamp in E♭. • The third melodic idea, presented in the clarinet, is a parody of the march theme from

Shostakovich’s Seventh Symphony (Leningrad), a descending scale treated sequentially and decorated as triplets. The strange burlesque-like orchestration includes loud, jeering trills in the wind, raucous brass glissandi, trumpet trills, string tremolos and use of the triangle.

• Development of this thematic idea with the theme in the tuba. • Return of the second cantabile theme in muted strings with a similar harp accompaniment to

previously. • Return of the opening dance-like theme which is briefly interrupted by a birdsong-like cadenza for

solo flute, which hovers around C# and F# and, with the held string chord, gives a pentatonic feel to the music.

• Final eight bars use the last five notes of the opening theme in a simple sequence of cadences before

ending on the notes B and F # in the wind.


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Bernstein: Symphonic Dances from West Side Story Leonard Bernstein (1918 - 1990) was an American conductor, lecturer, pianist and composer who proved to be one of the most versatile musicians of the twentieth century. During the 1950s he composed mainly for stage and screen including one ballet and four Broadway musicals. His musical West Side Story (1957), reflecting 1950s New York, is a version of the Romeo and Juliet story in the context of two New York street gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. Bernstein himself described the work as ‘a tragedy in musical comedy form’ and the conflict between the gangs is depicted musically through the Latin American dance rhythms and jazz styles ranging from big-band jazz, rock, ‘cool’ jive to rhythm and blues. Bernstein fuses these with classical orchestration, harmony, counterpoint and techniques such as fugue. In order to unify the work Bernstein used the technique of thematic transformation and motifs, such as interval of a tritone which recur throughout the work. The dance sequences in particular serve to move the plot forward. Bernstein supervised the rearrangement of the dances as a one movement work. This was entitled ‘Symphonic Dances’ and premiered in 1961 by the New York Philharmonic Orchestera. Cha-Cha The chachacha was a Cuban dance which rose in popularity in America in the early 1950’s, deriving its name from shuffling of the dancer’s feet at certain points in the dance routine. Important features to notice include: • Delicate scoring with pizzicato strings and harp, light, dry piano chords, staccato wind and subtle

percussion touches on the finger cymbals, tambourine, maracas and snare drum; • Six bar phrasing of the melody and sharpened fourth (C#), a motivic feature of the work; • Repeat of the six bar melody with the introduction of a G# leading the music into the key of F#

minor; • The acciaccatura figure with shifting accents is repeated over chords of C major and B minor before

the music moves to D minor; and • Three-fold repetition of the ‘Maria’ - rising sharpened fourth/semitone motif (A D# E) serving as a

link to the next section. Meeting Scene This dance depicts the first meeting of the two main characters, Tony and Maria. Important features to note include: • The pervasive use of the ‘Maria’ motive (A D# E) throughout almost every bar of this short

movement • Sustained chords of A minor moving to a diminished chord before descending parallel thirds, a

sustained chord of D minor (first inversion) and a return to the sustained chord of A minor to end the section

• Light scoring with four muted solo violins, celesta, vibraphone, suspended cymbal and entry of the strings and bass clarinet in the final bars

• Tempo changes, use of rubato and ‘molto accelerando’ in the final bars


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Cool Important features to note include: • The ostinato figure which pervades the opening 26 bars and is constructed from rising and falling

intervals of an augmented fourth and semitone; • The complex fugue which begins at Bar 607 and provides a coherent structure for the rest of the

movement. The fugue subject consists of four long notes including a rising semitone, rising minor seventh and falling semitone;

• The extreme chromaticism and dissonance of the music which at times masks the home key of C; and

• The first and last notes follow a systematic process. Each successive statement begins down a semitone or remains at the same pitch as the last note of the previous statement, rather than the traditional fugal practice of transposing the subject to start on the dominant for the answer;

Bar 607 subject presented by the trumpet, beginning on the pitch C and ending on the pitch B♭

Bar 611 answer on the trumpet down a semitone starting on A and ending on D# Bar 620 subject in the horn and cello beginning on the same pitch D# and ending on

C# Bar 625 answer horn and cello starting down a semitone on C and ending on F# Bar 632 subject on the trombone and double bass beginning on the same pitch F# and

ending on E Bar 636 answer in the double bass and trombone down a semitone starting on E♭ and

ending on A Bar 644 subject in the strings and trombone beginning on the same pitch A and ending

on G Bar 648 answer in the stings and trombone down a semitone Gb ending on C

• The importance of a three note motif – a rising perfect fourth followed by a rising augmented fourth – first heard in the vibraphone and harp in Bar 611

• The countersubject characterised by jazz quavers first played by the vibraphone and flutes at Bar 620

• The first episode which includes the subject on muted trumpet and the countersubject transposed up a minor third

• The second episode which is a transposition of the first and features increasing use of the three note motif

• Subsequent appearances of the fugal material, for example, the subject condensed into detached chords in the brass and the countersubject developed a strict canon, both at Bar 656

• Climax of the fugue and ff bare octave presentation in the full orchestra of the falling semitone leading to short ad lib drum solos

• Return of the initial ostinato figure at Bar 676 and tutti presentation of this motif punctuated by short statements of the rhythmic countersubject

