A ty, Partial Pulf'111mento:t the Re...in her book. Also, many ot the empirical stu to·,''lents she...
Transcript of A ty, Partial Pulf'111mento:t the Re...in her book. Also, many ot the empirical stu to·,''lents she...
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL RELATIons·:
AN ANAJJYSIS OF JANE JACOBS 1 v/OltK
by
Riohard R» Mil l er. B. S.
A The s i s subMitted t o the Facult'S'· of the Gradua te School, Nar quette Un! vers t ty, i n
Partial Pulf'111mento:t the Re .... qu.ireme nts t'o·r the De gree
of Maste~ of Arts
Hilwaukee, Wisconsin January$ 1969
PREF'ACE
The vl'r'i tel' wishes to Etxplr'es$ his appreciation to
Dr. Joseph Tamney ~ :who first introduced him to the topic of
urban man ' s relationship to his physical envi.rorrrllent. In an
independent research oourse S\lpervised by D.t> . TruID1ey, the
"l!'i tel' first betJ a.lue ll"la.re. of how 1.1 ttle soc 1al sc ientl;st s
understand t he city and its effeot on human behavior. Jane
.TacQhs r book ,The ,Death and ,Life of Gre,a,t Americe.n; Oities ,
was one of' several books which. the writer r:ead dur.1.ng the
course. or !,art1clllal" interest were Jaeobs f observe. tiona
that n dt versa physical structure 1s necessary for diverse
and heterogeneous social aotivity to OOCllr~ According to
Jacobs, physical structure in a.n urban area. reqUires (l) a
mixtu)['e of at least two pri!l1ary uaes- .. business, residential,
educational, or cultural , (2} ohort blocks and frequent
str0ets in order to stilllulEl.te the use of streets by persons
on different Boh!i1dule-s and 'Yi! th cl1.fferent purposes; (3)
bull dings of various ages and Dondi tions to e nsure that dif
ferent facilities needing different t'ypea of buildings may
I
be presen t, and (4) a high conoentra.tion of poople, so long
as there 1s no t overc;ro'Hding wi thin dwelling unl ts. fJhen
these four factors aro present, public sarety, casual publio
contact, and the assim.l1atlo1'lof ohildren into ftol ty society"
will oocur. It was the e~~irical ve~iflcatlon of these
observations which was cho5en as the 3ubj~ct Inatter :f"or the
wri tel' r s Master t s thesis.
In addition to Dr . 'famney, the vJriter's thesis
director,. a.pp:r~eiation is extended to Fr. John OtConnell,
3 . J. and ~,tv .. Robert Adams J who read drafts of the study and
offered eonst:r>uetive advioe .
II
IJ1ina11y, the wri tar is indebted to Dr .. \iilli:.am Nurphy
of the Marque.t te Un! versi ty School of fi.'nglnee.ring, who 1"'00.
Olnmended background 1'l1ater1al for this study, Dr. \1illiam
':Protter of the Scho ol of Speech at Marquette Unlve!'sity, who
was able to obtain i mportant census data fOl" the writer, a.nd
to Bernard Sinagub,. assistant controller for the di ty of'
MilHaukee, who secured information on the types of buil dings
found in all sections of N11l'V"aukee.
Cha.pter I .
II.
TABLE OF COllTENT3
TUE IMPORTANCE OF AN URBAN AREA1S i?RYSIGAT. STRUCTURE TO RU!'1AN
Paga
BEHi\ V! OR .... 0 • • • • • " ,. • " .... ;, _ ....... ~ • "' .. .. 1.
Il,itroduc tion Jane .Jacobs t Idea,a Statement of the Thesis Pvoblem
p!WCEDURE FOR DATA c ottECJTION . .... ..
Choosing the Sampl~ Constructing the Q,u~stlonne.ire
22
III. ANATJ'TSIS OF' DATA ~ ~ , ......... " •••••••• , • 32
Frequenc y of ~valking to the six stores
Index of Similar! ty Holding Eduoat10.n Constant Holding Age Con.stant "1hila \t>Jal.lc1n g to and \fuile at
the Groe,ery Number ot Ohildren w1 t h W'nom vJ'Qtnen
Talk "'mil e \:1a1king to a.nd t-Jhil,$ at a StQr~
SU1.llDlan
IV. A REASSESSf.'lENT OF JACOBS f THIlCING. . .. 59
BIBLIOGR.{\PHY. ' • . _ • • •••• " .~ •• J •• •• " . . ...... « " • ~ • .. • • • 6)
III
T.lIST OF TA}JLES
Table Pa~0
1" Distributionoi' Atrtoul'1t of Education t()'X' the Thirty ... Eight Respondents by Area " ...... ·. 44.~~ • . ., .. ' '' .. .... ·~ ,. * '''-.<!~'''..... 26
2 , Distribution of AgE) for the Th1.rty,.,.Eigh.'b Re'SPon~entf\j br A~ea. it; . t .. f 27
3 . Number otP~QP1E:) in Both Areas \Inn Ev~:r Go to .a. Stor$ .. . . ~.,. ' t .. !J" •• ~1' ... ~, 32
4. Frequoncy of' Ha.lking toa stop(J. by A~aa. A Re spondents . ... roc ., ..... . ~ . .... .. . t- " • ~ 33
5. Frequ~no'Y of Walking to a. store by Area B Real~ond.enta .. ... " pc • • W .. ~ • •• " !> . .... . ., .13
6 . !nd:6~ 'Of Sl1'l1ilarity Tor the Thirty ... JUght Re~pondent$ by Area. , .~ . Q Ii. 39
7 _ Index of Similar! ty Brokan :Down Into Its F't>0quency and Similarity Com.pon~nts t.or Each Area t s 'Respondents ", " '" ,. ~ ~ , ••• ' t ....... .. • • " « .. '" • • • 45
S .. Nationality Ind~x Holding Edu,oa:t1on O(:'metant for- Respondents in Ea.oh A:rea, 49
9 . Sex !nd~x Holding Education Constant for Rcap(}nd~nts in Each Area.. ......... 51
10 , 11ational1ty Index Holding Age Const~nt for ~espondEtnts in Eaeh Area. 52
11 • Sex lndex Holding Age Constant foX'-nea:pondent~ in £ao11 A:rea • •• " . .... ~ .. • • .. • • 53
IV
Table
1,2.,
13~
14.
Number of Times the rrhlrty-Eight Respondl1Hlts Walk to a StQt'G • • ~ !O •• , ••
Indox Qr 3im11e.rl ty for Walking to a Grocery for ~loae Respondents in Each Area. Vfuo \1a.lk to Tn.i s Type of S,tore . ~ . • r. ,. • , • .,; 't .......... ... .- • , . , ~
Mean N\.unber of Chil dren to trJhom Women in Both Area.s Talk Whil~ Walking to and \;{hile at s. store .• _,.
v
Page
54
55
56
CRAPTERI
'fEE IHPORTANCE OF AN URBAn A'REA l S PliYSICAL S'llIWCTlJRE TO HUViAN BEHAVIOR
IntrodUction • IS .t - ' _ ~
Jane Jacobs t book, '1:'h~ Peath .an? L!.fe ot; Grf>at
Am~~lco.n C~ t~~~.) provides add! t1ona1 insight into th~ spa.rse ...
ly"stud1ed subjectot urban man's l'elatl.0l1sh1p to h1.o physi
eal envl:r·onrnent.1 :rna term I1s t'&;rsely ... studled tt is used be ...
aause soo101og1st$ !:lx-a- just beginning to taptha fltotal nr
effect of this physioal structure . Pr~viO'l~.s thinking in
sociology, nota.bly the l..rorks of Robert Perk and Artl.os Hawley,
has been primarily geare d to anal:ya.,s: of spatial relation
ships in Ul"oa.u ar&&.s, whereas Jacoba 1s conoerned with the
arehitectu:t'1l1 effe-ot ot eit1eson hUlmm behavio:r, in e..dditlon
to their spatial rslationahips . 2
HOWe'lN!~:r , before pro:cee dinG to a de11nea tlon of Jacobs'
ideas, it mU'$t be point-ed out that these idees are not baaed
on rigorously-defined sooiological rea.soning. As Jaoobs says: .-___ ..... _____ .~ ~l. /t ", 1, ."
