Thumbnailjpg

A World History of Rubber

A World History of RubberEmpire Industry and the Everyday

Stephen L Harp

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of Stephen L Harp to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Harp Stephen L author A world history of rubber empire industry and the everyday Stephen L Harp pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-93423-4 (cloth) ndash ISBN 978-1-118-93422-7 (paperback) 1 Rubber industry and tradendashHistory 2 Labor and globalization 3 GlobalizationndashSocial aspects I Title HD9161A2H37 2016 3384rsquo76782ndashdc23 2015021086

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Firestone Worldrsquos Fair brochure 1934 Century of Progress records Special Collections University of Illinois at Chicago Library

Set in 95115pt Meridien by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

A World History of Rubber

A World History of RubberEmpire Industry and the Everyday

Stephen L Harp

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of Stephen L Harp to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Harp Stephen L author A world history of rubber empire industry and the everyday Stephen L Harp pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-93423-4 (cloth) ndash ISBN 978-1-118-93422-7 (paperback) 1 Rubber industry and tradendashHistory 2 Labor and globalization 3 GlobalizationndashSocial aspects I Title HD9161A2H37 2016 3384rsquo76782ndashdc23 2015021086

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Firestone Worldrsquos Fair brochure 1934 Century of Progress records Special Collections University of Illinois at Chicago Library

Set in 95115pt Meridien by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

A World History of RubberEmpire Industry and the Everyday

Stephen L Harp

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of Stephen L Harp to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Harp Stephen L author A world history of rubber empire industry and the everyday Stephen L Harp pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-93423-4 (cloth) ndash ISBN 978-1-118-93422-7 (paperback) 1 Rubber industry and tradendashHistory 2 Labor and globalization 3 GlobalizationndashSocial aspects I Title HD9161A2H37 2016 3384rsquo76782ndashdc23 2015021086

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Firestone Worldrsquos Fair brochure 1934 Century of Progress records Special Collections University of Illinois at Chicago Library

Set in 95115pt Meridien by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of Stephen L Harp to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Harp Stephen L author A world history of rubber empire industry and the everyday Stephen L Harp pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-93423-4 (cloth) ndash ISBN 978-1-118-93422-7 (paperback) 1 Rubber industry and tradendashHistory 2 Labor and globalization 3 GlobalizationndashSocial aspects I Title HD9161A2H37 2016 3384rsquo76782ndashdc23 2015021086

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Firestone Worldrsquos Fair brochure 1934 Century of Progress records Special Collections University of Illinois at Chicago Library

Set in 95115pt Meridien by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

For my parentsSara and Larry Gotshall

Greg and Barb Harp

Acknowledgments ixTimeline xiGlobal Rubber and Tire Companies xvii

Introduction Why Rubber 1Global Connections 8

1 Race Migration and Labor 10ldquoWild Rubberrdquo and Early Industry 11ldquoWild Rubberrdquo and Empire 14Plantationsrsquo Progress ldquoRationality and Efficiencyrdquo 17Plantation Hierarchies 21Race and Industry in the United States and Europe 29

2 Women and Gender on Plantations and in Factories 40Gendering the Jungle and the Plantation 42Asian Women on Plantations 44European Women and Racism 48The Colonizing Woman 50Gendered Production in the United States and Europe 52Rubber and Sex in Indochine 56

3 Demand and Everyday Consumption 61Everyday Consumption on Southeast Asian Plantations 62Class and Consumption in North America and Europe 64Race and Consumption in Europe and North America 68Gender and Consumption in Europe and North America 71Gendering Reproduction 77

Contents

Contents

viii

4 World Wars Nationalism and Imperialism 83World War I 84ldquoSee America Firstrdquo on ldquoGood Roadsrdquo 86Flying for the Nation 88Restricting Rubber in the Wake of War 90American Assertions Herbert Hoover and US Trade 91Firestone and Friends 94Firestone in Liberia 96Germany Colonies and Chemicals 99World War II and the US Scramble for Rubber 102Nazi Racism and Buna at Auschwitz 105Imperialism and Nationalism in the Wake of World War II 107

