Keywordsbourgeoisie

deist

Enlightenment

gentry

Peace of Westphalia

rational progress

salon

Scientific Revolution

Seven Years’ War

stock exchanges

telescope

Essential Questions• WhatwerethecausesandresultsoftheSevenYears’WarinIndia,North

America,andEurope?

• WhatwerethemostimportantchangesinsocialconditionsinEuropeintheseventeenthcentury,includinginfamilyandmarriagepatterns,contrastsbetweeneasternandwesternEurope,attitudestowardmoney,andattitudestowardchildren?

• Whatwerethecauses,resultsof,andtheimportantpeopleconnectedtotheScientificRevolution?

• WhatwastheEnlightenment,andwhatwereitseffects?

A World in Flux

Unit 6, Lesson 9

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The Seven Years’ War: Causes and EffectsIntheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,Holland,England,andFrancewereworldwiderivalsforcommercialdominanceandinternationalpoliticalpower.Allthreenations,aspiringtoempire,sentlargenumbersofshipsacrosstheglobe,oftenownedbyjoint-stockcompaniessuchastheDutchEastIndiaCompany.Asaresult,themainarenasofconflictamongthethreeEuropeanstatesincludedNorthAmerica,theCaribbean,andIndia—inparticulartheIndianOcean—aswellasEurope.Theconflictseventuallyescalatedintotheworld’sfirstglobalconflict,theSeven Years’ War(1756–1763).

Commercial RivalryTheworldsituationontheseasandatinternationaltradingpostsresembledaboardgameinwhichplayersplaceflagsortokensonlandsthattheyownorcapture.Theadvantagewentbackandforth;skirmishesandsmallbattleswereheld,andfortuneschangedhands.IntheIndianOcean,theDutchEastIndiaCompanycontrolledthelion’sshareofthespicetrade.(SpicesweretherageinEuropenotonlyasflavorings,butasfoodpreservativesinapre-refrigerationage.)Later—bytheearly1700s—themarketsforCeylonteaandIndiancottonboomed,andEnglandandFranceseizedtheopportunityfordominanceinthosegoods.EnglandandFrancewerefiercerivals,withIndiaandtheCaribbeanthescenesofship-to-shipbattles.Sometimesonenationwouldcaptureanother’stradingpostastheFrenchdidfromtheBritishinMadras,Indiain1746.OntheCaribbeanIslands,competitionwasprimarilyoversugar.

Itwasthegreatageofpiracy,latertobewrittenaboutbyinnumerablenovelistsandscreenwriters.AsSpanishshipssailedfromMexicototheirmotherlandloaded

Set the StageAt the end of the 1600s, France had an all-powerful king who called himself the Sun King and was the center of all eyes, the source of courtly fashion, and, in the opinion of many, the chief representative of divine power in his country. One hundred years later, France had no king, and the aristocracy, who had flocked to the royal court in their powder and wigs, were fleeing for their lives in carriages powered by galloping horses. What happened in between? For one thing, the power structure of the seventeenth century was by no means as stable as Louis XIV might have wished. The merchant class was attaining prominence through its trade in colonial regions and its investments in surging industries such as shipbuilding and the stock market. In science, inventions such as the telescope and the Reformation’s emphasis on individual study led to one major discovery after another. These discoveries made obsolete the previous, static view of the world, in which each person’s role in life was fixed from birth and some people were born superior to others. Wars changed the political map of Europe and weakened absolutism. The late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries opened Europe to fresh air.

Seven Years’ War multinational war between 1756 and 1763 that involved England, France, Prussia, Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, and other European nations in a contest for power, wealth, and colonial possessions

Unit 6, Lesson 9 2

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withcargoesofgoldandsilver,Britishpiratesandprivateersattacked,seekingquickthoughhardlypainlessfortunes.Privateerswereprivateshipsgivenofficialgovernmentpermissiontoattackothernations’ships;piratesperformedthatactivitywithoutofficialapproval.Giventhenatureofprivateeringandprivateers,theboundarybetweenthetwoclassesofseafaringrobberswasoftencrossed.Butasnationstooktowar,thefightingwouldexpandbeyondthesphereofprivatehooligan-heroes.

The European States SystemWiththedeclineofoldempiresintheearlymodernperiodandthesplittingofwesternEuropeanChristianityintoCatholicismandProtestantisminthesameperiod,avacuumappearedinwhichnosingleauthority,suchasanemperororthepope,couldimposeorderonEurope.Instead,alargenumberofindependentstatesdividedthemapofEuropeamongthem,someofthemlarge,suchasFrance,Spain,England,andRussia,andsomeofthemsmallbutambitious,suchasHol-landandPrussia.Eachstatehaditsownviewofitsinterests,andtheirinterestsoftenclashedwhentwoormorenationssoughtthesamepieceoflandinEuropeoroverseasorthesameaccesstoatradingrelationshipontheothersideoftheworld.TheThirtyYears’War(1618–1648)hadscarredEurope’slandandpeople;tobringanendtoit,thewarringnationsagreedtothePeace of Westphalia(1648),whichrecognizedeachstate’sautonomyandinterestsasequallyimportant.

ThisnewstatessystemdidnotendconflictamongEuropeanpowers—quitetheopposite.Eachofthemmaneuveringforitsownadvantage,theindividualnationswereplungedintoaperiodofintensenegotiationpunctuatedbywars.ThestrategythatboundthenationsofEuropetogetherwasabalanceofpowerpolitics,bywhichthenationsmadeshiftingallianceswithoneanothertoensurethatnooneofthemwouldriseabovethepack.Forexample,England,Holland,andAustriajoinedtogetheragainstFranceinordertothwartLouisXIV’simperialambitionsinHolland,Germany,andSpainfrom1668to1713.Inthisstrategy,warwasviewedasanextensionofdiplomacy:“amerecontinuationofpolicybyothermeans,”astheGermangeneralandmilitarytheoreticianCarlvonClausewitzwroteinhisclassicanalysis,On War.Nationsresortedtowarwhenpeacefulnegotiationfailed.