.. . IJanc& Jac,obs , 1h~ j)eath.!lnd ~1f'e QI;Gr!l~..l Amo:r1..2!u Cl ties {Nel-l York: Random tfquse, 1903 }. ,.
2The sirr.nificance of the idoas, of.' both Park and Hawley 1s limited by the writerg' laok of QQnsid0!"ation of the archi ... teaturnl effeot of cities on human behnvio1' (Interpretation of material. taken in lecture from ~Uchael Aiken, Ph . D~, Sociology 61.fS", Modern Alnerloan COIlll'lllln1t1os, University ot lVisconain, 196,? ). Ja.oobs, on the other hand, by consider1n~ tho arch! ... teotura.l effect of cltiGs't as well as their spatial effeot, is add1ngan add! tiona.l varia.ble to be considered in studying hU1llan beha.vior . See f for exa.'nple, Jacobs' views on the ma.ke .. up of 0:1 ty n~lghborhoods (Jaoobs ~ 120 ... 1 21).
In trying to explain tho unde!~lyil1g order-of cities" I used til. preponderance of exaTnpl oS from NOlf York because t hia is where I live , .Jut nlost of th.e basic ideas in this book ~o~e f3'?ln t h i ngs I fir~t noticed or \.Jas told in other Ol tles.
It will be the purpose of this paper to sociologize
the stimula.ting but unscientific i deas found in Jacoba' book
--ideas ~lhioh relate to the common , ordinary eXperiences of
urban I1fe. 4 To that end, all terms and t heir dofinitions
which ,Taoobs nrovides have been noted. However, 1 t ,,~ill be
a.ppa.rent t hat Fl&11Y of these terms are not pTeeisely defined
in her book . Also, many ot the empirical stu to·,''lents she Ti'lakes
are t h e result of her own experiences or those of other people
to ,,,hom she has snoken* and are not the result of sociological
research.
Jane Jacobs i Ideas i It '
The aa,pec t of T'.ne Death . an4 l.tf'e of Great Americo.n . ! . - ........ .
ct tiee "thioh is, of moat interest to us is not the flain theme ,
of her Hork . .Jacobs 1s -primarily conc.srned \-1:1 th the follo\Jlng
four cond! tiona of the eoono:rrlc behavior of a1 ties \-thioh , when
present in oombination; create Merfeetl ve economic pools of
use . liS First, there must be at least t"t-IO mixed pr"!"1ary uses
--business; residential , educat i onal, or cultural--to avoid a
single -pUl'-pose area , e,g., a college campus or cultural center .
Second, blocks must be short and streets treque.nt in order to
3.Ya.cObs J 15,
4Ib1d" 3. -5Xb1 f\q lSf) -151.,
3
stimulate the use or streets by persons on different sched
ules and Hith different purposes ~ Third. buildlng~ lllust be of
various ages and condi tiona So that d1rfe:r-ent 1'aci11 ties
needing different types of buildings may be present. lifor
exanJ.ple 'f whilo a ba.nk can afford the :rent of a. new bu11ding~
a nelf!.,hborhood restaurant or bookstore probably cannot.
Finally;. there must be a high ooncentration of people, so
long as there is not overcrowding \11 thin $-le111ng uni tSt 6
Eaoh of these four l'aotG:rs,which have bGen inter
preted as the most .i1.1lportant $lelllel1ta 1,n an ur'ba..l1 area 1 s
physical str'tlcture, mus.t in turn be seen in rela.tion to the
ooncept of' a city nel€",hborhood~ 7 :@..; • . ~ 1 _lr
ttRobert A" t,OW', ff sVlee-t j 'Depressed Area' Home, /I
Saturday Rev!ew ~, t.zl. <Dea~r-dber 2, 1961)# P . 28 M
7Saoo'bs t desoription of the four generators of economic pools of use 18 not neee$sar11y synonymous with what is ueu .. a.lly assooiated wi tIl const! tutlng eoonomic bel'loavior. HoltJever, SOOie ln~dght into. her 1dee.$aan be ga,1ned by considering suoh types of econonic enter'Pr1~es as ttsmall" manufe.e tv.rers and It small "l'leta!lar$.11 Each of these types of e11tE:!l-'prises needs the advantages of urban life ...... "the ex.1stenoe of many people of different tasttl$ ~ ski~ls , and needs (Jacobs, 1L~ 7).
The key word here' is Hemall. 1f Porexample, concorn .... ing fllanufacturing.,. largo ttlCU111fac turers need not be in cl ties beoause they "'}aav-c gros-tel' selt ... ~uffic1ency than small ones, are abl~ to mainta.in within themsel ves H10St of the skills and equipment they need, can 'Vtarehouae fat'- the1llsel vee , and can sel l to a broad r-lQrke,t which thGY Q'an seek out wherevel!' it tllay be·' (Ihid. ~ 14.5) ~ On the other hand, sma.ll manufacturers un1us t draw on many .and varied supplios a.nd skills outs.ide theros~l ves , thQ-Y mU8"f; serve a narro'l'; market at the point 'Where a. market exists", and they :must be sensi ti va to qu1ck cha..'1ges in this mal'ket~ · i'Jl thout cities , the.y wouldslmplj not (ixist" {Ibid. ). - - Economic d1versityin urban areas is based upon having
enou.gh mlxtureamC1l1fj; uses Hthroughout enough of the!!! terri ... toritils, to suet$.ltl their atom oivilizutlonu (Ibid .. J 144)" While smallness and diversity are llot neoessarily synon~ous,
Neighborhood is a ~"ord that ha.s come to sound like a Valentine. As a sentimental concept" 'nei(t,hborhoodt
i ,a harru.ful to city plannin.g . It lead$ to attempts at W"~ing city life into imitations of town or suburban lifeq Sentimentalitg plays with 8W~0t intentions in pI ae e of goo d sense ..
4.
T.hls concept of ne1ghbol'hood is not meant to refar' to
a self .. oQntained unit. A6carding to orthodox city planning
theory.t a neig)1.borhood is cot1lpos~d of about 7 ,000 perf}ona and
haa "suffiGient size to populate an eleme ntary school and to
support conveh:lence shopping tL1'ld a <tOIm'lUni ty center. ,,9 Oon
trary to this I ,jaoobs v1.~& these neighborhoods as parts of a.
larP:.® city l;here interchang6$ a.nd fluld1 ty dominate 10
Perhaps the fal1aey of orthodo~ city planning theory
can be elarifled by d.1st1nguighlng be·tween these self·-oon
tained nelghbol'hoods and town life . ,
a high :p:t'oportion oft!n""lal1 elamenta i:1 ne·\t~sear'Y for vQl"iety. In addlt.ion, where ·diV$~a1.ty 61Clsts with respect to cOl.mnerOG, the urban area also con:talns suoh other kinds of diversity as t'oultural opportun1t1(HI; val'iety of s¢iPnes r and. a great variety i n its populat.ion and other uses n tIbj,d.; 148).
?inally. it should be noted that cities do not automatically generate diver1l1ty.. lJ1Jhey generate it because of the- var1ou$ efficient econorn1.e pools of u:se that thoy f'Qr-m tf
{I~i,d !, ', Also, given the four oonditions of eoonoznlc behav-10r.t not all city areas, will p:r>oduo& equ.ivalent d1v(,1J>sity ,~ tl1he potf>ntla.l .s of d1f"ff,Jt>~nt di.s tri()ts Ca c1 ty nelghbo:vhood of app.~o1d.1itately 100,000 people (Ibid • ., 11711 diffe:;- for many reason.s; but " given the dev€)lopment of thoSG four conditions (or the best approximation.. tQ their full development that can be Fl8.naged in real lii'e) ~ a. 01 ty distriot should be able to reali.ze its best potential, Wherever that may lie" (Ib1<!0J 1$1).
8 Ibid .. , 112.
9Th,f5!'" 115 ..
lOl'2J,d,. II ll6.
./
In a. to'1iJn of 5 l1 oo0 or 10 ,.000 population, it you go to Hain street (analogous to· the eonaollda,te d cOIln:l1ercio.l facil1 ties or conrmuni ty center foT' a p lanned neighborhood) ; you l"Ul'1 into people you al.so knCHJ at work:l or llent to school with, or see at churoh, or people t..rho are yout' chi ldren f a teachers t or who have sold or given you professional or ari;isan 's servtcoB, or va'hOl1l you lrnO'\f to be friends of your casual a.cqua.int~mces, or' Nhom you knovl by reputation.. \I!ithin th.~ l im! ts of n tov.ll'l or vil lage , t h e connections among its people keep crossing and r ecI"osaing und this -can make workable and essentially cohe~i Vo cOlmnuni ties out of even larger tm..rns than those of 7 ,000 populution, and to so:me extent out of l ittle cities .