5 Resistance and Independence 111Plantations and Resistance 112Global Economic Crisis and Plantation Labor 118Success of the Smallholders 120Plantations under the Japanese 124Independence and Decolonization 126United Rubber Workers 131

Conclusion Forgetting and Remembering Rubber 137Suggested Readings 142Index 157

Ironically it took me a long time to write this short book Over many years I have incurred considerable intellectual debts I am very grateful to the following archives and libraries for their assistance the Archives for Traditional Music and the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University the Bibliothegraveque Nationale de France the British Library the British National Archives the Centre des Archives drsquoOutre‐Mer in Aix‐en‐Provence the Guildhall Library of the City of London the Hartman Center for Sales Advertising and Marketing History at Duke University the Hoover Institution at Stanford University the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library the National Archives II in College Park Maryland the National Library of Vietnam in Hanoi the New York Public Library the Ohio Historical Society the Smithsonian Institution Museum of American History the University of Akron Archives the University of Illinois at Chicago Library Special Collections Department the Wellcome Library in London and the Western Reserve Historical Society in Cleveland

I am lucky to have received financial help from the following institu-tions to collect materials and to present ideas the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales the Hoover Presidential Library the National Endowment for the Humanities the Miller Humanities Center at the University of Akron the University of Akron Faculty Research Committee and the Watson Institute at Brown University

Many people helped me find sources sent materials assisted research responded to my queries wrote letters listened to my ideas in both formal and informal contexts and read drafts I could not be more grateful to Leah Alanni Don Appleby Dominique Avon John Ball Lisa Bansen‐Harp Shelley Baranowski Nathaniel Bassett TJ Boisseau Connie Bouchard George Boudreau Victoria Brownfield Kevin Callahan Ian Campbell Alain Chatriot Marie Chessel William Gervaise

Acknowledgments

x

Acknowledgments

Clarence‐Smith Bill Cohen Lizabeth Cohen Mark Cole Sarah Curtis Andrew Davidson Mary Lee Eggart Victoria de Grazia Michael Dove Vic Fleischer Tannya Forcone Anne Foster Patrick Friedenson Ellen Furlough Michael Graham Kolleen Guy Marie Harp Sarah Harp Carol Harrison Gerhard Haupt Lisa Heineman Matthew Hilton Walter Hixson Craig Holbert Kirk Hoppe Daniel Hovatter Eric Jennings Xu Jianchu Kevin Kern Julia Kirk Kyle Liston John Merriman Emily Osborn Sally Osborn Steve Paschen Jeremy Popkin Megan Powley Becky Pulju Dionna Richardson Kym Rohrbach Janet Sturgeon Anne Sudrow Steve Toth Mike Vann Martin Wainwright Victoria White Wade Wilcox Greg Wilson and the anonymous readers for the Press

I owe particular thanks to my students who read every word and offered excellent suggestions for improvement As I work with them I hope constantly to measure up to the standard set by my former profes-sors especially Carl Caldwell Bill Cohen Janina Traxler and David Waas

All of the above people and institutions deserve preventive absolu-tion for my many sins of omission in this book As a short introduction to a huge topic it is aimed at general readers and students The book is not comprehensive As I hope to illustrate the dynamics of this particular global commodity chain are far too diffuse for me or anyone else to ldquocoverrdquo everything thoroughly at least not in a single volume that anyone would actually want to read Instead I want to show how we might use the history of one thingmdashin this case rubbermdashto think about the connected lives of the diverse people who produced handled sold consumed and profited from it

Stephen L HarpAkron Ohio

Timeline

Before 1493mdashCenturies before Europeans ldquodiscoverrdquo rubber Native Americans collect latex and fashion into usable products

1493ndash96mdashColumbus sees and describes rubber

1839mdashAmerican Charles Goodyear invents the process of vulcanization by heating and adding sulfur to the latex during production rendering noticeably more stable manufactured rubber that neither melts on hot days nor cracks on cold ones

1844mdashGoodyear patents vulcanization in the United States and Thomas Hancock later does so in Britain

1851mdashThe Crystal Palace Exhibition (the first worldrsquos fair) takes place in London Goodyear and others regularly introduce manufactured rubber goods to visitors at worldrsquos fairs as a form of advertising