Inpursuitofthebalanceofpower,thesenationslaunchedintoanarmsracethatwasasintenseasthearmsracebetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionintheColdWar,thoughtheamountoffirepowerinvolvedwasvastlyless.Thequestformoreeffectiveweaponsboostedthearmamentsindustry,andtheneedforcapable,welltrainedofficersledtothecreationofmilitaryacademies.Metaphoricallyspeaking,theroadtowarwasbeingnewlypaved.

Colonial Wars and Fiscal CrisesAstheEuropeanpowersacquiredgloballandsandglobalsourcesofwealth,theirmilitaryconflictsbecameglobalaswell.HollandseizedPortugueseterritoriesinBrazilandAngola—helpingreducePortugal’sstatureasacolonialpower—andalsoattackedSpanishcolonies.EnglandandSpaincontinuedtheircenturies-longrivalry,thistimeintheWesternHemisphere.Morethanoneinternationalwarbrokeout

Peace of Westphalia a group of peace treaties, signed in 1648, that brought an end to the Thirty Years’ War and established a system of independent, equal, and conflicting European states

Unit 6, Lesson 9 3

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overquestionsaboutsuccessiontothethroneofanindividualnation:theWaroftheSpanishSuccession(1701–1714)andtheWaroftheAustrianSuccession(1740–1748).

ThesewarscostmoremoneythantheEuropeangovernmentsmayhaveantici-pated.AlthoughcolonialismwasaddingwealthtowesternEurope’seconomies,thecostofwartriggeredfiscalcrises.Theinterestonwardebtbecamemassive:England’sinterestonitswardebtamountedtofive-eighthsofitsentirepre-warbudget.Theprincipalonthedebtwasmorethan25timesthat.

The Seven Years’ WarThesmallerwarswerepreludestothebigone:theSevenYears’War.ThesideswereBritainandPrussiaversusFrance,Russia,andAustria,withSpainjoiningtheFrenchintheCaribbean.Thewarproceededintwodistinctgeographicalareas.InEurope,itcenteredonaconflictbetweenAustriaandPrussiathathadpreviouslyflaredupastheWaroftheAustrianSuccession.In1757,Austria,whichwasstillpartoftheHolyRomanEmpire,declaredwaronPrussia,whichwasledbyFreder-icktheGreat.Thesecondfrontspreadthroughoutthecolonies.In1754,EnglandandFrancebattledovercontrolofeasternNorthAmerica,beginningintheOhioRiverValleyandresultinginEngland’striumphasthemajorreigningpowerinthatpartoftheworld.FrancewasexpelledfrommuchofCanadaandthefutureUnitedStates.Simultaneously,theBritishandFrenchtangledinIndiaandintheGermanstateofHanover.HanoverwasthehomelandoftheBritishdynastyoftheHouseofHanover,beginningwithGeorgeI(r.1714–1727)includingthenotoriousGeorgeIIIofAmericanRevolutionfame(r.1760–1820),andthemuchmoreeffectiveQueenVictoria(r.1837–1901).Thedynasty’sreignoverHanoverendedin1837.

Thebattlefieldsseesawedforseveralyears,withEnglandtheclearestvictoroverall.EnglandcapturedtheCanadiancityofQuebecanddefeatedFranceinIndia.PrussiawonseveralofitsconfrontationswithAustria,butlosttheimportantBattleofKunersdorfagainstRussiain1759.RussiaatthattimewasanenemyofPrussia,butPeterIIIofRussiaadmiredFredericktheGreat,andonascendingtothetsaristthronein1762heendedthetwonations’war.ThisenabledFredericktoconcentrateonhisfightagainstAustria—asorelypressingneed,giventhattherecentlyinstalledGeorgeIIIofEnglandhadendedhiscountry’salliancewithPrussia.Frederick,thesinglegreatestmilitaryleaderofthatwardespiteleadingthesmallestofthemajornations,regainedallPrussianlandsthatAustriahadseized.

Finally,in1763,aseriesoftreatiesendedtheconflictbetweenPrussiaandAustriaandmadeEngland’scaptureofFrenchlandsinAmericaofficial.Thescoreatwar’send:PrussiawasleftdominantinGermanyandsomeotherEuropeanstates;theHolyRomanEmpireandAustriaundertheHabsburgdynastylostfur-therpowerandprestige;andEnglandstoodaloneasthesinglegreatestpowerinNorthAmericaandIndia.

Social Change in Early Modern EuropeThroughthecourseoftheearlymodernperiod,thewayeconomies,societies,socialclasses,andgenderroleswerearrangedgraduallyevolved.Thesystemofagricul-turalandcraftsproductioninwesternEuropedevelopedintoonethatbenefitedruralworkers,landowners,andentrepreneurs.Inturn,asthelivesofpeasantfarm

Unit 6, Lesson 9 4

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workersimproved,socialrelationsinwesternnationsgainedelementsofindividualfreedom.Asindividualsbecamefreertochoosetheirwaysofmakingaliving,craftsproductionandfoodproductionenteredaphasethatcanbeconsideredakindoffoundationforlaterindustrialgrowth.

Technology and the FamilyFeudalismwasinthelaststagesofdecline.Aninnovationinthewaycraftswereproducedhasteneditsdownfall.Previously,craftssuchascloth-makingandcabi-netryhadbeendominatedbyguildsofurbanartisanswhosetpricesanddiscour-agedcompetitionbutdidnotactivelyseekprofits.Thenentrepreneurs,frustratedbyhavingtodealwithguildrules,gottheideaofturningovercraftsproductiontoruralworkers.Thebusinesspeoplewouldgiverawmaterials,suchaswool,tofamily-basedworkerslivingincottages(hencetheterm“cottageindustry”).Theseworkerswouldcrafttherawmaterialsintofinishedgoods—asackoftinpots,forinstance,abucketfullofnails,orashipmentofgarments.Theentrepreneurpaidthecraftspersonafixedrateforlaborandsoldthefinishedgoodsonthemarket.Thefinishedgoodsbroughtahighpercentageofprofit,sincethewagespaidtothecraftspeoplewererelativelylow.