But a population of 5 , 000 ():P lO, oor) 1."0s:tdents in a. big city has no such innabe degree of natural cross .. conneo ... t~ons wi thin :j-t~elf, exe apt under the r'1ost extraordi nary cl.rcurastances ..
'tiihere city pe ople differ' i.s the. t they are mobile.
nThey can and do p ick and choose from t he entire oi ty (and
beyond) for everything from a j ob, a dentist, reoreation ~ or
friends.; to shops , enterta.inme nt, or evan in some casos their
chil drep t s schools . ,,12
This is i ndeed t he point of c5. ties.. ~'urtherl110re, this very fluidity of usa and choice among c:tt:y people is reciaely the foundation underlying most city cultural
actlvitiesand special enterprises of all kinds ., 3ecG'..use thes@ can draw skill s j material s ~ customers or clientel e s from a great noel, thoy C(~n E).xi$t in extraord:lullry variety and not only dmllntOtffi but in ot.her city d:tstricts ~ity noi[!,b.borhood of apprOXimately 100, 000 peor § that dev-elop special ties and c haracters oJ' their 0'1'111.
And in dl-'(l~:-1in8 up on the groeat p ool o.f the 01 ty 1n t h is way oi ty enterprises inorease, in tUI'!1, the cheices availablo to 01 t-y people fo!' jobs, goods, entertui.nlnent, idea.s , contacts, 3erv1ces.
Nhatev6r ci ty neiGhborhoods may be~ or may not be, and whatever usefUlness they may have , or r'ta.y be coaxed into having ,. their quall ties oannot v-lork at crOS$-pur ... Doses to thorou(t)l ... going .city mob11itya.l'ld fluidity of
11l.Ql...g., 115.
12Ib1d. , 116 . --...--...,
t """T"'"
una." l<¥i thout Ocarlotl.d.call 'Y 'WOak~blt'} the <i1 ty Qf 'WS.tiCh they ~. a pa:i~t " Tho laok oto1tl1or e¢onor .. d"o or ~ie.l olf' .... {H,')ntn,innent it) n&tur-al and r.tetf$$$t1ry to c1.-ty ;:~1s11.
bo:rtto()ds--a:tynply boenull\;l th~y ' &1"0 parts of olt1<H!-.,
But 'Wbat exaotly oonst1tuttls a 'city l'lelgbborh.ood?
Acoord1ni~ to Jacoha, t~ho,y can ~)O thought ' of as ttmlU'nla.:ne Ol"£'Jllls
ot ,self ... gOV01"ntltOnt . ,;4 In oth-or Hords. they aro" ganol'>ally
npeak1ns, plaoes \'11:\01"& both th~ ramuli and informal salt-:man
!lr,;ement tuoot1.ons ()t $'oeiety e.nat.1.5 vtew$<l t'.r~'!l this per ..
st)eotiVE>. Jacoba 11,sts three t:YPO$ of n~ie,hborhoods \l
The :fll"st in the city as a wholo, 16 ~lli$ 13 tho levol
at which many peopla of d1£.f&~nt into"sta a~~o brollght to ..
r,ether. ru~ is also tIlt:> aOU"fI trot,l ~h1eh mO$t t>ublio money
flows " wb~t"e m.o~t admin1tt~Q.ti v:ac tand po11..o:,- ~~a1$:(O~s are
,no..dG:I ' a.nd whore 8p~lal .... 1ntG~st e~j'lm,un1tlea &.1'1.d pl"'e:.1SUr1)
7>OUpS ar& tound,17
lJ!b.o saoQ.U<l t~ or elty n~ighbo;t'hood is tho di,:;trlot
of larpze sUbcl.ty $1z;}. cOl'1:lposedot' 100 ;000 paopl$ or uaore 1n
tht} ,ease of th.~ la.t'gestcltles . It is th~ o111$-t f'l.ltlQ,tlol"l of
:l,() Buee~uwtul d1atr1et to aet a~ t1. modiator bett~~Gn the
powerfUl oity al1d the thi~d type o·f c1 ty n~1@1bGrhood~ .. th~
po11tlG~11y poWG~lese etrQ$t ne1ebbo~ood. In otllQr wordg~
d1et:r1ets ttJ.UGt ''help 'bril1{§the N&()\1~es Qf a e1t:y tl.o't-lll to --,.00i. 1t lf ail! .-p _ -0; - )1; . ...... ...,..". . ( ,.,,.,, - ,, )'.) I , t.. .I.t 'fl."
13Ibid., 116.117. - .
14n>1d.. 11 t • . ~' 1+.*
~! O:tt103" Jacobs i
not to townolf l1ttl(). oit1()s 17 . ~1.q.f 118.
~o.f~l"x-1ng to. tteree.t ,~1tl\h"lJ· nnd Ot? suburbe (~ ... i.4. . 16) .,
whe:N} the)}' are. needed by street neighborhoods, and they have
to he1p translate the experiences. of l'eal life, ill street
neip'hborhoods, into policies and purposes of their oity as
a whole . ti18 As a result" nn e:ffe.ctlv~ district usually
aooru~s, 'VIi th time f oonsiderabl$ po11 tical pO'lifer" 19
7
A sooond point concerning dist:rlcta is that residents
are aware of the existence of their dlst:r'icts and identify
with them" Idontification with a distriot follows because:
(1) the distriot t s streets are lively and interesting; (2)
these streets fom as continuous a network as possible
throughout t he distriot; a.nd (3) parka and squa:resand publio
buildings ai'S seen as uart of the stroets f i'al:n"ie. T'ne ef~
fort is continually :made 'topttov1de differences which,. accord-
ing to ,1acobs , "-lllake for cross,..,use and hence fa!> a person t s
1dentif'1cation wlth an a.~a greater than his i mmediate street
neighborhood. .. t:r.20
A final thought about districts concerns the matter
of' 8i~e . now big is an effeotl ve distrio t? {fwo points are
important . First, a functional definition of size is that it
ls "big enough to' fightci ty hall , but not so big that street
neit:\hborhoods are unable to dr~H dlstri0t attention and to
count., n or courae" th'-s means different slses in dlf.ferent
18Ib1d • • 1 21-122 . ~ ~
1 9Xb;td' J 128 . 2(} . Ibid • ., 1,29-130.
21 Ib+-A~ ., 130.
cities. Population size is i mporta.nt here since it repI'o,,,,
scnts, :1.11 actuality or by imp1icatlonl' votes which -can be
EHnployed to ob tain city 1\J.oney.22 Second, an effective dis
trict is not econOllltoallY1 politically, or socially self ...
,.,-
contained.. Being a. e i ty neighborhood ... it draws on users fl"om
outsid.e 6 and its ot.m people also leave the dl,Str1ct. 23 How-
ever, in tOrt1S or 8'qatial lil'l'.1ts, Jacobs ate. tea that the
lflaxirrlttrll size of ef'fec t1. ve d1 s trio ts 1 s approxiraa tel y a mil e
and a half squa.re ..
Probnbl:{ this is because anything larger gets tooi:ooonvenientfor sufficient looal oro.\':ls-uoe and for th.e· functional identity that underlies distriot political identity_ In a ve-ry big oity .; populations must therefore b0 denae to aehie~ 'Bucca.scful districts ; other .. wls-~, 8ufticient politloalpowe~2As n~ver rOQonoiled wi th viable geo8raph1c identity. ~
Spatially. the stroet neighboJ:lhood is the smallest of
the three typos of oity neighborhoods ! T(). say exactly hm'l
large an area is involved, however , is meaning.less .
If we look at successful street neiChborhood net'l<l'orlts in 'real life, we find this @e matter of al i&! is a msan ... lngless question, because 11h.e~ver they '-iO!'K best j street neighborhoods have no beginnings ~nd ends $cetting them ·apart as di s t inc t un! ts .. The siz'e (rven d:ttfers fo~ different people from thesarll6 spot, be~ause some
eople range far-ther, or hang around more 1 or 0xtend their street acquainta.nce farther than others. Indoed~ a great part of the ::;ucaess of these neig',h borhoods of thestrects depen.ds on their ~~erlapplng and intel:'w$av1ng, turnin~ the corners .