1861ndash65mdashThe US Civil War creates a market for various rubber goods notably those useful for protection against rain

1870mdashBenjamin Franklin Goodrich founds B F Goodrich in Akron Ohio

1871mdashThe Continental Caoutchouc und Gutta‐Percha Compagnie trust is founded in Hanover Germany

1876mdashBriton Henry Wickham ships hevea seeds from Brazil to Kew Gardens in Britain The resulting seedlings are then taken to botanical gardens then plantations in Southeast Asia

1885mdashThe Conference of Berlin recognizes the Congo Free State of King Leopold of Belgium thus enabling the abusive exploitation of Congolese expected to collect ivory and rubber

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

Acknowledgments ixTimeline xiGlobal Rubber and Tire Companies xvii

Introduction Why Rubber 1Global Connections 8

1 Race Migration and Labor 10ldquoWild Rubberrdquo and Early Industry 11ldquoWild Rubberrdquo and Empire 14Plantationsrsquo Progress ldquoRationality and Efficiencyrdquo 17Plantation Hierarchies 21Race and Industry in the United States and Europe 29

2 Women and Gender on Plantations and in Factories 40Gendering the Jungle and the Plantation 42Asian Women on Plantations 44European Women and Racism 48The Colonizing Woman 50Gendered Production in the United States and Europe 52Rubber and Sex in Indochine 56

3 Demand and Everyday Consumption 61Everyday Consumption on Southeast Asian Plantations 62Class and Consumption in North America and Europe 64Race and Consumption in Europe and North America 68Gender and Consumption in Europe and North America 71Gendering Reproduction 77

Contents

Contents

viii

4 World Wars Nationalism and Imperialism 83World War I 84ldquoSee America Firstrdquo on ldquoGood Roadsrdquo 86Flying for the Nation 88Restricting Rubber in the Wake of War 90American Assertions Herbert Hoover and US Trade 91Firestone and Friends 94Firestone in Liberia 96Germany Colonies and Chemicals 99World War II and the US Scramble for Rubber 102Nazi Racism and Buna at Auschwitz 105Imperialism and Nationalism in the Wake of World War II 107

5 Resistance and Independence 111Plantations and Resistance 112Global Economic Crisis and Plantation Labor 118Success of the Smallholders 120Plantations under the Japanese 124Independence and Decolonization 126United Rubber Workers 131

Conclusion Forgetting and Remembering Rubber 137Suggested Readings 142Index 157

Ironically it took me a long time to write this short book Over many years I have incurred considerable intellectual debts I am very grateful to the following archives and libraries for their assistance the Archives for Traditional Music and the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University the Bibliothegraveque Nationale de France the British Library the British National Archives the Centre des Archives drsquoOutre‐Mer in Aix‐en‐Provence the Guildhall Library of the City of London the Hartman Center for Sales Advertising and Marketing History at Duke University the Hoover Institution at Stanford University the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library the National Archives II in College Park Maryland the National Library of Vietnam in Hanoi the New York Public Library the Ohio Historical Society the Smithsonian Institution Museum of American History the University of Akron Archives the University of Illinois at Chicago Library Special Collections Department the Wellcome Library in London and the Western Reserve Historical Society in Cleveland

I am lucky to have received financial help from the following institu-tions to collect materials and to present ideas the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales the Hoover Presidential Library the National Endowment for the Humanities the Miller Humanities Center at the University of Akron the University of Akron Faculty Research Committee and the Watson Institute at Brown University

Many people helped me find sources sent materials assisted research responded to my queries wrote letters listened to my ideas in both formal and informal contexts and read drafts I could not be more grateful to Leah Alanni Don Appleby Dominique Avon John Ball Lisa Bansen‐Harp Shelley Baranowski Nathaniel Bassett TJ Boisseau Connie Bouchard George Boudreau Victoria Brownfield Kevin Callahan Ian Campbell Alain Chatriot Marie Chessel William Gervaise