• Final calming down of the music as the hi-hat cymbal rhythm returns to accompany fragments of the ostinato and a final reference to the countersubject

Recommended score: Bernstein Orchestral Anthology Volume 1 The Boosey and Hawkes Masterworks Library


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Optional Area of Study 1: English Secular Vocal

Music, 1580 – 1620


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English Secular Vocal Music, 1580 – 1620 A characteristic aspect of Elizabethan life was its deep interest in assimilating continental culture. Despite England’s strong native culture there arose in the last years of the sixteenth century a pronounced trend for things Italian and this was reflected, not only in music, but also in poetry. Few musicians had the opportunity to visit Italy and so it was through the circulation of Italian music in England that the Elizabethans became familiar with this style. The madrigal was a secular vocal form for which the Italian models had been available for decades and the English madrigals’ period of composition was nearly sixty years after its Italian model. Many English composers were captivated by the Italian examples, which were disseminated in two ways: firstly by Alfonso Ferrabosco, the one Italian composer who migrated to England, held a prominent position at the court of Queen Elizabeth, and whose madrigals had been circulating in manuscript copies; secondly through anthologies of Italian madrigals in English translation, for example, Musica Transalpina in 1588 by Nicholas Younge, a collector of the latest Italian madrigals publications supplied by travelling merchants. The anthology contained mainly five-part pieces but also included a number of four-part and a few six-part works. The styles of pieces ranged from progressive to conservative and included madrigal and canzonet forms. Other publications and anthologies of Italian madrigals in the next decade gave rise to the English Madrigal School which flourished from the last decade of the sixteenth century and continued into the early years of the seventeenth century. These anthologies became a favourite source of poems for resetting by English composers. At the same time England had a strong tradition of secular song, which continued to flourish alongside the madrigal, and at times influenced its style. In selecting text to set to music the musicians of the time were able to draw upon a wealth of English literature. The greater part of the madrigal literature is of a light mood. Some composers wrote the lyrics themselves and by no means confined themselves to the treatment of pastoral subjects, nor to words of a light and cheerful nature. They set serious, ethical and religious subjects, expressed feelings of passionate emotion, and told of the light-hearted conceits of the nymphs and shepherds and of cruel Amaryllis and her rejected suitor. The favourite form of lyrics among the madrigal composers was that of six line stanzas. The purpose of setting words to music was to enhance their beauty and meaning and composers used a variety of methods to do this. This technique was known as word painting and could refer to single words or to phrases which were depicted most commonly through the nature of the melodic line, rhythm, metre, note values, pitch, texture, harmony or use of discord, chromaticism or false relation. The Elizabethans were inconsistent in applying titles to their published works and made use of a large number of terms besides the madrigal. These included ballett, canzonet and air(ayre).


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Madrigal Proper A madrigal proper was usually: • Composed for three to six unaccompanied solo voices each with an interesting melodic line to sing; • Through-composed with little or no repetition and new music provided for each stanza; • The texture was often one of imitative counterpoint, with all the voices being equally important and

only coming together to reinforce a well defined close in the structure of the text, otherwise the sections skilfully dovetailed into each other;

• The more elaborate madrigals were divided into two or three main sections punctuated by a few bars of homophonic texture;

• It was common practice to repeat the final section of a madrigal and to interchange voice parts of equal compass and range; and

• Words and music were closely matched with opportunities for word painting and vivid musical illustration of the text.

Ballett This was a lighter kind of madrigal, copied from the Italian balletto, originally danced as well as sung. Its essential features included: • Strophic - two or more verses set to the same music • Homophonic texture with the melody in the top part • Regular, simple dance-like rhythms • Fa-la-la refrain at the end of each section • Each section was repeated so the form of each verse was AABB • Light, simple style Canzonet This was a short vocal piece in a light vein which did not have as prescriptive a model as the ballett. However, features of the canzonet included: • Repetition of words and music at the beginning and end with a non-repeated section in the middle • The piece was built up of short phrases set to individual melodic ideas treated polyphonically, with

many text repeats • Some word painting The rise of the English madrigal is also associated with the first important period of music printing in London which began in 1588 under Byrd’s monopoly. After 1600 the madrigal was in decline, literary taste had turned against the sonnet sequence and elegant artificiality of the Italian verses and the madrigal gave way to the lute ayre, a more natural and native musical genre.


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William Byrd (1543 – 1623) Byrd initially experimented with the madrigal style and titled his secular compositions consort songs for voices and instruments. Examples of his works include: Lullaby, my sweet little baby Though Amaryllis dance Thomas Morley (1577 – 1602) Morley was a pupil of Byrd and published more madrigals, canzonets and balletts than any other composer of the time. He led the way in establishing the lighter variety of English secular vocal music and followed the meaning of the text carefully. He was the one composer of his generation most impressed with the Italian culture, transcribing Italian models and assimilating Italian stylistic features into his own writing. In 1601 he edited and published a collection of 29 madrigals by Elizabethan composers entitled The Triumphes of Oriana, modelled upon a similar Italian anthology. ‘Oriana’ was the poetic name used to describe Elizabeth I and each madrigal in the collection ends with the same refrain. Almost every one of the leading English musicians of the day contributed to the set and Morley allowed himself two pieces in the collection, one of which is a parody madrigal. Nearly all his publications date from the 1590’s and after 1601 Morley withdrew from writing madrigals. Morley resisted the more serious type of madrigal and it was left to the next generation of composers, in particular Thomas Weelkes and John Wilbye, to naturalise the more serious variety of Italian madrigal based on the style of Marenzio. The following features were more specifically associated with the serious madrigal and differentiated it from the lighter variety. • More chromaticism, often organised into a polyphonic pattern • More modulation • More standard word-painting conventions • More use of unusual intervals, for example, augmented fourths • More suspensions, augmented triads and false relations • Careful use of choral textures • Scored for more voices, five or six parts Examples of his works include: April is in my mistress face Fyer, Fyer! Hard by a crystal fountain My bonny lass she smileth Now is the month of maying Sing we and chant it