22Ib1d,_ 130~131 . -2JIbid. , 132-133 .
24~b~4. , 131~13~ . 25Ibiq •• 120. -
,: -S
But "that exaotly constitutes a successful atr'eet
nel {!pborhoo d? Acoording to Jac obs, the four condi tiona of'
the eoo nomic behavior' of 01 ties provi de rtlost OJ-:' the basis for
t he three selr~ goveI"nment f 1..rnct1ons of 01 ty streots:- t'to
weave webs of publio surveIllanoe and thus to prot:;ect
strangers as lH:lll as the!ns~l ves) to g.I'Ol'l netMorl!s of small ...
scale, everyday publIc lif'e and thus of tl,"Ust and social con
trol; and to he-lp assimilate ehildr~n into. reasonably respon-
26 sible a.nd tolerant city li.fe. tI
This papol" is designed to test ~racobs t $tat~ment that
the l'C)Ur aspects of an llJ?ban areaf s physical S!tructure are
necessary .for the three sel.f ... govermllent ful'lotionsof city
2'7 streets to ooeur~ . A · r~
26Th! d,. 14 and 119 f't . TEere 1s one: other .sel.f .. governraent fttl1ctiol:l of city
street neighborhoods ... - 'tto draw effeetively an hell? "rhen trouble (lQmes along tha,t is too b1g for the streets to handle . t~ ~['hl s help s-Otnetimes com€!$ from the city as a. vIllole, with mediation aoming from the dia'triots. Beaaus,e it 1;>1a,a thou&;ht tha.t t heM were not any district.a in !'Iilwauke<7 and, even if' such ex1stec\ their political natur~ would not be familiar to us, it was decided to conc~ntrate on safety, eontact y and the aS$im1latlon of childr-en~
27rrwo points are Qif 1nte-~est. First , al thou&"l ~1aeobs bellows that all thr-eo typea of c1. ty neighborh oods should he:ve fl. diverse physical structure, $110 state$ that her four genel"ato~ .. s of effective economic pools of: use are to be goared to a cityts streets and distriots (Ibid .. , 150-151). Seeond,Jacohs distinguishes between a city t s . streets and sidewaiks ~ Contrary to their tradi t1o'Ual views .. ~-lhere oi"ty streets are seen as Dla.oes fo·r th6) circulation of vehi.cles and sidewalks for the eirculation of pedestrians" Jacobs takos a broader vi ew by $BoinF both streets and sidewalks as abstractions which mean something only in oonjunctlon with the bul1dit'lgs and other uses that bordor them" ol(l border other streets and sidetvalks very n$a.r them (Ibid., 29) . noth t ypes of pa:thways are seen, in relation to their surroundings, as plaoes where :sa.fety. public contact. and the assimila.tion of child.ren i n to c1 ty life occur (Ibid., 30, 56
1 86) . -
J.Q
By way of lnt~odu¢lng the topic of how sld~walks are
the 1001 forsatety 6 thlsstatement by Jaoobs is very
inciSive:
Some city streets afford no oppo!'tunities to street arbarism. The streets o·f the North And of Boston are
outstanding examples. They are probably as safe as any place. on ea.rth 1n this reapeot . Al thoug.b. nwat of the ~rorth End t sresidents are Ital ian or of Italian descent I the dlstr1c t l a streets art} al so heavily and oonstantly used by people of every raoe a.nd baokground. Some ' of the strangers f:romoutsida work in or c l ose to the distx>i¢ t; aom~ come to shop and stroll ; many including members of minor1 'by group s who have 1nherl ted dangerous districts prevloualy Q.bandon~d by othersjl. mal{e 0. point of cashing their paychecks 1n North &nd s t ores a.nd lmmediattHy making their big weekl y purchases in streets where they know they lv111 not be par'tod fr~8their money bet"lacn the getting and the spending.
As the author says , while a "lell-used street 1s apt
to be sat'e , a. dese3?ted. one is apt to b@ unsafe . 29 A Boad
61 ty street , equipl'&d t o hanrUe s tl'anger a and t o !!lake
stl'anflters an asset tOl" pu.rpos es of safety,. must have three
-w.tn qualities : (1 ) there must be a clear demarcation be ...
tWoen public and pri vste spae&f ( 2) there mu.at be eyes on the
street, ejes belonging to the natu.ral proprietors of the
stree t. whether stOi'ekeeper s or r esidentIal dwellers; (3)
the s1dt1lW'al k ~'m\l$t have users em i t fairl y oont1nuQusl y , both
to add to the nunlber of effective eye s on the street and to
induc e th~ people in bu11d1nSD along the street to watoh the
sidewalk in $ufficlent nurnbers .., "30 It 1$ oe~ta1nl'Y mo)1e -.-.-~ .~-- ... -- ~--~.-~. ~ -
28 ld 33-Ib . , • -29}:piq.* t 34. 30 .
I bi d .• , 35 ... 38 ~ -
enjoyable to 'VJatoh an active, ratlu:lX' than a dull $id~'Walk.31
On the surface» we Se$ill to' ha.ve h!i;lr~ e·omeslmple aims f To try to ,S$CUre ,streets where the pub11¢ spa(H'.~ is unequivocably publ :i.c , physioally unmiKa-d Witll pri ... 'Vate or with nothing-nt ... all spaoe,sQ that the s,l'"ea needing surveillance hae ole·at" and pl"e..etleable limits* and. to see that these public ..... spaceB ha.V'® eyes on the-Ifl as contirmoualYilS pos;$1b1$ .
..L.J,.
aut it is not so .tm._l. '~o . ehie-vee the,;J$ objects, ~s:p~oially the latt$l~ .. . You cantt make people usa streets they have no reaS()11 to us'e. You (14m f t mru<e peop.le watch st:t>eeta they do not want to watch. Safety on the ,$treetl1l by su:rvG11lanoe and lnutWAl policing 01' oneanothe:r $Qunda gr1m~ but in ¥'~al life it is not !Vim~ Tb.e aafaty of the street wOl'*ks b·ast ~ lttost casu ... all y, and w! th 1 eQstf;r:e:<a'Uent ta.1nt of hosti1! ty at' su.spioion pree1sely when people- Q;X'* u.$ing and moat enjoylngthe e1 ty . st~et$ voluntarily 'and ar~21&a,.st oon$,c1ouB. no:rt)ul11y, that they ar~ policing~
This fom of aurv&111.anee is baaed upon having a sub
s~antia.l quan tity -of ato~es $ino. o'bher places used almost toe
entir$ ~,day and situated along the s1 d€1walksQ·f a 01 ty aroa. 33
Store~; bars, and l'$ste.uranta. tor lnst-a.l1ce,: 'Work in the
following ways to abet sldeW'alk safe·ty.~
t*F:t~8t, they ei\te peop16- ... both residents and strang
~rs- ... Gone:r$te reaa~ms toP using the sidelV'alk-s o.n whioh thasQ
enterprls$s f'tU;H:) .,1.34
ft.s~oond,. they ~roI p0Qpl~ along th~ side,walka past
pla(Ht$ wh10h hl1V'e no a.ttXW4:ettona. to ,ubl1c use in th(J,)m~,H~l vee _ J f~ ' T" ,,*" .- .1 "0 : . . .-aL
-- r::: .31 Ib1d• J. ),:) . --.32xbtg." 36"
. j ' . ..
33Xb1d• -34 Ibid. ~
1.~
but which beoor'l'ls traveled and peopled as J?outes to somewhere
1 .a5 e s@\*,~ ..
