A2 Product DesignUnit 3 Designing for the Future

Revision Notes

A2 Unit 3: Designing for the FutureTwo Hour Paper Wednesday 13/06/12

In this unit you will develop your knowledge and understanding of a range of modern design and manufacturing practices and contemporary design issues. You must have a good working knowledge of the use of ICT and systems and control technology in the design and manufacture of products. You must also be aware of the important contributions of designers from the past which may provide inspiration for future design.

It is increasingly important that you develop an awareness of the impact of design and technological activities upon the environment because sustainable product design is a key feature of modern design practices.

Unit 3 Designing for the Future

3.1 Industrial and commercial practice•Information and communication technology•Biotechnology(see questions handout and refer to notes from start of year)

3.2 Systems and control•Manufacturing systems•Computer-integrated manufacture•Robotics and artificial intelligence•Flow charts

3.3 Design in context•The effects of technological changes on society•Influences of design history on the developments of products•Form and function•Anthropometrics and ergonomics

•3.4 sustainability•Life-cycle assessment•Cleaner design and technology•Minimising waste production•Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy•Responsibilities of developed countries

3.1 Industrial and commercial practice

Information and communication technology (ICT) • Characteristics, processes, application, advantages/disadvantages of

ICT in the development, manufacture and sales of products in the global marketplace:

Electronic communications-• Email• Electronic data interchange (EDI)• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and broadband• Local Area Networks (LAN)• Global networks 9internet)• Videoconferencing

Electronic information handling-• Market analysis• Specification development

Automated stock control• ‘just in time’ (JIT)

Production scheduling and production logistics

Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS)• Quick response manufacturing (QRM)

Production control

Marketing, distribution and retailing of products using:• Electronic point of sale (EPOS)• Internet marketing

Electronic communications

E-mail:E-mail is the simplest form of electronic communications and has a

comparatively low level of reach and range when it is used for messaging or transferring documents. However, it has proved invaluable in rapid communication between designers, manufactures, retailers and consumers due to its ease of use and widespread access through internet connections. For these reasons it has all but replaced the postal system. (resulting in reduction of postal workers; the use of E-books has had a similar affect upon the publishing industry, it seems ironic but Easons book stores now sell Kindles). There are issues of security and privacy when using e-mail and limitations on the size of attachments, which often restrict its use, but to the majority of people it is now their preferred way of communicating. Is it still? What about texting?

Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of e-mail page 81

Electronic Data interchange (EDI)This form of communication allows companies to do ‘paperless’

business using a process that transfers business documents through a computer network, rather than via the postal system. EDI can be formally defined as the transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, from one computer system to another without human intervention. Many modern companies use EDI as a fast, inexpensive and secure system of sending purchase orders, invoices, design and manufacturing data, etc. Some manufacturers use EDI to transmit large, complex CAD drawings and multinational companies use EDI to communicate between locations worldwide. EDI can also be used to transmit financial information and payment in electronic form. However, the transfer of files requires that the sender and receiver agree upon a standard document format for the document that is to be transmitted. To send a document, EDI translation software is used to convert the document format into the agreed standard.

Table 3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of EDI for business. page 82

Integrated Services Digital Networks and broadband

The development of ISDNs and broadband technology, means that huge amounts of information can be transferred across computer networks at far greater speeds than ever before. The purpose of ISDN is to provide fully integrated digital services to users comprising digital telephony and data-transport services through existing telephone networks.

ISDN is a set of communications standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. The emergence of ISDN represented an effort to combine subscribed services such as Internet service provision and telecommunications into one package.

Local Area NetworksA local area network (LAN) is a computer network that

interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. In an office for example, workers can log onto a computer and undertake work and then communicate that work to any other workstation on that particular LAN. Not only can workers share information on the LAN but they can also share devices such as scanners or printers.