Meanwhile,theruralcraftspeoplealsogained.Althoughtheirwageswerelowbyurbanstandards,moremoneyflowedintothecountrysidethaneverbefore.Manyformerlyimpoverishedpeasantsacquiredsomeofthecomfortsoflife.Avisitortoaruralcottagemightbewelcomedintoanambianceofdecentfurniture,goodandplentifulfood,andwell-madeclothing.

Theincreaseinindividualincomeallowedyoungpeopletobelessdependentontheextended-familythathadbeenthebasisofpeasantlife,inwhichthemem-bersofalargehouseholdhadsharedthefruitsoftheirhardlaborinordertogetby.Thenuclearfamily,consistingonlyofahusband,wife,andchildren,begantousurptheextendedfamily,whichincludedgrandparents,aunts,uncles,andcousins.Youngmenandwomenmarriedlater(themid-twentieswasconsideredlateinthatera),andyoungcouplesbegantakingtheinitiativeinsettinguptheirownseparatehouseholds,makingtheirownlivingsthroughfarmworkorcrafts.Anincreasingnumbermovedtothecities,wheretheyhadlesscontactwiththeirfamiliesoforigin.Alongwiththeseeconomicdevelopments,emotionalattachmentbegantobeamoreimportantingredientinthebondsamongthemen,women,andchildreninafamily,ratherthanmarriagebeinganarrangementbetweenhouseholds.Inmiddle-classnuclearfamilies,childrenbecameincreasinglyvaluedasindividuals,andforrepresentingthefamily’shopeforfutureadvancement,ratherthanmerelyasfarmlaborers.Educationbecameaprimaryconcernofparents.Schoolingbecamemorepopular,withmanymiddle-classsonsobtainingdegreesinprofessionssuchaslawandmedicine,aswellasaroundededucationinLatinandotherancientormodernlanguages.

Thesechangeswereoutgrowthsoftheriseofearlycapitalism,asysteminwhichprofitwasthechiefmotiveforeconomicactivity.Intheageoffeudalism,profit-makingandmoney-lendinghadbeenviewedasethicallyquestionableactivities.Then,intheearlymodernperiod,capitalismboostedearningsandencouragedindividualandnuclear-familyindependence.Thepriceofthisincreasedwealth

1SELF-ChECK

Which two nations

emerged victorious from

the Seven Years’ War?

Unit 6, Lesson 9 5

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wasthatthecustomsofthemedievalfamily,inwhichagroupofrelatedpeopleallcaredforoneanother’sneeds,gavewaytoasysteminwhichindividualsandsmallfamilieslookedoutfortheirowninterests.Commercialactivity—theavailabilityofmoneytoordinarypeople—becameasourceofpersonalfreedomandphysicalandsocialmobilityforthemasses.

EasternEuropetraveledadifferentpathfromthiswesternsystem.BecauseeasternEuropehadfewcities,therewaslittleopportunityforyoungpeopletomoveofftheland.Trappedinalifeoffarmlabor,easternEuropeanpeasantslivedextremelyharshlives.InRussia,theinstitutionofserfdomarose.Serfdomwasakindofsemi-slavery.Itdevelopedoutofthefeudalsystem,inwhichpeasantscouldnotmoveawayfromtheirvillages,ormarry,withoutpermissionfromthelandowner.In1649,anewRussianlawcodifiedserfdomintoastrictsystemofsocialclassfromwhichserfscouldnotescape.Landownerstookupthepracticeofbuyingandsellingserfs.SerfdomwasinlargepartadevicebywhichtheRomanovtsarsensuredtheloyaltyofthenoblesbyguaranteeingthemasteadysupply—infactahereditarysupply—ofcheaplabor.

Economy and SocietyTheneweconomicdevelopmentsresultedinrapidurbanization.MajorurbancenterssuchasParisandLondongrewwellintothesix-figurepopulationrange.Thosetwocapitalscouldboasthalfamillionresidentsapiece,whileAmsterdamgrewto200,000.Anewurbanclassarose:thebourgeoisie.Craftsworkshopsflourishedonalargescale,producingwoolenandlinengoods,beer,ceramics,andotherstapleproducts.InportssuchasAmsterdam,shippingandship-buildingbecamepredominantindustries.Bankingboomedwhenmerchantssoughtsafewaystoinvesttheirnewprofit.

Businessesandgovernmentsincreasinglyactedinpartnershiptoincreasebothprivateprofitandpublicrevenue.Governmentslicensedtheformationofprivatejoint-stockcompaniestofinancecommerce.Thesecompaniessoldsharesinordertoraisecapitalfortheirventures.Investorscouldbuyandsellshares,whosepricesfluctuatedwithdemand—andamarketarose.Thissystemwastheoriginofthemodernstockmarket.Italianmerchantsdevelopedtheideaofstock exchanges,whichspreadnorthsothatAmsterdambecameEurope’sfinancialcenter.Insurance,too,becameamajorindustry,forwiththerapidincreaseininternationalcom-merceandthehighriskofgoodsandshipsbeinglostatseaduringlongvoyages,ownersbeganpayingforsecurityincaseofdisaster.

Anotherwayinwhichgovernmentsassistedbusinesswasthroughtheimprove-mentoftransportandland.Canalsandlockswerebuilttoenableshipstotravelmoreeasilyfrominlandtoseaport.InHolland,thelowlandsweredrainedtoincreaseagriculturalareas,andthefamousdykeskeptthewaterback.

Social DiscontentTheexpansionoftheprofiteconomyinthelatesixteenthandearlyseventeenthcenturieswasnotwithoutitsdownside.Urbanizationandcommercializationsparkedtheriseofaproletariat—theclassofworkerswhodonothaveaccesstothemeansofproduction.Dependentonthelowwagesofferedbyentrepreneurs,and

bourgeoisie social class that owns businesses

stock exchanges markets at which shares in businesses are traded

Unit 6, Lesson 9 6

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hitbyrisingpricesforfood,manyworkersdescendedintopoverty.Beggarsandpovertyreachedepidemicproportions.Resentmentagainstlandownersburstforthintopoliticalexpression.Peasantmovementscalledforoverturningthegentryandgrantingpoliticalrightstocommoners.