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Other possible works for study include: Thomas Weelkes (c.1575 – 1623) Hark! all ye lovely saints O care thou wilt despatch me/Hence care, thou art too cruel Strike it up tabor As Vesta was Sing we at pleasure Thule, the period of cosmography/The Andalusian merchant John Wilbye (1574 – 1638) Weep, weep mine eyes Draw on, sweet night Flora gave me fairest flowers Sweet honey-sucking bees Flora gave me fairest flowers George Kirbye (c.1565 – 1634) See what a maze of error John Farmer (1565 – 1605) Fair Phyllis I saw sitting Fair nymphs I heard one telling Orlando Gibbons (1583 – 1625) The silver swan Dainty fine bird John Bennet (dates unknown) All creatures now Weep O mine eyes Ayre The term ‘ayre’ was the creation of the lutenist composers who were contemporaries of the Tudor madrigalists. An ayre could be performed in a variety of ways: by a solo voice with lute accompaniment; solo voice with other instruments (such as viols) playing the other parts; all the parts sung by voices with or without instrumental accompaniment. This harmonised form for combined voices more resembles the modern partsong than the madrigal. The solo song with accompanied lute/viol accompaniment was taken up in England from as early as 1589 but its most flourishing period came after the turn of the century coinciding with the decline of the madrigal.


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Distinguishing features of the ayre included: • Homophonic texture; • Strophic in form; • Regular rhythmic outlines; • Little, if any, verbal repetition, which had been an essential feature of the madrigal; • Its poetry was notable for its sensitive text and declamation; • It lacked the pictorial element of the madrigal; and • Its mood was lyrical. The most famous composer of ayres was John Dowland whose ayres were published and republished from 1597 onwards. He was innovative in his chromatic treatment of his harmonies and the beauty of many of his songs is due to their simplicity and purity of melody. Examples of his ayres include: What if I never speed? Flow my teares


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Optional Area of Study 2: New Directions in

Twentieth Century Music


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New Directions in Twentieth Century Music Composers in the twentieth century made radical attempts to rethink the role of such aspects of musical material as pitch, rhythm, harmony and timbre. The new sounds of the ‘avant garde’, a term applied to particularly modernistic or experimental composers, were more easily recognisable for their individuality. At the same time they were less easily accepted to those who had always listened to music using traditional methods and forces. Throughout the Classical and Romantic periods, the instrumental combinations used in chamber music were most frequently of one family, eg the string quartet or wind serenade, or of one family plus the piano. The twentieth century was marked by a greater interest in timbre and exploring groups of instruments of diverse timbres. Pierre Boulez (1925 – ) Boulez is a French composer and conductor who awakened interest in the twelve-note technique. Before and during the Second World War the music of the second Viennese school (Schoenberg, Webern and Berg) had been banned from Nazi controlled countries and was hardly cultivated elsewhere in Europe. In the early 1950s he developed a compositional technique using total serialism, carefully controlling every facet of his compositions. Boulez’s interest in the structure of a work began to show itself in his most important early works, the First and Second Piano Sonatas (1946 and 1948) and the Polyphonie X (1951). Other possible works for study include: Second Piano Sonata - features include: • Extremely virtuosic piano writing • Serial organisation of the rhythm and dynamics in the work • Continually combines and develops many different rhythmic figures • Pulse is unrecognisable in places • Large number of dynamic markings and types of attack to be played by the performer Structures I (1952) • For two pianos • First attempt at total serialism and reveals the influence of Messiaen • Extreme organisation as each aspect of the work is strictly controlled according to serial principles -

the work is structured round 12 different pitches, 12 different durations, 12 different types of attack and 12 different dynamic markings


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Le Marteau sans Maître (1954) In this piece Boulez moves away from the extreme control of serialism to a less rigid presentation of his materials. • A chamber work scored for flute in G, viola, guitar, solo contralto, assorted percussion and

vibraphone and xylorimba (note there is no proper bass instrument) • The assorted untuned percussion is quite large and reveals the influence of Oriental, African and