Table 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of LANs. page 83

Global networks (Internet)

What is Internet?The Internet is an arrangement of connected computers, which lets computer users all over the globe exchange data. At the present time, approximately 33% of the world population has accessibility to the Internet. The Internet is an extraordinary entertainment and learning tool that may be utilized in a number of modes to increase the ability of a user to collect information. The principal components of the Internet are the World Wide Web (WWW) and e-mail. With the passage of time, the Internet has become the most effective business tool in the contemporary world. Where LAN systems are limited to a particular company or location, the Internet has opened up worldwide possibilities. It can be described as a global meeting place where people from every corner of the world can come simultaneously.

It allows information and data to be passed around instantly, opening up the possibilities of things like design being undertaken in Europe and manufacturing in Asia. However LAN systems can be almost totally secure (firewalls) but with the Internet security is weaker and there is always a danger that hackers could get into what appear to be secure installations and gain confidential information.

Table 3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of global networks.

page 83

Exam paper June 2011 1. Electronic communication is an essential element of modern

business practice.

(a) Give three advantages to a business of using email compared with telephone

communication systems. (3)

(b) Describe four benefits to a business of using the internet as a marketing tool.

(4)

(Total for Question 1 = 7 marks)

Answer Mark1(a) Any three of the following :-• Easier to contact groups of people. (1)• Message content is stored for reference purposes. (1)• Attachments can be easily sent. (1)• Person does not have to be available to immediately

answerthe phone. (1)• Emails give you more thinking time. (1)• Less expensive. (1)• Easier to filter / prioritise messages. (1)• More secure / private than audible phone calls. (1)(3 x 1)(3)

1(b) Any four of the following :-• Cheap method of advertising / facilitating sales (1)• Focussed marketing / can be targeted at specific consumers.(1)• Has a global reach expanding customer base. (1)• Provides a direct link to customers for sales / follow-up. (1)• Wide range of information made available (Multimedia,interactive presentations, detailed information, customerreviews). (1)• Faster processing of transactions resulting in increasedefficiency. (1)• Allows customers to customise product. (1)• Business can directly monitor sales and respond to trendsquickly.(1)• Advertisements generated /edited /distributed quickly andeasily. (1)• Websites available 24/7 encourage sales.(1)Do not accept just ‘Efficient’.(4 x 1)(4)Total for question7

Videoconferencing

With the introduction of relatively low cost, high capacity broadband telecommunication services in the late 1990s, coupled with powerful computing processors and video compression techniques, videoconferencing usage has made significant inroads in business, education, medicine and media. Like all long distance communications technologies (such as phone and Internet), by reducing the need to travel to bring people together the technology also contributes to reductions in carbon emissions, thereby helping to reduce global warming.

Videoconferencing uses audio and video telecommunications to bring people at different sites together. This can be as simple as a conversation between people in private offices (point-to-point) or involve several (multipoint) sites in large rooms at multiple locations. Besides the audio and visual transmission of meeting activities, allied videoconferencing technologies can be used to share documents and display information on whiteboards.

There are two types of videoconferencing systems:• Dedicated systems have all the required components

packaged into a single console, including a high-quality remote-controlled video camera.

• Desktop systems are add-ons to normal personal computers such as webcams and microphones, transforming them into videoconferencing devices.

Multipoint videoconferencing allows for simultaneous videoconferencing among three or more remote points using a multipoint control unit (MCU) as a bridge that interconnects calls from several sources. This enables three or more people to sit in a ‘virtual’ conference room. Table 3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of videoconferencing.

page 84

Electronic information handling

Market analysis (consider the market analysis for your product)

Market analysis is an investigation of a market that is used by a company when planning future activities. It can be used to look at the available market for a product or it may be used to predict expansion or contraction the workforce. It can influence issues ranging from how a product is advertised through estimates on capital outlay. The raw can be collected in a number of ways e.g. Questionnaires, e-mails etc. Once the data has been collected , special software processes it. Once the data has been processed it can be sorted so that companies can interpret the results. On the basis of the results, decisions are taken about the nature of the marketing plan and about how best to satisfy the needs of the intended customers. Market analysis is essential in order to ensure that new products attain a competitive edge over competitors.