Atroublingsideeffectofsocialuncertaintyatthetimewasthewitch-huntingmaniaofthe1600s,whichresultedintensofthousandsofkillings.Adispro-portionatenumberofaccusedwitcheswereimpoverishedindependentwomen,whosepositionassocialoutsidersmadethemsuspectintheeyesofself-respectingcommunitiestroubledbythespecterofpoverty.Thelogicwasthatifahouseholdsufferedareversaloffortune,aneighbormustberesponsible,especiallyapower-lessneighborwhocouldbeaccusedofseekingunearthlypower.

Population Growth, Class Diversification, and the Role of WomenInthefourteenthcentury,continent-wideplaguehadreducedEurope’spopulation.Intheaftermath,thepopulationleveledoffintothesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Warsspreadadditionaldiseases,andthephysicaldevastationtothelandscapeheldbackagriculturalproduction.Theclimatecooled:thesecenturieswerethetimeoftheLittleIceAge.Theagriculturalsituationwouldnotsignifi-cantlyimproveuntiltheeighteenthcentury,whentheclimatereturnedtonormal.Atthattime,too,clevernewtechniquessuchassoilaeration,betterfertilization,croprotation,andthesubstitutionofironplowsforwoodenonesamountedtoanagriculturalrevolutionthatgreatlyincreasedcropyields.

Thus,thepopulationeventuallyincreased.Withit,socialclassesdiversi-fiedmore.Shopkeepers,professionalssuchaslawyersanddoctors,andskilledcraftspeoplebecamemoreprosperous,andsomeofthemrosetojointhemerchantclass.Thesedevelopmentsweretheseedsofthemodernmiddleclass.

Theriseofthemiddleclassbenefitedsomeofthewomenwhobelongedtoit.Theireducationalopportunitiesincreased,andanumberofwomenmovedintomoney-makingroleswhentheyjoinedtheirhusbandsaspartnersinoperatingbusinesses.Bookkeepingbecameanareainwhichwomenwereincreasinglyseenasworkers.Withgreaterinputintothecasheconomy,womenslowlyacquiredmorecontrolovertheirprivatelives,suchastheirchoicesofspouseandchildbearing.However,womenwerebynomeansequaltomenatthattimeintheirpossessionofcivilrights,wealth,oreducation.Andupper-classwomenmaintainedasignifi-cantadvantageovermiddle-classwomeninthepursuitoflearningandculture.InFrance,forexample,theComtessedelaFayette(1634–1693)receivedafirst-rateLatineducation.Shehelpedherhusbandoutofdebt,tookcontrolofherownfinances,movedtoParisonherown,anddevelopedaseparate,lifelongromanticattachment.ShewasaleadinglightofintellectualsalonsandbecamethefirstFrenchpsychologicalnovelist,emphasizingcharacterasmuchasplotinherbooks.

The Printing PressMadamedelaFayette,asanaristocrat,mighthavebecomeliterateevenintheMiddleAges;butintheearlymodernperiod,theimportanceofbooksspreadthroughoutthesocialclassesasthedirectresultofatechnologicalinvention—theprintingpress.Thismachinecanbesaidwithoutexaggerationtohavechanged

gentry social class that includes large landowners

salon a social discussion, often at the homes of the wealthy, at which advanced ideas were discussed during the Enlightenment

Unit 6, Lesson 9 7

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thefoundationsofculture,justascomputersdidinthelatetwentiethcentury.Intheearly-middle1400s,aGermanprinternamedJohannesGutenberg(1398–1468)developedaprintingpressthathadmovabletype.Movabletype,atechnologythathadfirstbeendevelopedinChina,greatlyincreasedthespeedandefficiencywithwhichbookscouldbepublished.Asaresult,theideasoftheRenaissancespreadrapidlybeyondItalytonorthernEurope;theideasofReformationleaderssuchasLutherandJohnCalvinattainedwideimpact;andBiblesbecamemorewidelyavailabletobereadbyordinarypeople.

Inadditiontomultiplyingtheoutputofbooksandloweringthecostoftheirproduction,theprintingpressstandardizedmethodsforstoringinformation.Theinventionmadeitpossiblefortheadvancementofscientificideasandgovernmentpropaganda.Literacyamongthelowerclassesincreasedandpromptedtheirreadyaccesstobooksfromallsubjects.

Theprintingpressallowedforthewiderandmorerapidspreadofideas.Thegradualdeclineofroyalandchurchauthoritycreatedopportunitiesforindividualintellectualfreedom,andtheprosperityofthecolonizingerabroughtgreatereconomicindependencetoanexpandingmiddleclass.Allthesedevelopmentsopenedthepathforadvancementinscientificandsocialthought.Thesetrendswouldcometoflowerintheeighteenthcentury.

The Scientific RevolutionFromancientGreektimestotheseventeenthcentury,Europeansmaintainedaconsistentbutincorrectviewofthestructureoftheuniverse.Theybelievedthattheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverse,withthesunandtheplanetsrevolvingaroundit.Theybelieved,too,thatthemotionsoftheheavenlybodiesproceededinperfectcircles,andthatthestarsandplanetsthemselvesweremadeofachange-less,etherealsubstanceunliketheelementsthatmadeuptheearth.ThismodeloftheuniversewasformulatedbytheGreekwriterPtolemyinthesecondcentury.Othermajorcontributorstothispre-scientificworldviewwerethemathematicianPythagoriasandthegreatGreekphilosopherAristotle,whotaughtthatallmat-teriscomposedofearth,water,fire,andairandthattheheavenlybodiesoccupyseparatespheresforoneanother.Pythagorasisbestrememberedforthetheoremthatbearshisname—thesquareofthehypotenuseofarighttriangleisequaltothesumofthesquaresoftheothertwosides—butinhisowntimehewasrenownedforusinggeometricfigurestoshowasupposedconnectionbetweenphysicalforcesandmysticalproperties.