Acknowledgments

x

Acknowledgments

Clarence‐Smith Bill Cohen Lizabeth Cohen Mark Cole Sarah Curtis Andrew Davidson Mary Lee Eggart Victoria de Grazia Michael Dove Vic Fleischer Tannya Forcone Anne Foster Patrick Friedenson Ellen Furlough Michael Graham Kolleen Guy Marie Harp Sarah Harp Carol Harrison Gerhard Haupt Lisa Heineman Matthew Hilton Walter Hixson Craig Holbert Kirk Hoppe Daniel Hovatter Eric Jennings Xu Jianchu Kevin Kern Julia Kirk Kyle Liston John Merriman Emily Osborn Sally Osborn Steve Paschen Jeremy Popkin Megan Powley Becky Pulju Dionna Richardson Kym Rohrbach Janet Sturgeon Anne Sudrow Steve Toth Mike Vann Martin Wainwright Victoria White Wade Wilcox Greg Wilson and the anonymous readers for the Press

I owe particular thanks to my students who read every word and offered excellent suggestions for improvement As I work with them I hope constantly to measure up to the standard set by my former profes-sors especially Carl Caldwell Bill Cohen Janina Traxler and David Waas

All of the above people and institutions deserve preventive absolu-tion for my many sins of omission in this book As a short introduction to a huge topic it is aimed at general readers and students The book is not comprehensive As I hope to illustrate the dynamics of this particular global commodity chain are far too diffuse for me or anyone else to ldquocoverrdquo everything thoroughly at least not in a single volume that anyone would actually want to read Instead I want to show how we might use the history of one thingmdashin this case rubbermdashto think about the connected lives of the diverse people who produced handled sold consumed and profited from it

Stephen L HarpAkron Ohio

Timeline

Before 1493mdashCenturies before Europeans ldquodiscoverrdquo rubber Native Americans collect latex and fashion into usable products

1493ndash96mdashColumbus sees and describes rubber

1839mdashAmerican Charles Goodyear invents the process of vulcanization by heating and adding sulfur to the latex during production rendering noticeably more stable manufactured rubber that neither melts on hot days nor cracks on cold ones

1844mdashGoodyear patents vulcanization in the United States and Thomas Hancock later does so in Britain

1851mdashThe Crystal Palace Exhibition (the first worldrsquos fair) takes place in London Goodyear and others regularly introduce manufactured rubber goods to visitors at worldrsquos fairs as a form of advertising

1861ndash65mdashThe US Civil War creates a market for various rubber goods notably those useful for protection against rain

1870mdashBenjamin Franklin Goodrich founds B F Goodrich in Akron Ohio

1871mdashThe Continental Caoutchouc und Gutta‐Percha Compagnie trust is founded in Hanover Germany

1876mdashBriton Henry Wickham ships hevea seeds from Brazil to Kew Gardens in Britain The resulting seedlings are then taken to botanical gardens then plantations in Southeast Asia

1885mdashThe Conference of Berlin recognizes the Congo Free State of King Leopold of Belgium thus enabling the abusive exploitation of Congolese expected to collect ivory and rubber

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

Contents

viii

4 World Wars Nationalism and Imperialism 83World War I 84ldquoSee America Firstrdquo on ldquoGood Roadsrdquo 86Flying for the Nation 88Restricting Rubber in the Wake of War 90American Assertions Herbert Hoover and US Trade 91Firestone and Friends 94Firestone in Liberia 96Germany Colonies and Chemicals 99World War II and the US Scramble for Rubber 102Nazi Racism and Buna at Auschwitz 105Imperialism and Nationalism in the Wake of World War II 107

5 Resistance and Independence 111Plantations and Resistance 112Global Economic Crisis and Plantation Labor 118Success of the Smallholders 120Plantations under the Japanese 124Independence and Decolonization 126United Rubber Workers 131

Conclusion Forgetting and Remembering Rubber 137Suggested Readings 142Index 157

Ironically it took me a long time to write this short book Over many years I have incurred considerable intellectual debts I am very grateful to the following archives and libraries for their assistance the Archives for Traditional Music and the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University the Bibliothegraveque Nationale de France the British Library the British National Archives the Centre des Archives drsquoOutre‐Mer in Aix‐en‐Provence the Guildhall Library of the City of London the Hartman Center for Sales Advertising and Marketing History at Duke University the Hoover Institution at Stanford University the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library the National Archives II in College Park Maryland the National Library of Vietnam in Hanoi the New York Public Library the Ohio Historical Society the Smithsonian Institution Museum of American History the University of Akron Archives the University of Illinois at Chicago Library Special Collections Department the Wellcome Library in London and the Western Reserve Historical Society in Cleveland