Latin-American instruments • Timbre, with the rhythm is the most important element of the work and two special effects are

required by the flautist, flutter tonguing and hitting the key when articulating the note • The piece is divided into nine short movements • Uses text by the contemporary French poet, René Char • The three poems are sung by the solo contralto during movements 3, 5, 6 and 9 and the other

movements form commentaries on the vocal movements • The overall texture is light and delicate and varies between polyphony to monophony and

pointillism • The melody is atonal and angular there are passages of improvisatory melodic style and Sprechstimme • Difficulty in detecting a pulse due to the rhythmic complexity and 45 notated changes of metre and

nine tempi changes By the mid 1950s Boulez’s music began to reflect the influence of John Cage and his use of chance operations and indeterminate elements of composition. The introduction of elements of chance into the large-scale construction of a piece are illustrated in his five movement work - Third Piano Sonata. Features of the work include: • Each movement has a title which describes the most important characteristic of that movement, for

example, the first movement is called Antiphonie • the order of the five movements is variable except for the pivotal central movement Constellation

which can be used in its original form or retrograde form but not both together • Illustrated his use of ‘guided chance’ as Boulez has some control over the form of the movement

but does not dictate every detail • for example, in the second movement the performer can select his starting point from the beginning

of any of the four sections and then play the other three sections in one of two orders dictated by Boulez

• some passages can be played in a free tempo but within limits During the early decades of the twentieth century there was radical development in instrument making. What distinguishes the second half from the first half on the century is above all the development of technology and high quality recording and playback equipment. This allowed composers to use electronically produced or manipulated sounds and freed the composer from the all dependence on a performer. It also made available a whole new range of possible sounds not accessible by natural means and encouraged composers to explore new imaginative sounds out of ordinary objects and special effects from conventional instruments.


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Many composers began to explore incorporating space as another dimension or element of their music. Groups of instruments may be placed on different parts of the stage and careful attention was given to the use and placing of loudspeakers. After the Second World War three schools of electronic music emerged more or less simultaneously. These centred on Paris – musique concrète, America – ‘music for magnetic tape’ and Germany – ‘elektronische musik’. Each school had its own characteristic way of composing. Musique concrète was based on natural sounds which were subjected to repetition, combination and transformation by the use of electronic equipment. The first pieces were composed in 1948 at the Paris studio of the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Francaise and the noises chosen for the first piece were all connected with steam trains. The studio gradually gained more equipment and in 1952 Boulez composed two pieces of electronic music there – Éude I sur Un Son (Study I on One Sound) and the Étude II sur Sept Sons (Study II on Seven Sounds) both lasting three minutes. The school of electronic music that attracted the greatest interest was based in Cologne, Germany where musicians created sounds by synthesis using various pieces of electronic equipment. The composer belonging to this school who is most renowned for his electronic works is Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928 - 2007) who worked in Paris and became familiar with musique concrete. In 1953 he returned to Cologne where he composed his first works using electronically produced sounds. Techniques used in electronic music included filtering (echo, reverberation and creation of white noise.) Possible works for study include: 1952-3 Kontra-Punkte (Counterpoints) for ten instruments, a short pointillistic work and highly

serialised 1952-3 Klavierstücke I – IV (Piano Pieces I-IV) – highly serialised and very difficult to perform

because of their complicated rhythms and instruction ‘to be played as fast as possible’. 1953-4 Studien I and II – his first two electronic pieces to be composed from purely electronic

sounds. 1954-5 Klavierstücke V – X (Piano Pieces V – X )– in the sixth piece Stockhausen has chosen 13

different degrees of tempo. 1955-6 Gesang der Jünglinge (Song of the Youths)- Stockhausen combines electronically produced

sounds and sung sounds and sometimes the words of the sung sounds by a boy soprano are audible and sometimes not. The text is taken from Daniel, Chapter 3 and concerns the praise of God. An important feature of the work is that the direction from which the sounds come is an integral part of the work. Five groups of loudspeakers are placed around the audience and in this way the sound travels from one sound source to another.

1956 Klavierstücke XI (Piano Piece XI) - the sore is a large single page which contains 19

musical events or groups, some long and some short. The performer begins at random with any of the groups and then chooses for himself the tempo, dynamic level and type of attack. The form is not predetermined in all its details.


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1955-7 Gruppen for three orchestra which are placed to the let, front of and to the right of the listener totalling 109 players. All three groups contain a similar set of timbres and with three different conductors sometimes play at the same tempo and sometimes at different tempos. In the piece it is the groups of notes that are structurally important, hence the title.

1959 Zyklus (Cycle) for one percussion player. The score consists of sixteen pages of symbols

for the percussionist and the element of chance is that the performer can start at any page but must then follow them through in order.

. 1959-60 Kontakte (Contacts) was his first piece to bring together electronic sounds recorded on

tape with live instrumentalists, in this case the piano and percussion. Stockhausen was very concerned with the spatial aspect of his music – the points from which the sounds originate, and so the electronic sounds are played through loudspeakers placed at each corner of the hall. Sounds move quickly from speaker to speaker sometimes looping back and forth. The electronic sounds are created by a tone generator (the basic machine which produces electronic sounds), ring modulator (which combines two or more sounds and changes them to produce a completely different sound), a filter and a reverberator. Stockhausen set out in this piece to seek contact between

• pitched notes and noises • live performance and pre-recorded tape • instrumental sounds and electronic sounds • composer and the listener by way of the performers

The electronic sounds on the tape range from familiar to unfamiliar and at times it is difficult to distinguish between actual notes from the sounds on the tape.