Thisperfectlysmooth,circular,Earth-centeredcosmology,however,didnotfitwiththerealityofwhatobserverssawinthenightsky.Throughthemedievalcenturies,astronomersnoticedirregularitiesintheorbitsoftheplanets.Tryingtofittheseirregularitiesintoatheoryofpurecircularity,theyclaimedthattheplanetshadextralittleorbitswithintheirmainorbits.Thesesuborbitswerecalledepicycles,becausetheyweresmallcirclesthatloopedonthesurfaceoflargerones.UnfortunatelyforPtolemy’sfollowers,however,theircalculationsofepicyclesneversuccessfullyalignedwiththerealplanetarymovementstheyobserved.Witheachnewlydiscoveredvariationinplanetarymotion,newepicycleshad

2SELF-ChECK

How did cooperation

between government

and business lead to

the development of

stock exchanges?

Unit 6, Lesson 9 8

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tobeimagined.Accordingtoonesource,attheheightofthistheory,atotalof80epicyclesfestoonedtheplanets’orbits.

Great Scientists Bring a New Era in human KnowledgePtolemaictheoryhadbecomeunworkable.Then,in1543,aPolishmonknamedNicolausCopernicus(1473–1543)publishedasimplesolution.Hedeclaredthatthesunisthecenteroftheuniverseandtheearthandotherplanetsrevolvearoundit.Thisinsightwasrevolutionary.Itinspiredastronomers,anditmadereligiousauthoritiesnervous.WasCopernicusdenyingthattheearthandhumanbeingswerethespecialfocusofGod’sattentionandlove?Washedefyingphilosophicalauthoritieswhohadlastedformorethanamillennium?Copernicus,anticipatingsuchopposition,didnotpublishhistheoryuntiltheyearofhisdeath.

Theoppositionwasindeedvehement,butitdidnotstopotherscientifictruth-seekersfromexpandingonCopernicus’sinsight.Thetelescope,recentlyinvented,wasbeingimprovedbyastronomerssuchastheDanishTychoBrahe(1546–1601)andJohannesKepler(1571–1630),aperhapsevengreaterscientistwhobeganasBrahe’sassistant.WhereCopernicushadacceptedthetraditionalbeliefthattheplanetsmoveinperfectcircles,BraheandKepler,usingtelescopicobservationsandmathematicalcalculations,foundcorrectlythattheorbitsformellipsesinstead.Then,GalileoGalilei(1564–1642),whohaddevelopedatelescopethatmagnifiedimagesbythirtytimes,sawpreviouslyunknownmoonsinthesolar

This diagram of the Ptolemaic view of the universe supplies a visual example of the Greek theory that civilizations accepted prior to the Scientific Revolution.

Unit 6, Lesson 9 9

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system,andunknown,distantstarsbeyondit.TheuniversewaslargerthanEuro-peanshadthought.Galileo’scontributionstophysicswereatleastasimportantastoastronomy:hepioneeredthemodernunderstandingofgravitationalforceandmotion.Mostfamously,heshowedthatobjectsaccelerateatauniformratenomatterwhattheirmass.

Galileoattractedagreatdealofchurchopposition,despitearguingheatedlythathisworkdidnotconflictwithBiblicalaccounts.TheInquisitionsubjectedhimtoinvestigationbyaspeciallyformedcommittee,andin1616barredhimfromfurtherpublishinghistheory.However,bythattime,Galileohadrevolutionizedscientificthoughtbyinsistingthatobservationandmathematicsshouldbethefoundationofknowledgeabouttheuniverse.AScientific Revolutionhadbegun.

Galileo’smostimportantcontributioninvolvedtheapplicationofmathematicstothestudyofmotion.GalileoreliedlessonAristotelianideasonwhythingsmoveandfocusedmoreonhowtheymovebasedonobservationsandmeasurements.Heemphasizedthepracticalapplicationandmeritofscience.

Galileohadarguedthatnaturalphenomenacanbedescribedbylawsofphysics.Thensomeonecamealongwhoactuallyformulatedsuchlaws:IsaacNewton(1643–1727).Newtonpublishedhismostimportantworkinphysicsin1687inabookentitledMathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.Newtonstatedthatallcelestialbodiesfollowedthreelawsofmotion:1)Abodyinmotionstaysinmotion,andabodyatreststaysatrest,unlessacteduponbyanout-sideforce;2)Thechangeinmotionisproportionaltotheforceexerted;and3)Everyactionhasanequalandoppositereaction.Newtonalsoestablishedthebasisofthemod-erntheoryoflight,builtthefirstreflectingtelescope,andinventedthebaneofpresent-daymathstudents:calculus.

Fewthinkersorscientistsareentirelyoriginal.InthelinethatstretchesfromCopernicustoKeplertoGalileotoNew-ton,earlieroneslaidthegroundworkonwhichthelateronesarose.Recently,somehistoriansofsciencehaveclaimedthatCopernicus’sworkbuiltonpreviousscientists’labors.ThefirstscientisttotheorizethattheearthrevolvesaroundthesunwasapparentlytheGreekAristarchus(310–230B.C.E.),whoalsostatedthattheearthrotatesonitsaxis.CopernicuscitesAristarchusasaninspirationinhis1543book.Additionally,someChinese,Indian,andMayanscientistshadputforwardideasaboutaheliocentric(sun-centered)solarsystem.LatemedievalMuslimscientistshadmadecalculationsthatrefutedPtolemy’s,althoughwithoutreachingaheliocentrictheory.Copernicususedmathematicalmodelsthatresembledtheirs,butitisnotknownwhetherhewasfamiliarwiththeirwork,whichwaswritteninArabic,orwhetherhearrivedathismathematicsindependently.

Scientific Revolution the phase of intellec-tual development in Europe, beginning in the sixteenth century, that estab-lished science as the foundation of knowledge

Newton’s insights into gravity did not come from being hit over the head by an apple falling from a branch—but he really was inspired by watching one fall, as he told an early biographer.