6 (a) Explain the benefits to a business of using electronic methods of market analysis.

(6)

Exam paper June 2010

6(a) Any three of the following points with a valid linked explanation:-

• Fast data transmission/ collection (1) so business is working

with up to date data / reduces lead time / enables QRM . (1)

• Data collected is accurate (1) providing the basis for good

decision making / allowing accurate prediction of future trends

/increasing competitiveness (1)

• Costs of information gathering are reduced (1) as fewer

personnel are needed / less postage costs. (1)

• More detailed information can be collected (1) allowing

businesses to better match products to market needs. (1)

• Allows large volume of data to be quickly analysed or

interrogated in different ways (quantative, qualative, trend)

(1) identifying patterns upon which immediate action can be

taken. (1)

• Efficient storage of data (1)so minimal space needed / makes

archiving and retrieval easier (1)

(3 x 2)

NB. The points above may lead to explanations given for the other

points. If it is a valid link then award the mark, but be aware of

repetition.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data • Some methods provide data which are quantitative and

some methods data which are qualitative. Quantitative methods are those which focus on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning and experience. Quantitative methods (e.g. experiments, questionnaires and psychometric tests) provide information which is easy to analyse statistically and fairly reliable. Quantitative methods are associated with the scientific and experimental approach and are criticised for not providing an in depth description.

• Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. What qualitative methods (e.g. case studies and interviews) lose on reliability they gain in terms of validity. They provide a more in depth and rich description.

Specification development

When developing a specification for a new product, a whole range of factors need to be taken into account.

Issues such as:• Form• Function• User requirements• Performance requirements• Materials• Processes• Scale of production• Cost

These are all factors which you are familiar with from your own practical project. In an industrial situation, the issues involved will be much more complex and therefore computer programs are used to help produce product specifications.

The process of specification development involves defining all the parameters which relate to the product. Using information such as:

• Anthropometric data• Material limitation• Market research data

A computer can establish factors such as components required for a particular product, materials, measurements and even building and construction data. The advantage of such a system is that the process is swift, thus reducing lead time for a product. It also means that, as information is held on a computer, all those who have need of the most up-to-date specification can gain easy access.

There are two situations where specifications are used in the design process:

• Design specification

• Manufacturing specification

Both of which can be generated with the aid of computers.

Table 3.6 Types of specifications that can be generated using computer technology

Automated stock control

‘Just in time’

‘Just in time’ (JIT) manufacturing is a system used by companies to reduce costs. Just In Time is a phrase that originated at Toyota. Originally, it described how material should be processed and moved in order to arrive "Just In Time" for the next operation.

Lean Manufacturing means "manufacturing without waste."

By only producing items when they are actually needed the quality and efficiency of the manufacturing are improved. It can also lead to higher returns for the company itself.

The idea is that a re-order level is set within stock control and new stock is only ordered when that level is reached. There is therefore no overordering which saves space and again increases efficiency. An example of JIT can be seen in the manufacture of cars. Manufacturers only buy in materials for the immediate use of the manufacturing process. As a consequence the process of manufacturing is smooth, with just the right amount of materials being delivered to the factory at the correct time. The turnover is rapid and the amount of money tied up in raw materials and components is reduced. The main downside to this however is that if the supply is interrupted (as happened in Japan after the tsunami) the factory will face downtime as there are no materials/components stockpiled.

Exam paper June 2011

Question: 4(b) Explain three reasons why the operation of a just in time (JIT) system leads to ‘lean manufacturing.’