I am lucky to have received financial help from the following institu-tions to collect materials and to present ideas the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales the Hoover Presidential Library the National Endowment for the Humanities the Miller Humanities Center at the University of Akron the University of Akron Faculty Research Committee and the Watson Institute at Brown University

Many people helped me find sources sent materials assisted research responded to my queries wrote letters listened to my ideas in both formal and informal contexts and read drafts I could not be more grateful to Leah Alanni Don Appleby Dominique Avon John Ball Lisa Bansen‐Harp Shelley Baranowski Nathaniel Bassett TJ Boisseau Connie Bouchard George Boudreau Victoria Brownfield Kevin Callahan Ian Campbell Alain Chatriot Marie Chessel William Gervaise

Acknowledgments

x

Acknowledgments

Clarence‐Smith Bill Cohen Lizabeth Cohen Mark Cole Sarah Curtis Andrew Davidson Mary Lee Eggart Victoria de Grazia Michael Dove Vic Fleischer Tannya Forcone Anne Foster Patrick Friedenson Ellen Furlough Michael Graham Kolleen Guy Marie Harp Sarah Harp Carol Harrison Gerhard Haupt Lisa Heineman Matthew Hilton Walter Hixson Craig Holbert Kirk Hoppe Daniel Hovatter Eric Jennings Xu Jianchu Kevin Kern Julia Kirk Kyle Liston John Merriman Emily Osborn Sally Osborn Steve Paschen Jeremy Popkin Megan Powley Becky Pulju Dionna Richardson Kym Rohrbach Janet Sturgeon Anne Sudrow Steve Toth Mike Vann Martin Wainwright Victoria White Wade Wilcox Greg Wilson and the anonymous readers for the Press

I owe particular thanks to my students who read every word and offered excellent suggestions for improvement As I work with them I hope constantly to measure up to the standard set by my former profes-sors especially Carl Caldwell Bill Cohen Janina Traxler and David Waas

All of the above people and institutions deserve preventive absolu-tion for my many sins of omission in this book As a short introduction to a huge topic it is aimed at general readers and students The book is not comprehensive As I hope to illustrate the dynamics of this particular global commodity chain are far too diffuse for me or anyone else to ldquocoverrdquo everything thoroughly at least not in a single volume that anyone would actually want to read Instead I want to show how we might use the history of one thingmdashin this case rubbermdashto think about the connected lives of the diverse people who produced handled sold consumed and profited from it

Stephen L HarpAkron Ohio

Timeline

Before 1493mdashCenturies before Europeans ldquodiscoverrdquo rubber Native Americans collect latex and fashion into usable products

1493ndash96mdashColumbus sees and describes rubber

1839mdashAmerican Charles Goodyear invents the process of vulcanization by heating and adding sulfur to the latex during production rendering noticeably more stable manufactured rubber that neither melts on hot days nor cracks on cold ones

1844mdashGoodyear patents vulcanization in the United States and Thomas Hancock later does so in Britain

1851mdashThe Crystal Palace Exhibition (the first worldrsquos fair) takes place in London Goodyear and others regularly introduce manufactured rubber goods to visitors at worldrsquos fairs as a form of advertising

1861ndash65mdashThe US Civil War creates a market for various rubber goods notably those useful for protection against rain

1870mdashBenjamin Franklin Goodrich founds B F Goodrich in Akron Ohio

1871mdashThe Continental Caoutchouc und Gutta‐Percha Compagnie trust is founded in Hanover Germany

1876mdashBriton Henry Wickham ships hevea seeds from Brazil to Kew Gardens in Britain The resulting seedlings are then taken to botanical gardens then plantations in Southeast Asia