Unit 6, Lesson 9 10

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WhetherornotanyonescientistwasresponsiblefortheideathattheearthrevolvesaroundthesunEuropeanscientificthoughtindisputablyadvancedbyleapsandboundsbeginningwithwhathasbeencalledtheCopernicanRevolution.Throughtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,morediscoveriesfollowedinanumberoffields.RenéDéscartes(1596–1650)establishedaphilosophicalbasisfortheviewthatknowledgemustproceedbyobservationratherthanfrompreviousauthority.Whereasthetelescopehadenablednewdiscoveriesaboutdistantworlds,themicroscopeopeneduptheworldoftinylivingthingstotheeyesofscientists.DutchbiologistAntonievanLeeuwenhoek(1632–1723)wasthefirsttoobservebacteriaandprotozoaunderthemicroscope.Thedirectstudyofthehumanbody,whichhadbeenlimitedinmedievaltimes,ledWilliamHarvey(1578–1657),todiscoverhowbloodcirculatesandhowtheheartpumps.

Thenew,scientificapproachtoknowledgespreadrapidlythroughtheWest,thankstotheprintingpress.Inadditiontoprintedbooks,lecturesbecamepopularasawaytotransmitknowledge.Researchinstitutesarose,withgovernmentaidinmanycases,apracticethatremainsstandardtodaywithgovernmentfundingforscience.Superstitiousbeliefs,especiallythebeliefinwitchcraft,begantofade.Thefundamentalnewbeliefbehinditallwasthebeliefthathumanbeingscoulddiscoverthetruthaboutnaturethroughdirectobservationandexperiment.Andoncepeoplebeganexploringnaturewithopeneyes,theyproceededtoinvestigatehumansocietyinthesamespirit.Anatmosphereoffreeinquiryandnewideasdeveloped.Overtime,peoplebegandiscussingsocialinjusticesopenly.Asearchforfreedomandjusticemotivatedanintellectualflowering.

The EnlightenmentThejuggernautofscientificprogressthattheseventeenthcenturysetinmotionhascontinueduptothepresent.Intheeighteenthcentury,chemistrywasanareaofparticularadvancement:forexample,BritishclergymanJosephPriestley(1733–1804)discoveredoxygen,nitrogen,andeightotherimportantgases.Inthestudyoflivingthings,scientistsundertookanefforttobringsystematicordertohumanknowledgeofnature.CarolusLinnaeus(1707–1778),aSwedishbotanist,attemptedtoarrangealllivingthingsintooneframeworkofclassification—andhelargelysucceeded.Linnaeusdevelopedthemulti-tieredsystemofspecies,genus,family,order,phylum,andkingdom,whichisstillthewayscientistsshowtherelationshipsamongtypesoflivingthings.

The Age of ReasonLinnaeus’sprojectwastypicaloftheeighteenthcentury,aneraoftenknownastheAgeofReason,aphrasecoinedbytheAmericanRevolutionarywriterThomasPaine.Itwasatimewhenscientistsandsocialthinkerssoughttounderstandtheworldasanorganizedmechanismoperatingaccordingtonaturallaws.TheSci-entificRevolutioninspiredthiswayofthinkingbydemonstratingtheexistenceofrationallawsinphysicsandastronomy.Eighteenth-centurythinkerstooktheideaofarationaluniversefurther,applyingittotheworldofhumanbehaviorandsociety.Ifplanetsandstarsmovedaccordingtoregularlaws,theythought,perhapsindividualsandgroupsdidtoo.

Unit 6, Lesson 9 11

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Inotherfields,attemptsatcreatingintellectualsystemsalsoflourished.TheFrenchpoliticalthinkerBarondeMontesquieu(1689–1755)lookedatgovernmentandconcludedthatitconsistedofseparatepowers,suchastheexecutive,whichcouldbeheldinbalance.FrenchwriterDenisDiderot(1713–1784)organizedagroupofwritersthatcreatedamassiveencyclopedia,intendedtocontainallhumanknowl-edge.Dictionary-making,anactionthatstandardizeslanguage,becameanactivepursuit,notablyonthepartofthegreatEnglishessayistSamuelJohnson(1709–1784).

Thisnewoutlookacquiredaname:theEnlightenment.TheEnlightenmentstrovetoviewhumanexistencescientifically.Enlightenmentwritersbenefitedgreatlyfromtheever-wideninginfluenceoftheprintingpress,becausetheirideascouldspreadrapidlynotonlytotheircolleaguesbuttothemassofreaders,particularlythegrowingmiddleclass.Booksalsokeptcontroversialnewideasfromdisappear-ing.Evenifaninstitutionsuchasthechurchattackedawriter,thewriter’sideascouldstillmaketheirwaythroughthereadingpublic.TheEnlightenmentwasanagewhennewspapersandcoffeehousesgainedimmensepopularity.Coffeehouseswerethescenesofvigorouspoliticaldebateamongordinarycitizens,andnewspapersincludednotjustcurrenteventsnarrativesbutlong,thoughtfulessaysbyimportantwritersaboutanyconceivabletopicfromfashiontohumanliberty.Theexperienceofreading,listeningto,andtalkingaboutthediverserangeofideasintheairwasundoubtedlyaliberatingsensationformanypeople.

The Enlightenment and PoliticsInsuchanatmosphere,politicalandsocialdoctrinesthatdepartedfromthetraditionalmonarchistviewtookholdreadily.Itbecamefashionabletodiscussindividualrights,andtherightsofthecommonpeoplewithregardtotheirgovern-ment.AmongtheearliestandmostinfluentialEnlighten-mentpoliticalthinkerswasJohnLocke(1632–1704),whoundertookaphilosophicalanalysisofwhatgovernmentsarefor.Heconcludedthatgovernmentsexisttoprotectthelife,liberty,andpropertyofthepeople,andthatitwaspropertorebelagainstagovernmentwhichviolatedpeople’srights.TheseideaswereadoptedalmostacenturyafterLockewrotebyThomasJeffersonandtheotherauthorsoftheAmericanDeclarationofIndependence.

Lockewasnotonlyaproponentofindividualrights,butafounderofpoliticalscience.OthersocialscienceswerealsobornduringtheEnlightenment.Ineconomics,theEnglish-manAdamSmith(1723–1790)putforththetheoryofthefreemarket,inwhichcompetitionamongbusinessesissup-posedtoproducetheoptimalresultforsocietyasawhole.