IfThi3?ds storekeepers and other small bl..lsi116fJsm.en
are typi ca.l1y atl"ong pJ?o.p<.;ments of peace a.nd order the,ul
selves; they bate brolum winclows 6\nd holdups; they hate hav ...
ing<lustomers made nervous about safet·YlI They ave grent
&treet tlatehers and sidewalk guardians it pl:'esent in suff1~:~{
' 6 clent numbers;,3
uFOll,rth, the aotivity genora.tQd by people on errands,
or peopl~ aittl1ng for tOf) d 01' drink , 13 i tealf an attrae tion
tost11l other people"ft37
In this diseu$sion~ the four aspeots of physical
structure play an impoX'tant role . Jacobs t f1rst concern is
with the presence of auohpr1mary uses as Qff'1ces and fa.e ..
torfes ...... usE)S ft'Whioh, i n thamsel ves. 'bring people to a ape ...
ctfic plaa~ beeQus~ they are anehoragea~n38 In addition., in
response' to a m:h:.tura or prim.ary uses grow enterprises of sec
ondarydi vel's! ty, which are design$d to $.erve t he people the
primary us;e.s dra:w. J9 Th.~ fiJ.ffect of auch seconda.ry uses as
35IPld4
36~.,
371P1d •
.38Ib1 d., ~
391b1 d.. , -
37~
152 and 161.
162q
stores, bars ~ a.nd ~egtaul"ants on safety has been mel'ltioned
-in th~ preceding paragraphs . 40
13
Seeond l by having short blooks. streets and opportu
nl ties to turn corners are frequent, 41 Userso.f 11 street a.re
thus permitted acoess to both pr1maryand ij.eeonda~y uses
loeated on the street, and peoples' paths therefore ha~e
occasion to. orOS$~ 42 Htreet safety- Is secured t-fhen this f'aot
1s related to the ohsea,"vat1on that people enjoy watching
streets which have users on them.43 C-ontrast this vi th long
blocks , where diftering primary uses are thwarted because
these blocl!s Uautomatioally sort p,eople into paths that meet
too intrequ~ntly" $0 that Clf"ferent uses very nea.r each other
geographically are" in pra.otloal effeot, lltera11y blocked
off from Qrt~ anotha:r. u44
The third aspect or physical $tructure invol WI! Ii
!t.°Apove, pp .J 11 ... 12.
41J S\¢obs j 178 tf .. Jacobs never defines what ahemeans by a f·short
block . It However, in one· of her 'exWllples of' how shovt blocks wQrk eftect1v&ly in New Yopk, she states that in an area with poor economic act:tv1t1; the blookS are uflu€tlly about eight hundred feet long, while in an a-rea with viable economic actlvlty~ the blooks VfJ.r"l between four hundrf)d and four hundt'ed twenty feet in length~ Howeve·t', this is not to sa.y that these l(1jngthsar~ Qb~olute values for all 01 ties ~ since Jacobs descrlbes a certain series of Philadelphia long blocks as 6ach being seven hundred feet long, with the standu:r-d blOCk Inthat o1.ty being fou:r hundred feet sqUQN.
42 Ibid,,,, 178 ... 180.
43.!R!.£!.,,. 3S!I
44 ll;)1dll , l ~l.
+(.;1-
'tu1xturce of bull dings which vary in age and condition. ftlt a.
city area haa only nt1)1tl buildings, tue entorp-rla~a that can
exist there are automa.ticQlly limited to those that can sup ...
port the hig.1.t eost of ne'll construetlon~ n45 This would in ...
elude ope:ratl-ons wh.leh are u\vell established; high turnovel:' j , , ,,4.6
stand~u"ized 04' hea.vily $ubsldiz~d., f · However,jl bookstores
and pawnshops, as well as the many ente:l"pr:ts~s necessary fOll
the safety of stroet neighborhoods", ne~d old bu!1d1ngs .. 47
The final a.apect is that th0re must be eo donae con
oentration of people in the al?&a; for whatevG:r- purposes they
may be the¥~lO !t8 In tenas of tJaf~ty ~ thJ.s include.$ residents "t <
!t.51 bi 1%. , 187.
46Th! d.. 188 ..
4.7 ;rb1~ •• 181 ft . . . . By old bul1dings,Ja.oobs does not mean "musaUln .. plece
old bu1ldings _ not old buildings in an Gxcellent a.nd expen ... sivestate of ~ehabilltation ...... although thes8. m.ake fine Ingredie:nts ... -but also a, good lotC)f plain, ordinary" low .... valuQ old build1ng~ t .including $Olfle rundown old buildings. tf
48I,blq~, 200 rf . Ome agal:!') , JaCobs does not apeolfically define; what
she metana by lthltt."h oQn,umtt'ation. fI Howe:ver , she uses. the mmoer of dwelling un1 'lis per net acr~ of' residential land to etate that districts which enjoy "great good fortune in mlx~ tures of uses and attl"A-otlons to Qute1de users can demonstrably maintain vitality at densities, of approximately one hun ... dred dwellin.g units to the net aOlr'f;l " It Her reaaon1ne; for the measuremont of dwelling units pe:v ne't aoreot re$lden1:;1a.l land is tha.t in districts where people live, denae concentra. .. tions of people mean a I'Ide:nse coooentration of the1~ dwellings on the: land p;reel~pted for dl.fel11ngs , If Toe people who 11 va in an area usually f'orrl1 a la:rge share of the people Who, ua~ the area's streets f parks " a.nd ent~l"P1'1aes, In turn, othe:r primnr;r uses work wIth the d'l>lell1ngs to insure that people on t he streets will be ap):'ead through the houra of the day"
of the area. and strangers, who use the streets, and store
ke(tper,s who wa.tch tbe stre~t$.49
15
Sidewalks also provide the place where contaot, s\'l.ch
as stopping Qt a, bar Cor a. beer or comparing opinions 1nlth
oth(),~ cuatovlera at a bakery. oocurs:. 50
:f.1ost of it 19 ostenstbly 'l.ltterly trivial but th$ aum is not triVial at all. TAe sum or suc.h casual public contact at a l ocal l.evel ..... mQst of it rortulto:u.s
f most
of it aS$Qoiatad with @l"l'8indB, all of it lna tere,d by the per$ol'l conoe:rned and not thrust upon him by anyone ....... ls a feeling foX' the publ:1c identity of people,. a web of' publle l"o-spec'b andtr\lst,. and a resource in time of personal or nelghborh.ood · ne~d, flba absence of' this truet is a disaster to a. city street,., It$ cultivation ~~nnot Q~ inetltuti~na~ized. And abovo a.ll et it ilnp11ea l.0 pu'bll0 eortlml tments ..
The last point, concerning a distinction betl>feen pub ..
lic and private oorn,'1litments , 'bears elaboration. According to
Jacobs, a good city street neighborhood achieves a. balanc$
between publio contact and pvl vaoy ..... 11 bala.nce based upon
nsrnall, sens! t1 v~l 'Y ma.naged details p:ractlced and accented
.so oasual1ytha.t they a:r''0norl.nally takeni'or granted. n52 For
exal'llpl 'E!, in U€n" Yorl{, Jaoobs 1 family leave..s the key to thei!'
home .1:1. th a stor.ekeeper so, for i nstance , 9. friend of the
family may entet> the home when the owner$. a),"e away.
This practice laet-nployed because the family trusts
tbestorekeeper, nt1:rat, to b~ a responsible oustodian, but __ - _____ ..... _.-.......,. ' t 3 . 1'1 1" , ;
49Ib1d. , -5°1'01<1 • • --5'l Ibid. , -52Ib1d" ,
35-37 ..
55-56. 56.
59.
;!.v
equally inaportant becatu,J'$ we know tba t he combi nes a te~11ng
of good will with a feelIng of no personal ~$ponslbili t,. a.bout our p~ivate aftai;J:'s. 1f53
Thi, line lli.etw~en the city public l1ol'ldand the WQ!:'ld ot'p:rivaci] can be tl'1&lntQ1n~d~ \4ith<>ut awkwardness to anyone, beca.u.s~ of the great plenty of oppor ... 'bun1 t1el$ for publ1ceontact in the ente:vpr:J.f!es along th$aid..walkg. or 011 the sidewalks themselv~:Hi! a.s pEW .. pIe move to and :fro or d.e11bQl"~tel:r 101 t$~ lmen they feel like it,. and also b0<uu,1$e' of the pl>e$~neG Qr ma:ny ~ubl1c hoat$, so to "Speak. proprietor(l of lYiElet1ng plaQes . , . \ib,&re one ia tree elther tQ ha.ng around or <lash in and out, no stl"1t'iiS attached.
Under this $yst~n'tl'f; it is pO$S1hl~ in a oity street neighborhood to know ~!l kinde of people without unwel .. come. ~l1t{llngle.'Ylebts ... ... .