(6)

4(b) Any three of the following with a relevant explanation :-• No wasted storage (1) as materials / products are delivered /dispatched just when needed. (1)• No wasted time (1) as production delays are eliminated. (1)• No wasted energy (1) movement of materials is minimized.(1)• No wasted materials / components / products (1) as onlyamount needed are ordered /products are made to order. (1)• Minimized faulty products (1) as rigorous quality assurancesystems are established. (1)• No wasted labour (1) as work tasks are carefully planned/systems automated where possible / so minimizing labourcosts.(1)• No wasted equipment (1) as machinery used efficiently / doesnot stand idle. (1)(2 x 3)(6)

Production scheduling and production logistics

When undertaking the manufacture of any product it is important that all the resources and the sequencing of tasks are allocated in the correct way to ensure efficient production. This process can be very complex.

Computer-based production scheduling and production logistics (the planning, implementation, and coordination of the details of a business or other operation ) help make the production process smooth. The idea is that if there are small issues or hiccups in the process the computer can iron them out. By producing a production schedule a company can determine whether or not a delivery promise can be met. It gives the workers undertaking the manufacturing process itself a statement of what should be done so that their productivity might be measured, therefore maximising the potential of the workforce.

The advantages of computer-based scheduling and production:

• Flexible and easily adaptable if product mix or quantity changes

• Minimise work in progress and reduce inventory

• Maintain balance on production line

• Raise productivity levels

Flexible manufacturing systems

Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) are manufacturing systems that have been set up to allow a company some degree of flexibility to enable it to react to, and instigate, changes fairly rapidly to the manufacturing process. These changes might be either predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility falls into two main categories:

Machine flexibility:• System’s ability to change to produce new product types• Ability to change order of operationsRouting flexibility:• Ability to use multiple machines• Ability to absorb changes such as capacity and capabilitySuch flexible manufacturing systems are usually linked with

CAM systems which are in turn linked to material handling and ASRS systems.

The main advantages of FMS are:

• Better productivity

• Quicker machinery set-up times

• Lower labour costs

• Reduced down time on machinery

As a result, production and productivity are increased.

Quick response manufacturing (QRM)

The main aim of quick response manufacturing (QRM) is essentially to reduce the lead time in all aspects of the manufacturing process. From outside a company, QRM is seen by the client as responding rapidly in the designing and making of products that are customised to their needs. From the company’s point of view, QRM is geared to the improvement of the quality of the final product and to the reduction in costs.

Production controlAll the activities involved in manufacturing; handling materials,

parts, assemblies, and subassemblies, from their raw or initial stage to the finished product stage have to be carefully controlled in an organized and efficient manner. It may also include activities such as planning, scheduling, routing, dispatching, storage, etc. This means that at various stages during manufacture the quality of the work is checked. If problems are found, relevant procedures need to be activated. In modern industrial situations production control is undertaken using computer technology. Depending on the sophistication of the software there are a number of ways in which production can be monitored and controlled. All involve monitoring and testing at various stages during production.

One method of quality control (QC) uses coordinate measuring . In this case, a sensor connected to a computer comes in physical contact with the object under scrutiny. The probe is able to check various parts of the component. If the original coordinates of the probe are known, then as the probe is moved around the work, the dimensions can be checked for accuracy. One method of checking for accuracy is to have an optical based system. The advantage of such a system is that there is no direct contact with the work-large objects can be checked and the response time is only limited by the electronics in the system.

Coordinate Measuring Machine.mp4

The problem with visual inspection of products is that an element of human error can creep in. ‘Intelligent cameras’ can be programmed to view selected elements of the component and flag up any issues electronically. The advantage of this system is that instead of sampling, the camera can check all components passing in front of it.

Advantages of computer-aided inspection methods:

• Measurable quality throughout the entire process.• Inspection time can be speeded up.• Any issues can be instantly identified and rectified

early.• Large 3D objects can be tested.• Can be made to adhere to up-to-date and relevant

standards.• Information can be transferred digitally instantly.