Inpoliticaltheory,thebeliefinreasongaverisetoapowerfulmovementinfavorofhumanliberty,especiallyinFrance,wheretheabsolutemonarchyofLouisXIVandhissuccessorshadplacedheavyburdensonthepeople.AgroupofFrenchthinkerscalledphilosophesacquiredwidespread

Enlightenment eighteenth-century philosophical and social movement that sought to discover laws govern-ing human society through rational analy-sis and observation

3SELF-ChECK

What fundamental new

attitude about human

knowledge served as

the basis of the

Scientific Revolution?

Why is Voltaire smiling? Perhaps because he was optimistic about the prospects for the benefits of rational progress as a result of the Enlightenment.

Unit 6, Lesson 9 12

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reputationsfortheireffortstousetheirintellectsandtheirversatileliteraryskillstoimprovesociety.MostprominentamongthemwastheFrenchauthorwhosepennamewasVoltaire(1694–1778).Voltairebelievedpassionatelyinindividualfreedom,andhepassionatelyopposedinstitutionsthathebelievedlimitedindividualfreedom,suchasthechurchandthemonarchy.Hiswritingsincludedplays,poetry,essays,novels,andthousandsofletters;hisgreatstrengthsasawriterwerehiscuttingwitandhisswift,readablestyle.Hewasfearlessinvoicinghisopinions,andbecausehegotanearlystartandlivedalongtime,hispublishedworks,70volumes,fillseveralshelves.

No great art or studied eloquence is needed to prove that Chris-tians should tolerate one another. I go even further and declare that we must look upon all men as our brothers. But the Turk, my brother? the Chinese, the Jew, the Siamese? Yes, of course; are we not all the children of one father and creatures of the same God?

A true child of the Enlightenment, Voltaire published his first book at the age of 17. Although he shared the Enlightenment’s optimism about progress, he also satirized the naïve belief that this is “the best of all possible worlds,” in his most famous work, the novella Candide. This ability to hold a balanced, clear-sighted view between extremes typified the Enlightenment at its most humane. Voltaire’s particular contribution to Enlightenment thought centered on his devotion to the principles of religious toleration and freedom of thought. Voltaire was convinced that throughout history the intolerance of organized religions, not just Christianity, had caused much of the world’s suffering. He was angered that even in the “enlightened” eighteenth century, Protestant-Catholic enmity still resulted in episodes such as torture and execution. Voltaire saw all humans as related and as family. And as a result of his deist beliefs—that God made the universe and mankind and stepped back from interfering—he believed that all men were equal in the sight of God. This led to his belief in promoting religious toleration by the governments of the day. His devotion to religious tolerance can be seen as the logical outgrowth of Enlightenment thought, which saw all people as rational beings and all people as equally the creations of what was sometimes called “Nature’s God.” The influence of Voltaire as an exponent of religious freedom can be seen in the American Constitution, which forbids the establishment of a state religion.

A Piece ofhiSToRY

Of Universal Tolerance

Unit 6, Lesson 9 13

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Anotherfirst-rankphilosopherwasJean-JacquesRousseau(1712–1778),aSwisswriterwhoexpoundedtheideaofthesocialcontract,whichstatesthatmonarchsgovernonlyatthebehestofthepeople.Rousseau,amoreradicalthinkerthanVoltaireorLocke,alsowroteextensivelyandcontroversiallyoneducation,andhewroteoneofliterature’sforemostautobiographies,theConfessions.

Astheideaofhumanrightsspread,someadvancedthinkersbegantoapplythatconcepttowomen’srights.Womenwerealreadyprominentinthesalonsasparticipantsandhighlyrespectedhostesses.Educationwasspreadingamongmiddle-classwomen,anditwasbecomingmoreandmoredifficulttodenythatwomenweretheintellectualequalsofmen.Seizinguponthespiritofthetimes,anumberofwomenwritersbegantoargueforgreaterfreedomandpowerfortheirgender.OneofthemwasMaryWollstonecraft(1759–1797),authorofA Vindication of the Rights of Women,abookthatisstillwidelyreadandinspiringforitsrationalanalysisofwhywomenareequaltomen.Wollstonecraftpromotedanimageofrationalandindependentwomenwhoseeducationwouldmattermorethantheirappearance.Throughpropertraining,Wollstonecraftcontended,womencouldbegoodcompanions,mothers,andcitizens.

AlthoughtheEnlightenmentwasmostprominentlyawesternEuropeanphe-nomenon,itspreadacrosstheAtlantic,especiallyamongthefoundersoftheUnitedStates.BothJeffersonandBenjaminFranklinadmiredFranceandspentlengthyvisitsthere,sometimesinofficialcapacities.TheythoughtandwroteabouthowtoapplytheideasofLocke,Voltaire,andotherstotheirowncountry.Inturn,thesemenwerefavoredandadmiredbyEuropeansasmodelsoftherational,free,progressivesocietythatAmericamightbecome.

The Belief in ProgressTheoveralltoneoftheEnlightenmentwasoptimistic.Itwasanagethatbelievedthatrational progresswouldbethealmostinevitableresultofnaturalscienceandsocialscience.TheEnlightenmentviewedhumanbeingsasinnatelygood,thoughpronetoerror;Enlightenmentsageshopedtodeveloptheinnategoodnessoftheirreadingpublicandtousethepowerofreasontolimittheerrors.Theyviewedboththephysicaluniverseandsocietyasanorderlycreationguidedbynaturallaws,inwhichcountlesspartsfittogetherandransmoothly,likeafineclock.“Theclockworkuniverse”hasbecomeaconciselabelfortheorderly,reasonableworldthatEnlightenmentthinkerstriedtoseearoundthem.Intheclockworkuniverse,Godhadplayedtheroleofdesignerorcreator;aftertheactofcreationwasover,hewithdrewfromactiveparticipationinhistory,leavingthattohumanbeings.Thisviewofadeitywholimitedhisownroleinhumanaffairswasknownasdeism,andthosewhoaccepteditwerecalleddeists.