As t,,1th ~$.£ '6ty, the 1mport~nee of physical struc t1.n:¥6
to pub11¢ eonulU')u 1" a.ppa.ren'hi!' First, $&$ondary uses such
as ba:r-s and .groceries otten provid~ places wher.e Gontac t
occurs~$~ C()~l"61atlve'ly,. seeondary ua.e,s, such a$the store
at which the Jacob~ f$.miljt le.a.v:esthai.r house key. oonati~
tute one r&~t<ll' in the $ystertl undEtlf whioh $Oll1.e,Ol1e ean flltno'W
all kinds of people, wi tl"lC)ut unwelcome entangl~i.llentli •• • • 56
Seoond,. by having short blocks , a,tl'eets and opPot'tun1 ti6$ to
turnoornai[l$ 8.:£'$ tre·que.nt ,. thus pl?Qv!d1ng t'o.X' the ol"Ossi;ng
ot peoples 1 paths, and a4a0SS to s~CQndary uaes6x1,st1ng on
the,se streets. 57 As a re$u1 t, the nmnbGr of QPPOl'"t.unlt.ies
for contaQt ; both in the enterprise,s ,Etndon the 51dew$.lks,
'53I:t>ld • • , 60 . 51,,- 6 ~l)i4. , 2'iI
55see how often the 6x.ampl~.s of publl.c contaot which .Jacoba lista occur a.t secondary US0S {lb1d. ,~ 56).
~'.
56 Ibi 'd~ 'J 59 ... 62. ~
57 . . DA Ibid. ~ 178 ... 1 ,)\/_ ~
should therGfol"e increase *.58 Thil"'d~ old buildings pl-ovide
the facilities for secondary Gnterpr:tses, the importance of
which to contac t has been previously mentioDed .. .59 Finally J
concernIng a. d~nse concentration of peoople in an area k con-
-,-
tact requi:l"e8 resident,s t-tho conversG a.nd storekeepers ,...;ho are
often 1n'lol "!fed j.n such contact. 60
Tho third function V1hich side'Ymlks serve is providing
plaoes whe:re the ass.im:11ation of' ch.ildren occurs. 61 W'HH1
children are playine ell sidewalks t>Jh1ch enjoy an e.oti ve local
public life, adults are teaching thein to Rssirnilate into
!loi ty socletyff itlhl1e the adul ts a:rEl cnrX"y11'lg on their other
ursuits ~ 62
58It \,;'0111<1 be expected that,_ other things equal, the more opportun1tle,s there a.re for -SO~ileone to talk Hi th othel"S, the moro he \1111 talk Hi th these people.
59!bove. pp . 15~16 . 60 Jacobs, .56 ft ..
Concerning :I"€lsidents" Jacobs is mainly concerned wi th residentsQf a.n area tt.llking with othe;r> residents, t'ihile the author does state tha.t residents are concerned with strangers 'ltJhen the strangers' protectIon it-! involved, even this is
on trust ooming from c ontac ts between neighborhood residents .
61I bi d. ___ , ?t~ ff' . Ii1"add1tlon to thlsassimllation prooess , Jacobs also
discusses how sidewalkS with an aotive public life are safer and offer more protection for ohildren than do sid0Hall~s whore this condition doe~ 110t ecxist . The toplos or safety and protection Jacobs oonsldel"s negative aspeots of child rearing in c:ttlos. This pa.pel' concentra.tes on t he posItive aspec t of assilnllation.
62I-"'''d 82 ~. , -, .
In real 1 ire, only from the ordinary adul ts of the 01 ty sidewalks do children learn- -if they learn at all·~".the flrst fundalJaental of successful c1 ty life:
llJ
People l'Il'!lst take a :'ilodieum of public respo:nstb11i ty for each othol' even it they have no ties to each othl;l1"'~ This is a lesson nobo(ly learns by being told. It is lea.rned from the experionces of having other people without ties of kinship o!'close friendship 0;):' .formal responsibl11 ty t06~oU takes. modicum of publierespooslbil1ty for you~
Children l'lho t for instance, offer dirac tions to p eo·ple Nho
are lost or tell someone he will :receive a ticket, if he
arks too near a .fire hydrant, are 1m.i tating adul t e. ttl tu 8 .. 64
Here , as in tho cases of both safety nnd public o'On
tac t;, an ax'ea' s physical stntc ture plays :an important part .
First , secondary uses of buildings constitute facilities for
the adult resid.ents of an area. to ea:!;'!'y on their Hother pur
suits . fl6S Also , a$ JacobS' says, llthe san~ rules of oity
safety and city public life that a.pply to adul ts apply to
childre n •.•. n66 Since secondary uses are essential fer c1 ty
safety nnd cIty public life, they must be used by children as
well as adlllts ... 67 CorrelativelY,short blocks and frequent
streets provide access to secondary uses existing on these
63Ibid• -64 Ibid. ; 33 .
65Under this category , Sacobs considers such uses as stores , oars , and restaurants and the activities uith which they ar e associa.ted. < Ibld f , 82) .
66~. , 77 . 67 Ie' 6 . 8 ~bOV~t pp ~ 11, 12 , 1.:7~ 1 , 1 1 .
-7
65 stroets, with peoples' paths ha.ving the occasion to cross .
The number ofopportuni ties for adults to assimilate child
ren should therefore inorease. 69 Third, old bu.ildings non ...
stt tute fae111 ties for aclul ts to oarry on their nother pur ...
sui ts . ,,70 Finally * in o1"oer to assirllilate ohildren into
I·O! ty society" n both aduJ. tsand children aro obviously
needed. 71
It is arr')arent th.at Jacoba' i deas cast considerahle
doubt on traditional urban planning theory. Based on her
experiences and 1~hose of others" Jacoba has dov:eloped an
interesting a:nproaeh to eomlllon, ord1na.'ry urban ac tl vi ties ..
ven acknowledglng that many of her terms are not precisel y
defined and that her empirical statements ar@ not based on
rigorous soaiologioal l?6saarah, Jaoobs does p:rovld0 stimula ...
tinE! ln$lghts into a relati vely unexplored a:r-ea,
Sta.t~ment of the Thesis Frobleul . k - . - -
l,fna.t 1s evident from the ab()v~ dlscusslon 1$ that
Jacobs is proposl nB a diversity of phyaical structure, which
emables a diversity of social aotivity to occur. In sunport
of ,Tacobs are the ideas of Loui $ \~irth; who speaks of the
68JacobS, 178.180 .
69It would be expected that, other things equal, the more orrportunl ties there are for gomeon~ to talk wi t h otht)rs, the more he 1tl11 talk with these people .~
70 , 1 AbOve , p . v .
71T.b.ls is by definition of the assimilation process a$ definod in this discussion (AbOve , pp. l7~19).
dlV01."E;ityof funotions in i.m11,l1ne3 thouaJ:l not, it ~lust be
~d~Gdi as s})@o1ftco.lly ~a doe$ .raooba~ 72
20
Contre.st thS.s t<ri th th$ observations of til$- notod
f.'oo10(f.ist, Hobert J>arir. who viewed. cOlill',uun1 ty 11te as founded
oP OOli1jiet:l. tion, l-thich raoul t~d in like unl tt:1 '(lluet~ri.ne.
'l'atul"al at~Si{i \Jlll~h und$r~ ehlll1ge- oval" t11':;H~' , and Which pass
tl"Qri1 ol'l~dom1Mntt'1.pO of land U$~ to f:.tn()t1J.~~, li\t'<f thUi;J
fOTl"ltld", Ill. th1tl frun'1O\"ol"k~ $oc1al lire 'W$.HJ, oot'i $:fii$fl {'loS boing
oOn(.Hi)~ned wl th COT;l.¥llOn l1ft:» 01" lnvol v1ng eolleetivc (jlJals ..
on the -oontf'ary, P&l"k A.a.~1 Qi\¢·h person ,uttQlllpt1118 to mf.ud:m1z$
h18 min 1'nt()l"ea,te. '(,3
The question 4)"1.4HH~ il tb.(t1?er(')~tE), of tho 'Value of
Ja.o,o1:H~ " Pl'Oposals .. IfJ th$ 8.1 Vt3%>td.t,. or physieal struottU"o
l'ltlCO£ffHlry £011 a het01"e>g&~oU$and d1v&l?GG sQeial life'?