Marketing, distribution and retail

Electronic point of saleInformation lies at the centre of any business and, if used

properly, it ensures the business stays one step ahead of its competitors. By using electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems, a business is able to supply and deliver its products and services faster by reducing the time between placing the order and delivery of a product (lead time). Each product is identified using its unique barcode. When passed over a barcode reader, or scanner, the barcode is read by a laser beam. The laser scans the barcode and reflects back onto a photoelectric cell. The bars are detected because they reflect less light than the background on which they are printed.

Each product has its unique 13-digit number:• First two numbers indicate where the product was made• The next five numbers are the brand owner’s number• The next five numbers are given by the manufacturer to

identify the type of product• The final digit is the check digit, which confirms that the

whole number has been scanned correctly

It is important to note that information regarding the price of the product is not contained on the barcode (why?). Instead, the scanner (for example at a supermarket checkout) transmits the product code number to an in-store computer that relays the product’s description and price back to the checkout, where it is displayed electronically and printed on the till receipt. The in-store computer then deducts the item purchased from the stock list so that it can be re-ordered when stock is low (JIT).

http://teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=172944&title=IDAutomation_USB_Barcode_Scanner_Tutorial

Data matrices, also known as 2D barcodes, are visual codes that can be read and decoded by machine vision systems. The increasing use of data matrix codes arises from the manufacturer’s requirements for tracking their products or components. The intention is that batch or serial numbers can be permanently marked onto components, which is useful for tracking defective batches and identifying counterfeit parts. 2D barcodes contain more information because they use not only the width of lines but also the height of them.

Electronic point of sale (EPOS) and associated management software provide manufacturers with:

The electronic point of sale (EPOS) system

Internet marketing and salesThe internet has revolutionised the marketing and sales of

products and services. Through the global networking of computers, the internet provides an effective means of accessing a wealth of information and entertainment. The dramatic rise in e-commerce has led to the formation of virtual communities, which businesses are eager to explore.

The possibilities for innovative marketing techniques are endless due to the simple identification of target market groups by user preferences. Marketing can be ‘tailor made’ to suit these markets, so a marketing message can be sent directly to potential customers as opposed to ‘blanket’ advertising in traditional media.

Advantages and disadvantages of Internet sales and marketing

Biotechnology

Genetic engineering in relation to wood production

In recent years,

LaminationLamination is where material has been produced by gluing together thin

sheets, or veneers, to make up that material. The most common form of laminate material is plywood. Plywood is made up of a number of thin layers of wood that are called veneers. There are always an odd number of veneers and they are always arranged so that the grain on each layer is positioned at 90 to the layer above and below. This is ⁰the strongest arrangement and plywood is very stable and very strong. The layers are bonded together with strong glues, usually epoxy –resins.

There are a vast number of applications for plywood:• Interior uses- cupboards and furniture.• Exterior uses- boat building and shuttering.

Other wood laminates include:• Laminboard• Blockboard

Lamination can also be used to give a protective surface to sheet material. For example a kitchen worktop made from MDF or particle board is kept easily cleaned by gluing (with a contact adhesive) a laminate material such as Formica®.

Lamination can also be used for shaping material. This is where sheets or strips of veneer, are glued together and clamped in a former. When the glue dries and the work is removed from the former the work retains the shape of the former. This process is used in the production of products such as chairs where sweeping curves might be required. The advantage of this type of production is that it is much less time consuming than trying to bend a solid piece of wood into the desired shape. It also means that the former can be used as a jig for batch production.

Advantages and Disadvantagesof using lamination:

Manufacturing systems

This is a period of rapid technological development with more products than ever being offered to the public especially in electronics. These products change in complexity and style very quickly, think of the new models of products like mobile phones, televisions, computers and gaming consoles that you have experienced in the last ten years. Companies involved in producing these products use the latest complex automated manufacturing systems. You must have an understanding of these systems and the effect they have on employment now and in the future.

Advanced manufacturing technology

(AMT)AMT describes the massive impact computers have

had on manufacturing. Computer –integrated technology (CIM) is the term used to describe the incorporation of computer technology into all aspects of manufacturing e. g. CAD for design and modelling to CAM for production involving robotics, materials-handling devices and automated machinery.