TheEnlightenmentwasnotwithoutitsopponents.Asmallermovement,calledtheCounter-Enlightenment,aroseonthepartofthosewhostillbelievedintheright-fulauthorityofthemonarchyandthesupremacyoftheChurchoverhumanaffairs.WheretheEnlightenmenttendedtohavelittleuseforfaith,theCounter-Enlightenmentsawitasarichsourceofhumanwellbeing.WheretheEnlightenmentthirstedforchangeinsocialandpoliticalarrangements,theCounter-Enlightenmentsawvalueinmaintaininginstitutionsastheyalreadywere.WheretheEnlightenmentputtrustinthepeople,theCounter-Enlightenmentputtrustinauthority.

4SELF-ChECK

What is the

social contract?

rational progress an ideal of improvement of the human condition through the use of reason

deist particularly during the Enlighten-ment, a person who believes that God created natural law as the plan for an orderly universe

Unit 6, Lesson 9 14

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Perhapssurprisingly,themonarchsofthaterawerenotuniformlyopposedtoEnlightenmentideas.SomemonarchswelcomedEnlightenmentoppositiontothechurchandthenobility—twoforcesthatweremonarchy’straditionalrivalsforpower.Enlightenedmonarchsalsolookedtoscience,andthestudiesofeconomics,law,andpoliticaltheory,aspotentialsourcesofnationalstrengthandwealth.Arationallyorganizedbureaucracycouldmakeamonarchymoreefficient;arationaltaxsystemcouldmakeitricher.However,monarchicalsupportfortheEnlightenmentstoppedshortofsupportfordemocraticorrepublicanideas.TheEnlightenmentwasanageoftensionbetweenthosewhoenvisionedafreersocietyandthosewhoclungtighttolong-heldpower.Beforelong,thetensionwouldbreakoutintorevolutionaryconflicts.TheEnlightenmentshowsthatideas,spreadbyinfluentialmeansofcommunication,couldleadtomassivesocialchange.

SummaryWiththeageofabsolutemonarchycomingtoacloseinsomeplaces,suchasEngland,ordangerouslycomingtoaheadinothers,suchasFrance,andwiththeHolyRomanEmperorfadingasapower,competingnation-statestookcenterstageinEuropeanpolitics.ThetheoryofthebalanceofpowerwasanotentirelysuccessfulattempttocontroltheseeminglyendlesssmallandlargerwarsthatcroppedupamongnationsjoustingforadvantageonthecontinentandinthenewlydevelopingcolonizedlandsofAsiaandtheAmericas.TheSevenYears’War,theultimateoutburstofthatcompetitionandthefirstglobalmilitaryconflict,reshuffledthebalance,toEngland’sgainandFrance’sloss.Meanwhile,tremendousadvancesweremadeinphysicsandastronomyduringtheseventeenthcenturythroughtheworkofpeoplesuchasKepler,Galileo,andNewton.Thesescientificrevolutionariesusedobservationandexperiment,ratherthanspeculation,inthepursuitofknowledge.InspiredbytheScientificRevolution,thinkersandwritersoftheeighteenthcenturyEnlightenmenttriedtoapplyvaluesofreason,observation,andexperimenttothehuman,socialworldaswellasthenaturalworld.Theirgoalwastodiscoverthenaturallawsthatguidedsociety.TheincreasinginfluenceoftheprintingpressandoftheideaofconstitutionallimitsonroyalpowerplayedimportantrolesinspreadingthenewideasandtheEnlightenment’soutlookoffreeinquiryintosocialissuesandthenatureofhumanbeings.Throughouttheera,socialclassesandfamilystructureswereevolving,producingasocietyinwhichthecommercialandprofessionalmiddleclasswasmoreprominentandthenuclearfamilyloomedasthedominantfamilytype.

Looking AheadAlthoughthereisnoguaranteeofcontinualforwardprogressinhistory,theseven-teenthandeighteenthcenturiesseeminretrospecttohavemadeaforwardmarchfromtheageofabsolutemonarchytotheageofdemocraticrepublics;fromtheageofwoodenfarmimplementstotheageoframpanttechnologicalinvention;fromtheageofilliteratepeasantsboundtotheland,totheageofanenergetic,educatedmiddleclassrisingeconomically,politically,andculturally.

5SELF-ChECK

What was the

“clockwork universe?”

Unit 6, Lesson 9 15

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Thissocialevolutionwasaccompaniedbydisruptionsthatweresometimesviolentand,formanypeople,deeplytroubling.Astheeighteencenturywentforward,sci-encedidnotcreateautopia;itledtoaworldofrapidlyimprovingmaterialgoods,butalsoofpovertyinmanyareasandofhazardstothenaturalworld.Thechangefrommonarchytodemocracycostbloodshed,particularlyinFrancewhenarevolutiontoppledthearistocracyandroyalty.Theintellectualrevolutionsoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieshadpowerfuleffectsintheworldofrealindividuallives.

1. Prussia and England were the major victors of the Seven Years’ War.

2. Government policies encouraged the growth of international shipping trade, which in turn led to the development of joint-stock companies as ways of financing overseas commerce, and then to a market in the shares of joint-stock companies.

3. The fundamental attitude about human knowledge at the base of the Scientific Revolution

was the idea that human beings can discover the truth about nature through direct observation and experiment.

4. The social contract is the idea that governments exist at the behest of the people.

5. The clockwork universe was the Enlightenment view that the universe is an orderly system that obeys rational natural laws.

SELF-ChECK ANSWERS

Unit 6, Lesson 9 16

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Unit 6, Lesson 9All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1 Voltaire. © Photos.com/Jupiterim-ages 3 Carl Philipp G. von Clausewitz, On War, trans. James John Graham (London: Westheimer, Lea and Co., 1873) 12. 9 Ptolemaic diagram of universe. © Photos.com/Jupiterimages 10 Isaac Newton. ©Photos.com/Getty Images 12 Voltaire. © Photos.com/Jupiterimages 13 Voltaire, The Works of Voltaire: A Contemporary Ver-sion, eds. Tobias Smollet and John Morley, trans. William F. Fleming and Oliver Herbrand Gordon Leigh (E.R. DuMont, 1901), 4: 272.

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