1959 Refrain – for three players who each perform on more than one instrument. The piece is essentially quiet and gentle and is disturbed six times by a short refrain. Indeterminate elements are used, for example, the placing of the refrains is decided by the performers.

These works illustrate Stockhausen’s interest in timbre and adoption of electronic sounds while still using traditional instruments. He was conscious of the difficulty of listening to purely electronic sounds for long periods of time and for that reason he often introduces a human element which provides the listener with recognisable timbres. In the 1960s Stockhausen continued his interest in electronic sounds, the use of direction of sounds in space and indeterminate features and composed some stimulating and exciting works such as: 1966 Telemusik – electronic piece on five-channel tape and based on folk music from all over

the world.

1967 Hymnen (Anthems) a piece in which national anthems from all over the world are combined and transformed by electronic means and reproduced by using loudspeakers at the four corners of the hall and four-channel tape.

One development in electronic music closely associated with Stockhausen is live electronic music. Sound produced from conventional instruments and sometimes electronic equipment is transformed by using electronic equipment in the concert situation. This is illustrated in the piece:


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1964 Microphony I in which some of the performers make a gong vibrate by using various

beaters, others pass microphones to and fro over the surface of the gong to pick up the vibrations and other performers are playing filters.

One of Stockhausen’s most influential works composed during this period was: 1968 Stimmung for six vocalists who have to produce a new vocal intonation which allows

them to stress different harmonics in a quasi-oriental chant-like style. The voices are not projected traditionally and the text consists of many different vowel sounds and ‘magic names’, gods of the past and present. Some of Stockhausen’s own poems are also used and the singers all remain on one chord, a dominant ninth, throughout the piece which lasts for seventy minutes.

Minimalism can be traced back to the work of two Americans, La Monte Young and Terry Riley in the early 1960s. It was a reaction to the confusion and complication of some styles of music in the twentieth century and had features in common with gamelan and other oriental music. Common minimalist features included: • Constant repetition and interaction of very basic melodic motifs • The subtle addition or subtraction of a single note to a motif to constitute development and change • Static harmony, often modal or simple diatonic using one or two chords only • Reliance on ostinato patterns • Rhythmic changes as the motifs become longer • No modulation or changes of tempo Steve Reich (1936 – ) Reich moved to San Francisco and was influenced by his involvement in Terry Riley’s In C a simple one page score with 53 repeated patterns. Reich sought to bring a more organised and stricter approach to the idea of rhythmic repetition than Terry Riley. Possible works for study include: 1965 It’s Gonna Rain – is based on recordings of a black preacher in San Francisco’s Union

Square. Reich made two identical tape loops of the preacher intoning ‘It’s Gonna Rain’ and placed them on two different tape recorders. As both machines continually repeated the same phrase they gradually fell out of sync or ‘phase’ with one another. This process became known as ‘phase shifting’ and was Reich’s primary compositional technique.

1966 Come Out – back in New York, Reich was asked to create a speech based tape piece and

used text from a youth statement in a racial conviction. Similar to It’s Gonna Rain’ the two identical tape loops begin in unison and then slowly slip out of phase as they repeat.


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1967 Piano Phase – first attempt to see whether a live performer could do what had been achieved electronically. The sequence of gradual acceleration and repetition is performed twelve times until the two pianists have arrived back where they began. The twelve note melody only consists of six pitches, all equal semiquavers and there are no changes of pitch, rhythm or dynamics.

1968 Pendulum Music – an example of Reich’s experiments with electronics as this piece moves

away from phasing and allows four microphones to swing above four upturned speakers so that the feedback gradually slows down from a rapid pulsation to a long motionless drone.

1969 Four Organs – is not a phase piece but consists of the gradual augmentation of a single

chord with no changes to pitch, timbre, dynamics or harmony. The performers sit at four small electric organs and a fifth player shakes maracas and provides a pulse.

Reich had been interested in African music for a long time. He was fascinated by its complex rhythmic structure built up of polyrhythms and the organisation of the ensemble by the master drummer. The result of this interest was the piece:

1970 Drumming – the last of his works to use phasing extensively. Drumming is divided into

four large parts played without interruption. It marks the use of new techniques such as rhythmic construction and reduction, the introduction of the human voice as a member of the ensemble and a broadening of instrumental resources as Reich increases the number of and mixes different instrumental timbres. The first part of Drumming is scored for four pairs of bongos, the second part for three marimbas, the third for three glockenspiels and piccolo and the fourth for all the resources. The textless vocal parts are blended with the timbres they most resemble. However the piece is still minimalist in its static harmony and rhythm and never moves away from the tonality of F sharp or the twelve beat rhythmic pattern that begins the work. Drumming is innovative in its rich timbral blend and wealth of instrumental and vocal colour which has become more important than structural perceptibility.

Reich moved on to explore music from other parts of the world and in particular the music of the Balinese Gamelan. This is reflected in the work: 1973 Music for Mallet Instruments, Voices and Organ – scored for four marimbas, two

glockenspiels and metallophone combined with wordless vocals and an electric organ. This piece reinforces the stylistic changes of Reich’s music with its importance on sonority, less structural clarity, increase of timbral content and combination of rhythmic augmentation and rhythmic construction.