1885mdashThe Conference of Berlin recognizes the Congo Free State of King Leopold of Belgium thus enabling the abusive exploitation of Congolese expected to collect ivory and rubber

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

Ironically it took me a long time to write this short book Over many years I have incurred considerable intellectual debts I am very grateful to the following archives and libraries for their assistance the Archives for Traditional Music and the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University the Bibliothegraveque Nationale de France the British Library the British National Archives the Centre des Archives drsquoOutre‐Mer in Aix‐en‐Provence the Guildhall Library of the City of London the Hartman Center for Sales Advertising and Marketing History at Duke University the Hoover Institution at Stanford University the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library the National Archives II in College Park Maryland the National Library of Vietnam in Hanoi the New York Public Library the Ohio Historical Society the Smithsonian Institution Museum of American History the University of Akron Archives the University of Illinois at Chicago Library Special Collections Department the Wellcome Library in London and the Western Reserve Historical Society in Cleveland

I am lucky to have received financial help from the following institu-tions to collect materials and to present ideas the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales the Hoover Presidential Library the National Endowment for the Humanities the Miller Humanities Center at the University of Akron the University of Akron Faculty Research Committee and the Watson Institute at Brown University

Many people helped me find sources sent materials assisted research responded to my queries wrote letters listened to my ideas in both formal and informal contexts and read drafts I could not be more grateful to Leah Alanni Don Appleby Dominique Avon John Ball Lisa Bansen‐Harp Shelley Baranowski Nathaniel Bassett TJ Boisseau Connie Bouchard George Boudreau Victoria Brownfield Kevin Callahan Ian Campbell Alain Chatriot Marie Chessel William Gervaise

Acknowledgments

x

Acknowledgments

Clarence‐Smith Bill Cohen Lizabeth Cohen Mark Cole Sarah Curtis Andrew Davidson Mary Lee Eggart Victoria de Grazia Michael Dove Vic Fleischer Tannya Forcone Anne Foster Patrick Friedenson Ellen Furlough Michael Graham Kolleen Guy Marie Harp Sarah Harp Carol Harrison Gerhard Haupt Lisa Heineman Matthew Hilton Walter Hixson Craig Holbert Kirk Hoppe Daniel Hovatter Eric Jennings Xu Jianchu Kevin Kern Julia Kirk Kyle Liston John Merriman Emily Osborn Sally Osborn Steve Paschen Jeremy Popkin Megan Powley Becky Pulju Dionna Richardson Kym Rohrbach Janet Sturgeon Anne Sudrow Steve Toth Mike Vann Martin Wainwright Victoria White Wade Wilcox Greg Wilson and the anonymous readers for the Press

I owe particular thanks to my students who read every word and offered excellent suggestions for improvement As I work with them I hope constantly to measure up to the standard set by my former profes-sors especially Carl Caldwell Bill Cohen Janina Traxler and David Waas

All of the above people and institutions deserve preventive absolu-tion for my many sins of omission in this book As a short introduction to a huge topic it is aimed at general readers and students The book is not comprehensive As I hope to illustrate the dynamics of this particular global commodity chain are far too diffuse for me or anyone else to ldquocoverrdquo everything thoroughly at least not in a single volume that anyone would actually want to read Instead I want to show how we might use the history of one thingmdashin this case rubbermdashto think about the connected lives of the diverse people who produced handled sold consumed and profited from it

Stephen L HarpAkron Ohio

Timeline

Before 1493mdashCenturies before Europeans ldquodiscoverrdquo rubber Native Americans collect latex and fashion into usable products

1493ndash96mdashColumbus sees and describes rubber

1839mdashAmerican Charles Goodyear invents the process of vulcanization by heating and adding sulfur to the latex during production rendering noticeably more stable manufactured rubber that neither melts on hot days nor cracks on cold ones

1844mdashGoodyear patents vulcanization in the United States and Thomas Hancock later does so in Britain

1851mdashThe Crystal Palace Exhibition (the first worldrsquos fair) takes place in London Goodyear and others regularly introduce manufactured rubber goods to visitors at worldrsquos fairs as a form of advertising

1861ndash65mdashThe US Civil War creates a market for various rubber goods notably those useful for protection against rain