ICT has also led to manufacturing management becoming more integrated into all aspects of production from design, production and distribution.

Quick response manufacturing (QRM) has enabled companies to be more efficient and respond more quickly to changes in consumer demand. QRM incorporates total quality management (TQM) and just in time (JIT) systems to enable companies to :

• Reduce costs and waste• Increase sales by responding quicker to customer demand• Increase turnover (units sold)• Improve quality by placing responsibility on specific

production teams or cells.Some disadvantages of QRM are:• Disruption to supply can lead to not meeting targets e.g.

Japanese companies suffered badly after the tsunami as new stock could not be delivered leading to increased downtime.

• Inability to meet increase and change in customer demands.• Problems within companies as regard to who is responsible

for what?• A change in company philosophy and roles may be required

leading to personnel problems.

Concurrent manufacturingConcurrent engineering is a work methodology based

on the parallelization of tasks (i.e. performing tasks concurrently). It refers to an approach used in product development in which functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering and other functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product to the market. A concurrent manufacturing system brings together a wide range of teams such as manufacturing (making), project management (planning), technical support and marketing to form multi-disciplinary teams to make the design and manufacture process quicker. ‘Time is money’ therefore the quicker you get a product to market the less costs you experience. The information flow between these groups has been facilitated by the use of ICT systems.

Quality function deploymentQFD

This is a strategy developed by companies to keep ‘in touch’ with customer requirements in order to create a more successful product. It is a quality assurance method that factors in customer satisfaction whilst developing design ideas. The main feature of QFD is its focus on customer requirements and its use of multi-disciplinary teams that use a ‘House of Quality’ matrix.

House of Quality Matrix

House of Quality is a diagram, resembling a house, used for defining the relationship between customer desires and the firm/product capabilities. It is a part of the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and it utilizes a planning matrix to relate what the customer wants to how a firm (that produces the products) is going to meet those wants.

House of Quality matrix

Some of the advantages of using QFD/’House of Quality’ matrix as part of concurrent manufacturing

are:• Reduced time to market

• Reduction in design modifications

• Decreased design and manufacturing costs

• Improved product quality

• Enhanced customer satisfaction

Flexible manufacturing systems(FMS)

• A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react in the case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous subcategories.

• The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. The second category is called routing flexibility, which consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or capability.

• Most FMS consist of three main systems. The work machines which are often automated CNC machines are connected by a material handling system to optimize parts flow and the central control computer which controls material movements and machine flow.

• The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. Increase productivity, lower labour costs due to automation and shorter lead times.

Lead TimeThe amount of time that elapses between when a

process starts and when it is completed. Lead time is examined closely in manufacturing, supply chain management and project management, as companies want to reduce the amount of time it takes to deliver products to the market.For example, the lead time between the placement of an order and delivery of a new car from a manufacturer may be anywhere from 2 weeks to 6 months. In industry, lead time reduction is an important part of lean manufacturing.

Product data management systems(PDM)

The main drawback of advanced manufacturing technology (ATM) and computer-integrated manufacturing systems is their dependence upon computer data to integrate fully all operations. The cost of managing data is a key issue within CIM. This is because if data becomes corrupted it may cause machinery to malfunction. In order to prevent these problems companies often use a product data management system. PDM is an information system used to manage data for a product as it passes from design to manufacture. The data includes plans, 3D models, CAD drawings, CNC programs as well as all related project data and documents.

Product data management (PDM) is the use of software or other tools to track and control data related to a particular product. The data tracked usually involves the technical specifications of the product, specifications for manufacture and development, and the types of materials that will be required to produce goods. The use of product data management allows a company to track the various costs associated with the creation and launch of a product. Product data management is part of product life cycle management, and is primarily used by engineers. The main advantages of PDM are:

• Reduced time to market (eliminates bottlenecks)• Improved productivity (reduces data retrieval time)• Improved control (data is up to date and does need

constant changing).