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1976 Music for 18 Musicians – is a landmark in terms of Reich rejecting minimal austerity. The work uses a group of instruments more varied than any used previously by Reich and expands his previously static harmonic language. Harmonically the work is constructed round a cycle of eleven chords stated a the beginning and end and then Reich uses one chord at a time as the basis for each of the individual eleven sections. Other features of the work include rhythmic construction, out of phase patterns, chordal augmentation, voices doubling and cueing in a gamelan–like manner by the metallophone.

In the late 1970s Reich received three important commissions including Music for Large Ensemble and Octet which were marked by a new emphasis on melody and composition of longer melodic lines. Reich’s style begins to see a return to the Western musical heritage and he acknowledges the influence of Bartók in his use of arch form, canons and modes. Reich also began to examine his own ethnic Jewish background and in biblical cantillation discovered a new kind of musical structure. He was interested in setting sacred text, in particular the Psalms and this resulted in the work: 1981 Tehillim – is unlike other works in that it is not composed of repeating patterns but

creates independent melodic lines which are repeated but as the subjects of canons and variations. Other differences to earlier works include the lack of a fixed metre, the use of pure vocal music, breaks between movements, a slower tempo for the third movement and the use of functional harmony and extended melody.

1984 Desert Music – is written for the largest ensemble Reich has used to date and the first

time he used text as a means of conveying musical meaning. The music uses settings of parts of poems by William Carlos Williams and is in a large five movement arch form ABCBA.

Other works return to a style reminiscent of the early tape pieces in the reintroduction of technology. 1988 Different Trains – is a work in three movements for live string quartet, taped

string quartet, taped sampled speech fragments and train sounds based upon his experiences as a child travelling between New York and Los Angeles.

1993 The Cave– is a work of a new kind of music video theatre/musical documentary which

combines speech fragments, music and video of recorded interviews, all based on different views of Moslems, Jews and Christians as to their claim on the Cave of the Patriarchs.

1995 City Life – another sampled piece in which Reich uses speech fragments and other

sounds such as car horns, car alarms, air brakes, all sounds recorded in New York City. Reich uses sampling keyboards playing live in the performance and the piece is cyclic in form.


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Optional Area of Study 3: Jazz in the USA, 1930 to 1960


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Jazz in the USA, 1930 to 1960 The Swing Era The swing style developed during the early 1930s, influenced by the work of band leaders and arrangers such as Fletcher Henderson and Don Redman. Important centres of the style were New York and Kansas City. Big Bands Big bands were key ensembles during this era. Band sizes varied considerably, ranging from a dozen players upwards. The basic band structure included: • Saxophone section (some players doubled on clarinet or flute); • Trumpet section; • Trombone section; • Rhythm section, including piano, rhythm guitar, string bass and drums; and • Sometimes one or more vocalists. Arrangements for big bands featured tutti and solo choruses, with new developments such as the shout chorus and the use of riffs to accompany solos or to serve a melodic function. The texture was light and the harmonies streamlined, resulting in speed, grace, and a buoyant, propulsive and infectious rhythm which was named swing. Big band style reached listeners across North America through records and the radio, and was performed by travelling bands. It became extremely popular, entertaining both listeners and dancers. The bands were also an important source of musical and business education for the musicians who played in them. Small Groups and Soloists During the 1930s and 1940s, smaller groups were also prevalent in jazz. Some of these operated like miniature big bands (such as the Raymond Scott Quintette), while others (such as the Kansas City Six) took a much looser approach, with considerable emphasis on improvisation. The small group setting, with much greater scope for solos than the big band context, was especially valuable in offering opportunities for musicians to develop their technical skills and creative abilities. Musicians associated with the swing style include the following: Benny Goodman (1909 – 1986) • Clarinet player from Chicago (classical training, with jazz experience from an early age) • Virtuoso performer • Skilled improviser in both ‘hot’ and ‘sweet’ styles • Disciplined and effective bandleader (his most successful band was formed in 1934) • Employed musicians from both black and white traditions, resulting in a musical combination of

hard-driving, solo-orientated swing with the more deliberate and refined style of the white society bands, as well as an appeal for both black and white audiences

• An important classical soloist, recording and commissioning many works • Suggested tracks: Let’s Dance (1934), I Got Rhythm (1938)


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Billie Holiday (1915? – 1959) • Singer based in New York; successful from 1933 onwards • Performed with musicians such as Benny Goodman, Lester Young, Count Basie and Artie Shaw • An influential recording artist, acquiring wide popular following • Light, poignant vocal quality • Phrased her performances in the manner of an instrumental soloist • Influenced by Louis Armstrong in her singing style and approach to rhythm • Suggested tracks: He’s Funny That Way (1937), Strange Fruit (1939). Count Basie (1904 – 1984) • Piano player (strongly influenced by Fats Waller’s stride style) and band leader, based in Kansas City • Influential, blues-orientated, economic piano style based on brief right-hand figures, intensifying the

rhythm and creating a contagious swing • His band of 1936 – 1942 contained a particularly influential rhythm section; they introduced a

constant pulse played on the hi-hat cymbal rather than the bass drum, with the bass playing a walking bass, freeing the pianist’s left hand