11im ~QPGt· , dlii$1{!.rled to test tn.& hy,potheGis that it
Q. street n(J1f",hJ)O~lOod hus a divaX'su physioal struoture, it
will ~l:ao naw a dlver$$ $001a1 structu.v., j",t) divided into
tou:r' ehtll>t$~~h ~o,o first ha$ pt'ovtded e. stat$ment of the ,.' Ij) P ..... rr, \' f r ~~ .. 'i _f( 411_1'" t: (it); "_ , ., '~
72contrast Ja.cobs t rol at!valy spe¢1.fla li'errUU~kS 011 th uses of' bu11d1n~ witb \thtiA.t Wirth $&1$1 ft\vhat hae. mado the otty th0 vital force) in national llta tha.t l~j howave~. is not ff10l"<'fl 11 th~ f&¢:t that it pe-rforxl3::& ¢<\}rtt\inoo<:mo~u.o !uno, ... tiona but also t ll9.t it 1$ '&tlt''lIHrhod with a hint~rh.Qod of vs:ry1ng $eOJ>~ in ()(JUl'ltless tJoa11.1 ft¢,tlvlt1.$~~~ Attlo,ng thi;)$O axae, .; •• etteh urban 1m.Jtltutim1$ Q$ U(,Hl,}1ta.ls, schoolr: ~hu~hes» . theaters'.:, and elUh~ •. , t' ., It (L. oU1~ ~11f:th , on ,oJt1f6l§, ~nd, p >JtOQ1fU.J.:~#.a# eC1~ Albert .7. ne1all, :"r. ~h1cag:Q: The Unrve~a.! tyo.r Chicago rlfll1:iJB . 1961J. I. p* .:nl~ "
73 A1ken" 196~.
21
problarn and a brief' de$c);"iption of' 1 tIS lntellecetual Qnd
theoretical bases . Chapter two diaeu$se~ the procedUl"$3
used to choose the sQmple for the study and a description of
th~ que stionnaire employed,~ Chapte~ three eontains an
analyst.s of the datA ., Fin$.lly. chapter four' consists ot: a
reassessment of' JIi\I~a jacobs" ideas ,
~HAPTER II
l'110GEDURE FOR DATA C()LLl<~CTIOl'!
Cpoosing tho Sar.:lple
In orde}r to test the. hypo thesis, :1 t Has deci dedt,o
compare the 'behaviora.l diversity of two groups of women in
tHO different areas of M:tlwaulcee . \'lomen rather thal'l lll(ln t-lel'O
chosen since it 1fUtS fel t they would ha.ve lnore lei;su!'G time
and would thus have more opportunity to be affected by an
area 'a physioal enviroTll1'lemt .
Unfortuna tel y, in:for~rla tion on al l four asp-DC ts of
physioal structure is not published by 10Ga1 govornment raoil ....
lties , and it t'ias resolved to Qhoose the are-a.s aocording to,
the a.spect on wht ch Informat,ion \-las: available- ... thG type of
uses 'k!h1ch butl dlngs serve. 1 '.Ph1s prooess was· aoco!l'lplished
l-r1 th t he aid of a. land-use map furnished by the Cl ty of
H11Nllukee. 2
l It was recognized at the ti~ne that using only one aspect of physIcal structure would baa. wealfne$S in the stu.dy since Jacobs states that in ord~l" to attain maximtull d1 vel's! ty J
aJ 1 f ·our aanee'cs must be present in cornbirmtlon (Jacobs, 151) ~ Howe v0r, because at the net·ma se of the nrea with which this thesis is conce~ned, it was decided that even though a physl~ cal area which completoly fitted Jacobs I concepts of physS.co..l di varsity c oul d not be fQu:nd, the 1mpor·tane e. of t his atudy was that 1 t; would stimulate· fu.t;ure thinking by sociologists on the subject of urban 1118.11 t 8 relationship to his physical environment .
2J)epart"1ent of 01 ty ~velop!llent]l Com;.'111-lni tl R€me't-lal Program Stud! (Hlh,mukee: October' , 1 964) " Ih 37 .
The purpose of obtaining thi s map tvas to find two
areas--one l--lhlch contained a. mixture of' primary US'Gs and
thus one with one of Jacobs! generators of divorsity, and
one which contained only a single prim.ary uee and in l.ihieh
d1ver~'H~' human beha.vior should not b~ gen~rated. ot tho tt.ro
':::~1
areas chosen , one is it residential sectiol1--an area vIi th So
single use- .. comtlosed of s1nttle-fartlily hom~s (Aroa A) , and
t he other consists of a mixture of pri ma.ry uses: dwellings,
including single-family hOllles, duplexes and anarttYlcmts :
offices for a. r.eal estate companY tan X-l"ay corporation and
a plumbing firm {Area B} ..
In addition, it was recognized that other variables
c oul d possibly a.ffeot the r'ela.t1onahip betfleen physical
struc tn}?e and soolal aoti vi ty t 3 However, beoause of an
absence of sociologioal researcb in thi$ aro$., the1'8 was no
way of knowing which specific varl~blessho-uld be oontrolled.
Since infor-ma t1on on ethnic ity vas available" this variable
was controlled in the following way. 4 . .. '
3Por tit listing of phenomena to which SQclologists should pa.y &ttentlon and which we %:,8, i ntel'pt'eted as possibl y affecting the J:'el .a.tlonship 1n question, se't} ( Hans L . Zett~rb~);'g, On' Theo:t:>'Y and . Verifiea:t;ion;tn Soo;tnlo .. D 1"'d enlarged edit 'on; New YOJ;>k: e Be.dtnlnstet' Press, 196?], pp . 57-62 . )
4por a discussion of control ling variables, see (Carlo 1. . Lastruccl t Ti'16 ,Scl~ntit:ic ~l')rOaph : B asi<t Principles of the Sc ientifio 14ethod . amEridge. HassaehuBetwa .: Shenkman PublishIng Company, I no . , 19~ ~ Pp. 21t~ ... 216 . )
':;"l.j-
From oetch area , th.e names were secure d of all 'tvOl'llen
of both Polish a.nd Italian descent 1:"1'01'(1 a reverse telephone
dil'eetory, which lists telephone pumbers and names according
to addresses, vls-a- vis the alpha.betioal arr£u"1gemant found
in everyday direotories. 5 In this procGss, several friends
of Italian extraction, who are also familiar \-'Jith Polish
names , aided us by choosing Polish-and Italian~sounding
naxnes . The int~ntion of this prooe dure wag to use tho eth-
nie-soundi ng names as indications of t he t.roman's true ethnic
identitYr that 1s; the true ~th111,o identity ~{as assumed from
tho name.. 'With the use ora questiorn-ta.ire, ten \lOmen of
each ext:r>ac tion froom each al'{)a vIera to be intervlErt.·md . Ac ..
cordingly , in Area A,l twelve Polish WOll1eJn and ten Italian
'vornen were contacted bafore, the roquired twenty interviews
l>.rer'e obtaineu* In AV!)t\ B, ten Polish \Iomen and s~venteen
Italial1 "lOman \..rere contae ted.
Ther~ developed" however II tti'O qualifico.tions to this
approach . First) two of the Italian wo:man in Area B coul d
no t speak Engli sh and were re1UOV0 d from the eample. Sec ond,
only one Polish W'omml in At'ea 13 consented to an inte!,'vlew.
"onon '(,!1 th Gerrll.an ... sounding name s. were then chosen ft'om the
rever-se dirae tory with the help of friends of both German
and Italian descent . Of the thirty-seven women contact~d,
nine conu-nted to be 1nte!'viewed. Tl'Ht iui tlal hope of eon-
trolllngethrl1.citrY' \IllS obviously not reali~ed .
~ilwaukee Street Addres.s D1J:ectol:':'i: (?lihfaukee: Wi sconsin ¥elephone Cornpany , 19( 7).
c.5
The reader should 'be cognIzant of several other as-
paets of the sarnple 4 First . randomnlzatlon was not efllployed
in choosing the respondents to be interviewed. Instead, a
haphazard approach was followed in choosing the Italian,
Polish,. a.nd German re6pond~l'lts from their respective popule. ..
tiona . As a result, it 1s no t possible to sa.y that all un ...
known va.riable s had. an equal oha.nce of being p!'esent in both
area groups. Also .. sinc e the p t'ocess of random sampling was
not employe d , each unit in the respective populations was not I
assured of an equal ohano-e to be E,Jeleated tor the sample.o
However, t his 1s not to say that the i mportance of this re ...
search is greatly diminished; \'fhl1e t he failure to employ
random samplIng nreeludes using the statistioal teohn1ques
based on probability theory in comparing scores of Area A
respondents wi th those of Area B rea-pondel1ts. much va.l ue may
b e seoured through us1ng the ari thmetl0 mean in various anal ..