1870mdashBenjamin Franklin Goodrich founds B F Goodrich in Akron Ohio

1871mdashThe Continental Caoutchouc und Gutta‐Percha Compagnie trust is founded in Hanover Germany

1876mdashBriton Henry Wickham ships hevea seeds from Brazil to Kew Gardens in Britain The resulting seedlings are then taken to botanical gardens then plantations in Southeast Asia

1885mdashThe Conference of Berlin recognizes the Congo Free State of King Leopold of Belgium thus enabling the abusive exploitation of Congolese expected to collect ivory and rubber

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

x

Acknowledgments

Clarence‐Smith Bill Cohen Lizabeth Cohen Mark Cole Sarah Curtis Andrew Davidson Mary Lee Eggart Victoria de Grazia Michael Dove Vic Fleischer Tannya Forcone Anne Foster Patrick Friedenson Ellen Furlough Michael Graham Kolleen Guy Marie Harp Sarah Harp Carol Harrison Gerhard Haupt Lisa Heineman Matthew Hilton Walter Hixson Craig Holbert Kirk Hoppe Daniel Hovatter Eric Jennings Xu Jianchu Kevin Kern Julia Kirk Kyle Liston John Merriman Emily Osborn Sally Osborn Steve Paschen Jeremy Popkin Megan Powley Becky Pulju Dionna Richardson Kym Rohrbach Janet Sturgeon Anne Sudrow Steve Toth Mike Vann Martin Wainwright Victoria White Wade Wilcox Greg Wilson and the anonymous readers for the Press

I owe particular thanks to my students who read every word and offered excellent suggestions for improvement As I work with them I hope constantly to measure up to the standard set by my former profes-sors especially Carl Caldwell Bill Cohen Janina Traxler and David Waas

All of the above people and institutions deserve preventive absolu-tion for my many sins of omission in this book As a short introduction to a huge topic it is aimed at general readers and students The book is not comprehensive As I hope to illustrate the dynamics of this particular global commodity chain are far too diffuse for me or anyone else to ldquocoverrdquo everything thoroughly at least not in a single volume that anyone would actually want to read Instead I want to show how we might use the history of one thingmdashin this case rubbermdashto think about the connected lives of the diverse people who produced handled sold consumed and profited from it

Stephen L HarpAkron Ohio

Timeline

Before 1493mdashCenturies before Europeans ldquodiscoverrdquo rubber Native Americans collect latex and fashion into usable products

1493ndash96mdashColumbus sees and describes rubber

1839mdashAmerican Charles Goodyear invents the process of vulcanization by heating and adding sulfur to the latex during production rendering noticeably more stable manufactured rubber that neither melts on hot days nor cracks on cold ones

1844mdashGoodyear patents vulcanization in the United States and Thomas Hancock later does so in Britain

1851mdashThe Crystal Palace Exhibition (the first worldrsquos fair) takes place in London Goodyear and others regularly introduce manufactured rubber goods to visitors at worldrsquos fairs as a form of advertising

1861ndash65mdashThe US Civil War creates a market for various rubber goods notably those useful for protection against rain

1870mdashBenjamin Franklin Goodrich founds B F Goodrich in Akron Ohio

1871mdashThe Continental Caoutchouc und Gutta‐Percha Compagnie trust is founded in Hanover Germany

1876mdashBriton Henry Wickham ships hevea seeds from Brazil to Kew Gardens in Britain The resulting seedlings are then taken to botanical gardens then plantations in Southeast Asia

1885mdashThe Conference of Berlin recognizes the Congo Free State of King Leopold of Belgium thus enabling the abusive exploitation of Congolese expected to collect ivory and rubber

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

Timeline

Before 1493mdashCenturies before Europeans ldquodiscoverrdquo rubber Native Americans collect latex and fashion into usable products

1493ndash96mdashColumbus sees and describes rubber

1839mdashAmerican Charles Goodyear invents the process of vulcanization by heating and adding sulfur to the latex during production rendering noticeably more stable manufactured rubber that neither melts on hot days nor cracks on cold ones

1844mdashGoodyear patents vulcanization in the United States and Thomas Hancock later does so in Britain