• His reed and brass sections were characterised by explosive accents and muscular phrasing • Band arrangements notable for their use of riffs • Employed many outstanding players, including soloists such as Lester Young • Suggested tracks: Lester Leaps In (1939), Taxi War Dance (1939) Duke Ellington (1899 – 1974) • Piano player (influenced by ragtime and stride), composer/arranger and band leader • Built up his band in New York from 1923 onwards • Arrangements built around the skills of specific players • Used muted brass and thick, polyphonic texture, with high levels of dissonance • Band produced driving swing beat, influenced by blues • ‘Jungle style’ was an important innovation; other styles included ‘mood’, ‘concerto’ and ‘standard’ • Enormously important as a composer; produced over 200 works; made use of complex forms • Suggested tracks: Mood Indigo (1930), In a Mellotone (1940); Ko-Ko (1940).


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1940s Revival of New Orleans-Style Jazz During the 1940s there was a brief resurgence of interest across the USA in pre-swing jazz styles. Musicians associated with this movement included Bunk Johnson, the New Orleans cornettist. Recordings feature the polyphonic textures and collective improvisation of the original New Orleans style, along with the more contemporary rhythmic flow of the swing style. Some critics and members of the public welcomed this style as more ‘authentic’ and less ‘commercial’ than that of the big bands. 1940s Modern Jazz (bop/bebop) The modern jazz movement, centred in New York, represented a contrasting reaction to the popular swing style. It was instigated by young musicians searching for greater opportunities for creativity, exploration and improvisation than swing offered. The new jazz style was sometimes known as bop or bebop. Bop was characterised by an increased degree of complexity in all aspects of the music. It was associated with an intellectual approach to jazz and an appreciation of its theory. Common features included: • An emphasis on solos, with minimal arrangement; • Use of 32-bar AABA popular song form; • Frequent use of unison scoring for first and last choruses; • Improvised melodies based on the higher notes of complex chords (sometimes called melodic

extensions), creating a more dissonant effect; • Chromatic alteration of melody notes (e.g. sharpened 9th, flattened 13th) alongside diatonic

harmony; flattened 5th became a standard blue note; • Melodies which were generally more angular and less tuneful; • More complex harmonies, including polychords; these were sometimes substituted for simpler

chords of standard tunes; • Faster tempos; • Uneven phrasing; • More complicated, polyrhythmic drumming styles; explosive accents (‘bombs’); and • The creation of new pieces by improvising entirely new melodies over the chords of standard tunes. The roles of the members of the rhythm section underwent particularly radical change. The drummer generally maintained a quaver beat on the hi-hat, with bass and snare drum accents. The pianist focused on chordal punctuations designed to highlight the chord changes (in the style of Count Basie). The guitar was now likely to be amplified and to take a melodic role. The bass had most responsibility for keeping a steady beat, although bass lines were also becoming more interesting. Some bands also added players and/or rhythms from Latin musical styles, creating additional cross-rhythms. Bop was primarily a small group style, but some big bands were influenced by its sound.


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Musicians associated with the bop style include the following: Dizzy Gillespie (1917 – 1993) • Trumpeter (influenced by Roy Eldridge) and composer, based mainly in New York • Worked with many influential jazz musicians of his day, including Parker and Monk • Dramatic performing style filled with contrasts of melodic complexity, pitch and dynamics • Imaginative improviser; virtuosic player • Wrote many significant compositions • Fine scat singer in the bop style • Suggested tracks: KoKo (1945), Shaw ’Nuff (1945) Thelonious Monk (1917 – 1982) • Pianist and composer, based in New York • Piano style based on Harlem stride • Playing characterised by carefulness and quirkiness; included distinctive timbre, rhythmic

unpredictability, varied articulation • Noted particularly for his ability to perform highly coherent and structured solos and

accompaniments, with invention and development of new ideas • Composed important works in many styles • Reworked standard tunes • Suggested tracks: Criss Cross (1951), Bags’ Groove (1954) Charlie Parker (1920 – 1955) • Saxophonist, based in Kansas City and New York • Extremely influential and creative improviser; as influential in the development of jazz as Louis

Armstrong • Solos usually based on original harmonies, often in extended versions of chords, with much subtle

development of ideas • Work features great rhythmic variety • Used cento method of improvisation, drawing from a body of formulae, arranged into constantly

changing patterns • Based much of his repertoire on a small number of harmonic models • Suggested tracks: Koko (1945), Parker’s Mood (1948) 1950s Jazz Although swing had continued to be a popular style, enthusiasm for it waned after World War II. Rhythm and blues and early rock and roll were preferred by many people for dancing and listening. Most big bands reduced their numbers or broke up. Small groups remained viable, and many took the opportunity to try out new approaches. This was a time of synthesis and consolidation. Some attempted to integrate composition and improvisation. Some blended jazz with black American styles such as blues, gospel and rhythm and blues. Techniques from swing and bop jazz styles were also mixed together. A perception began to arise that the various jazz styles co-existed within a shared heritage of jazz tradition. Against this background, some new styles and approaches began to develop.