Lean manufacturing• What is Lean Manufacturing?• Lean is the term used to describe the

production systems and methods developed by the Toyota Company in the post war years. Lean comes about by focusing on the reduction of the non-valued activities within the organisation. Lean is all about achieving more value by applying fewer resources more effectively and efficiently through the continuous elimination of non-valued added activities or waste. Eliminating ‘fat’ anything that is superfluous or waste.

Define the following manufacturing systems: (page

101)

• Pull tools – Kanban

• Perfection tools – Kaizen

Just in timeJIT

• JIT is derived from a Japanese manufacturing philosophy. Quite simply, JIT ensures that the right materials, components and products arrive at the right time, at the right place and in the exact amount. This reduces waste and overstocking as new stock is only ordered when it is needed, so saving warehouse space and storage costs.

Major disadvantage any disruption to supply can lead to not meeting targets e.g. Japanese companies suffered badly after the tsunami as new stock could not be delivered leading to increased downtime. If companies are not correct in their predictions for stock needed they may run out thus halting production till new stock is ordered.

Exam Exercise

Describe what Automated materials-handling, Automated storage and retrieval systems (ASRS) and Automated guided vehicles (AGV) systems are?

(pages 103-104)

Question 3 (a) (b) paper June 2010

Sample Exam Question

Evaluate the impact of advanced manufacturing technologies (AMT) on employment.

See page 105 of Text Book

4 (a) Artificial intelligence (AI) is being increasingly developed for use in the manufacturing industry.(i) State what is meant by the term ‘artificial intelligence’ (AI).

• Any aspect of the following answer :-

• • Computers that can think / make decisions / problem solve /

• learn / adapt / simultaneously process large amounts of

• information .(1)

• (1 x 1)

Flow Charts

• A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Process operations are represented in these boxes, and arrows connecting them represent flow of control. Data flows are not typically represented in a flowchart, in contrast with data flow diagrams; rather, they are implied by the sequencing of operations. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.

Open and Closed loop control system.

Closed-loop has some form of feedback.

                                 

  A simple flowchart representing a process for dealing with a non-functioning lamp.

Design in context

In this section you will investigate a wide range of design-related issues throughout history. As designers you need to be aware and informed about current and future applications of technology as well as what has gone before.

The effects of technological changes on society

Design and technology has improved the lives of millions of people worldwide. But the changes brought about by developments in technology have resulted in far-reaching social consequences.

Mass production and the consumer society

With the advent of modern industrialisation brought about by the invention of the steam engine (James Watt, 1765) massive social changes have taken place. The ‘industrial revolution’ and industrialisation fundamentally changed life worldwide. Many new fields of design were needed to accommodate this and the professional designer came into being. Population explosions occurred in towns and cities where production was centred and a new urban way of life was created. More people needed more products and mass production responded to this need. Expensive and time-consuming crafted work could now be replaced by machine work. Products once exclusively for the rich could now be made at an affordable price for ordinary working people.

The modern mass-consumer society is a feature of the affluent developed world where people’s ‘wants’ are satisfied by a continual stream of new products. It is also referred to as a ‘throw –away’ culture with an increasing demand for convenience products such as fast food and over-packaged goods. From the 1960s an emerging teenage market has emerged. Some of the strategies adopted by advertising companies are:

Built-in obsolescence

Built-in or planned obsolescence is a method of stimulating consumer demand by designing products that wear out or become outmoded after limited use. This has been adopted by a range of industries, most notably by developed countries in motor, domestic appliance and electrical goods.

Mass production and its effect upon employment

The industrial revolution and mass consumerism meant that the craftsperson was replaced by low-skilled workers in highly mechanised factories. Although working conditions have generally improved modern mass production still has some social consequences:

• Reduced workforce• High -skilled workforce required to set up and

maintain machinery• Low-skilled workforce for more menial repetitive jobs