1851mdashThe Crystal Palace Exhibition (the first worldrsquos fair) takes place in London Goodyear and others regularly introduce manufactured rubber goods to visitors at worldrsquos fairs as a form of advertising

1861ndash65mdashThe US Civil War creates a market for various rubber goods notably those useful for protection against rain

1870mdashBenjamin Franklin Goodrich founds B F Goodrich in Akron Ohio

1871mdashThe Continental Caoutchouc und Gutta‐Percha Compagnie trust is founded in Hanover Germany

1876mdashBriton Henry Wickham ships hevea seeds from Brazil to Kew Gardens in Britain The resulting seedlings are then taken to botanical gardens then plantations in Southeast Asia

1885mdashThe Conference of Berlin recognizes the Congo Free State of King Leopold of Belgium thus enabling the abusive exploitation of Congolese expected to collect ivory and rubber

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

xii

Timeline

1888mdashJohn Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire for safety bicycles increasing demand for rubber

1889mdashEdouard and Andreacute Michelin found Michelin et Compagnie in Clermont‐Ferrand France

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo appears in it he appeals to white American men to fulfill their duty to build an empire in the Philippines and beyond

Joseph Conradrsquos Heart of Darkness published Long part of the canon of British literature the novella reveals how even critics of the exploitation of the Congo accepted widespread European notions of white superiority

1892mdashSeveral small rubber companies combine to form US Rubber a trust in Naugatuck Connecticut

1895mdashMichelin introduces the pneumatic tire for automobiles further increasing demand for rubber

1898mdashF A Seiberling founds Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio by the 1910s it is the worldrsquos largest tire producer

1900mdashHarvey S Firestone Sr founds Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

mdashMichelin introduces the (red) tourist guide to hotels and garages meant to encourage automobile travel

1908mdashKing Leopold II signs the Congo over to the Belgian Government after an international campaign exposes the abuses in ivory and rubber collection in the African colony

Henry Ford produces the first Model T which remains in production until 1927 exponentially stoking demand for rubber tires in the United States

1910mdashDunlop and US Rubber begin acquiring rubber plantations in Southeast Asia

The British Empire replaces the use of contract labor from India on Southeast Asian plantations with the kangani system of recruitment

1913mdashThe first shipment of liquid latex makes its way from Southeast Asia to the United States These shipments of liquid latex eventually enable the production of new latex rubber products notably latex gloves latex condoms household goods paint and foam rubber in the United States and Europe

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna

xiii

Timeline

1914mdashWorld War Imdashthe Great Warmdashbegins in Europe ultimately revealing the use of a high number of rubber‐tire‐shod heavy trucks during war

The French army requisitions Renault taxicabs from Paris in order to haul men to the Battle of the Marne symbolically emphasizing the need for automobiles in wartime and thus for their tires

1915mdashThe Rubber Manufacturersrsquo Association a trade association and lobbying group for the major tire and rubber producers is founded in the United States

1916mdashWilliam OrsquoNeil founds General Tire and Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

Rubber‐tire‐clad trucks famously prove their mettle in the Battle of Verdun on the well‐known ldquosacred wayrdquo able to supply troops at Verdun when trains cannot do so

1917mdashThe United States enters World War I on the side of Britain and France

Goodyear acquires its first plantation in the Dutch East Indies

1918mdashWorld War I ends

1919mdashA global economic recession begins shortly after the war during demobilization sending rubber prices plummeting

1920mdashTire workers go on strike in Clermont‐Ferrand Michelin blames the work stoppage on Kabyles (Algerian Berbers) and Spanish immi-grants and fires them

1921mdashSecretary Herbert Hooverrsquos Department of Commerce creates a Rubber Division charged with assisting American rubber manufacturers in world markets

F A Seiberling loses Goodyear to his financiers and founds the Seiberling Rubber Company in Akron Ohio

1922mdashBritain introduces the Stevenson Restriction Scheme in British colonies thereby reducing rubber production and driving up the price of rubber

1925mdashThe IG Farben trust is created by combining Bayer and other companies in Frankfurt am Main Germany IG Farben undertakes the ultimately successful development of a viable synthetic rubber called Buna