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Cool Jazz Cool jazz was popular during the first half of the 1950s and is epitomised by Miles Davis’s 1957 album (a collection of tracks recorded in 1949 and 1950), Birth of the Cool. Specific musical features of these tracks include: • Harmonic style and melodic gestures drawn from bop; • Precise ensemble playing derived from big-band swing; • Solo improvisation integrated with ensemble passages, rather than accompanied only by the rhythm

section or ensemble riffs. The qualities of these tracks were reflected in the music of some other contemporary musicians, including the Modern Jazz Quartet and the Dave Brubeck quartet. These qualities can be broadly characterised as relaxed pacing, understated expression and softer-edged tone. The Modern Jazz Quartet also introduced different formal models, including new solo structures and extended works made up of shorter movements. ‘Cool’ characteristics in jazz included: • Approaches to phrasing which blurred square-cut structural outlines; • Longer works and longer improvisations; • Chamber-type groups of three to eight players; • New instruments used such as the flugelhorn; • Subtle instrumental sonorities: delicate attack, lack of vibrato and a focus on the mid-register; • Use of new meters, such as 3/4 and 5/4. Suggested tracks: Lester Young and Count Basie: Lester Leaps In (1939); Miles Davis: Boplicity (1949) Hard Bop ‘Hard bop’ (or ‘funky hard bop regression’) was a label applied by critics to a range of music from the mid 50s on which developed some elements of bop style and integrated these with other influences, including a degree of simplification deriving from cool jazz. Artists such as Horace Silver, Art Blakey and his Jazz Messengers, and Miles Davis’s mid-1950s quintet produced music in this style. Musical features of hard bop include: • Slower tempos; • A stronger, more regular rhythmic groove created by the drums; • Simpler melodies; • Stronger blues influences; • Gospel influences on rhythm and harmony, such as the use of the ‘amen’ chord progression I-IV-I. Suggested track: Horace Silver Quartet (with Art Blakey): Stop Time (1954) Progressive Jazz During the later 1950s, some jazz musicians began to explore new modes of expression. Innovators included Gunther Schuller, whose Third Stream repertoire was influenced by contemporary European art music. It used an advanced harmonic vocabulary and integrated composed and improvised material in new ways. Charles Mingus, a bass player, pursued musical paths which are difficult to categorise. His influences included Ellington and Parker, European classical composers, gospel and blues. He sometimes presented performances in which the music grew from a group workshop situation.


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John Coltrane developed unconventional, complex harmonic techniques and explored modal melodies. Thelonious Monk’s music used particularly high levels of dissonance. Ornette Coleman was perhaps the most adventurous musician of the late 50s, producing work in which form, harmonic structure and instrumental roles were increasingly unpredictable and exploratory. Suggested tracks: Charles Mingus Quintet: Haitian Fight Song (1957); John Coltrane: My Favorite Things (1960); Ornette Coleman: Free Jazz (1960) Musicians whose careers included one or more of these trends include: Miles Davis (1926 – 1991) • Trumpeter, flugelhorn player and band leader • Somewhat limited technique • Created relaxed, tuneful, mid-register melodies • Improvisations draw on small collection of melodic formulae • Harmonically conservative • Subtle sense of rhythm • Nonet sessions (1949 – 50) inspired the cool jazz movement; used bop style during the early and

mid 50s; took a modal approach in the late 50s; career continued until the early1990s, encompassing jazz-rock and fusion

• Suggested tracks: Boplicity (1949), So What (1959) John Coltrane (1926 – 1967) • Saxophonist, band leader and composer • Highly virtuosic and influential as a performer • Most successful in medium-tempo tunes and ballads • Explored complex harmonies • Improvisation techniques included very fast flurries of sound and, from the late 1950s onwards,

motivic development; tended to reuse melodic formulae • Pursued new sonorities, using alternative fingerings and taking up the soprano saxophone • Suggested tracks: My Favorite Things (1960), A Love Supreme, Part 1 – Acknowledgement (1964) Ornette Coleman (1930 – ) • Saxophonist (initially influenced by Charlie Parker) and composer • Improvisation style highly mobile in tonality, rhythmic continuity and form • Modal influences • Raw, vocal tone quality with constant inflections • Encouraged collective improvisation • Style has remained fairly consistent since the early 1960s • Suggested tracks: Lonely Woman (1959), Free Jazz (1960), Faces and

Places (1965)


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Acknowledgements and suggested reading Megill, D. D. and Demory, R. S. (1996), Introduction to Jazz History. Fourth edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. A clearly written textbook with helpful analytical listening guides. Suitable for pupils and teachers alike. Gridley, M, C, (2003), Jazz Styles: History and Analysis. Eighth edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Includes particularly helpful analytical listening guides and some interesting tables. For the teacher and for pupils who would like to pursue the topic in greater depth. Kernfeld, B, (Ed.) (2002), The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. London: Macmillan. Articles on all the jazz styles and musicians specified. Authoritative information for the teacher, with useful musical examples. Schuller, G, (1989), The Swing Era. New York: Oxford University Press. For the teacher – a detailed academic account of music of this era. Tanner, P, O. W., Megill, D. W. & Gerow. M. (2005), Jazz. Tenth edition. Boston: McGraw Hill A superb resource for pupils and teachers. A very readable textbook with accompanying recordings and CD Rom. Includes brief, clear analyses of many of the tracks suggested here.

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