:rSGS oomparing the two groups. 1 second; it was assumed that ,
for purposes of choosing the Po11sh ... Gormao-8.l1d Italiun ... sound ..
int! Dames , whenever a man f a name was listed 1n the revorse
directory. it represented & fami l y , with the wife being of'
the husband's nationality. If' , in .contacting the 1UM , it was
found t hat he uns $:i.ngle or a widower, hi$ name was d.eleted
6Lastl'uo:o:t, 215.
7Use of' both the arithmetic 1i1ean and statistica.l tech .. niquas ba.aed on proba.h11i ty theory Were discussed in a graduate course in statistics at Mar quett.e University (Taken in leoture . frOM Roman Gawkosk1 f Ph ~ D. , P~'Ychology 260, Advanoed statistics, Nal"quet te University , 196o }.
26
tl'om the sample. Obviously, no problem wa.s enoountered 1.men
a. woman's name was mentioned.. In addition, each of the re ...
spondel'lts was asked the national 1 ty of both her father and
mother , and the answers to thes~ questions were employed as
the bt1s~a whenever ethniolty was ~onsidered in the analys;is"
Furthermore, the following distributions for both the
amount of education and age ~ obta.ined .from answers in the
questionnaire,. \:1ox'e charac terlstlcof the th1.1"ty .... el€')'lt W01uen
in the two areas.
TABLE I
DISTRIBUTI ON OF A}lOUNT OF ED'O'CA'l"tION FOR THE THIRTY ... EIGHT RESPONDENTS
BY AREA
Area. A -- Area B Education Number I ereonta-ge Number Percentage
{lJ t Z} LJ) . , ~ _1l!-1 _~ _ __ .. L5 )
1. No formal sQhool1ng 0 0 0 0
2. One to four yea.rs elementary 0 0 0 0
3. Five to seven yeara elatllsntary 0 0 4 22
4. Completed 5 elamantar-y 1 5 28
5 .. SomE) high sehool 6 30 ;; 28 6 . Completed h1 .gh
sehQol . . .. fl ••••. •• 12 60 1 6 7. Some :Qollege 1 5 3 17 8. Completed college 0 0 0 0 9. Postgradua.te or
professional study, .. ~ • • " •• ~ ... 0 0 0 0
Total 20 100 18 a
101
aError due to rounding
27
Generally, the wom¢n in Area A have a higher level of
education than do the 1'9spondants in Area 13" and there is not
the homogeneity between the t'¥/O a~as which would have oc
ourre d. if educatlon had bsen oontrolled through, for e:..ltample II
the use of pr~cisioll matohlng . 8
Age (1)
1.
2.
3.
h. 5. 6.
7.
8.
9 ~
o.
TABLE 2
DISTRIBUTION OF AGE FOR THE THIRTY-EIGHT RESJ?m~DENTS BY AREA
~X'ea A Area B ~ .' ~ .
fl\Tum.oer Peroenta.g~ r~mnber Perc~ntage (21 ~OJ ' . Ithi 15J .
20-21+ 0 0 1 6
25 .. ,29 '1 5 0 0
30 ... 31~ 0 0 0 0
3 !? ... 39 .5 25 2 11
40 .. 44 6 30 a 0
45 .. 49 3 15 0 0
50 ... 54 2. 10 .3 17
55 ... 59 2 10 2 11
60 ... 64 1 :5 7 39
Ovex- 6.5 0 0 3 17 . .
Total 20 100 18 lOla ~"_ _ ~_ .. _ _ .L ~_ -- -'---"- - '~ " - - --~--- ~- .. -.... - "
aError dUG to roundin
1 : ~-~.-~-.---~
8t9.struool, 214.
Generally_ the women in Area B are older than those
in Area A and. one. again, there, 1s not the hor<logene1ty be ...
tw,sen the two a.reas whioh would have o(l,Qur3?ed if age had
been (}ontrolled through the Use of preoision matehing. 9
OONSTRUOTING THE QUESTIO:N1iAIRE .. 'I"
28
The questionnaire which was construotad to test the
hypothesis was based on the intera.otions whioh the thirty-
eight women eneou.nt~r while walking to, and while at, six
stores, each of \-lhich are located in Area 13 but none in Area
Ii., and whioh 1 t was tel t eona tl tuted ele:ments of seoondary
divers1ty--a bakery" grocery ., pharmacy;, beauty parlor, l'fis
taurant, a.nd bar. By def1nition, thes~ enterprises serve the
people the primary USeS draw .. 10 T'U6l'efore. these six stores
should provide a sound me&,s\u"e of soc1al activity if the
primary us es. in the area are perfoI'ming etfec t1 vel y ,. 11
The questlonna1.3:'6 was composed of three sections .
<:'ection one was designed to arrive at the frequency with which
9!B1d.
10 Jacobs, 162.
llJaeob$ lists three criteria by vlhich the effoct1veneSB of the mixture of primary uses can be judged~ (1) tfthe people using the streets at different times must actually use the $an'l0 strEh.1tsn. (2) ffthe peop1& using the streets at differing times must include; among them, people who will use some of the same faeilitlesft'; (,3) Itthe mixture of people on a street at one time of day muat bear same relationship to people thel"~ at other times of dayft <ill.!. ; 163 .. 164} .
Q;C
tho ~espondents 'Walk to the sIx stores, It was $xpootGd that
m:o:re l?Q$r~ond~nts In Area :; than in Aroa A woul d walk to the se
storGD hc,oau~o of~ .1aeo::>Ia' view th~t atot·¢s,. bar:; and Nstau ...
rant$: 61 VG p~.opli3 ueonoa:'ete ~ea~Qn$ for usintli the sidewalks
on which ttm enterprises tac$,. .,12
Section two eontt11n~d the qut):Btlona wbloh At'te~i~tGd
to t~asu~ the dlvt';ralty of ao~1al int<rit'act1on whioh occurs
while the r'~ai")Ol'H~e1'lts a:N~ walking 'to " and &.;r$ at. the u1x
storcs .
1.'U'1 tn>e o.f dJlta ¢olloot~d ean be shown by the fol ...
lOWing ~a!~e tllk$tl rl"omtb~que6Mo~a!~ t
1.
2.
3.
4.
,
6 .
\-ihen lOU walk to a ($TOl'{£i;) f wi th hb'lli lYlany 1)001'16 do you usually ~¢?
1)0 you (f-requently. $ometlm.es. ur l'arely) talk 'With poopl~ , othe~ t.ho,fl tllOllG Who usuall,- aecol'l'JJ)v..ny you. 'Wilila 'lJalk1 ng to a (S'rOR1!:)?
A!"e th~fS~ 'Peopl~ l¥ith vhom y'Ou talk (.fl'equ.entlYi ao~netlmflh'J. all? :fArel,) th~ G~Mtlona11tya.$ you?
Wi tn. hOWlnliD.'lY eh11.dl"~n , otJler thutl your O\'lll. do you uaually talk 'tih.l1o wal1d.n~ to a. (STORB)?
'Jould you say th.at (PlOst, $ome , o:r t~w) of tb(o adUlt witb who.'1l jlou talk are the sa~ eOl{ ,ae you?
HO'M lone do you usually talk tdth the.s~ adults'?
It was posllllb10 to ask the r$8pOn~nts a page of'
questions" 1dent,iea.l tQ tiut&! one , tot' €,Ua,cu if if" any •. 1)1: the
six t!to:t'~uato 'Whlnh she l4alks" Ii total otu1x aeparate
t~1l:H~ could tber.efore be ma~ f; In addS. tion. qU.$Oti tH18 tvlO
th.I'our,h six, with retare'ne.s to being ~t ~aeh ato:re, WQr. i" 'lIte 7'i -O lt$:!'i - 811' 1 ." fj - " ,...,.........
12Ibid• 36 ~ - .-
30
asked ot those r~HJPondent3 who walk to the rG'sp&ctiv0 store.
Finally, question four was not asked of t/lte ;t1espondents who
go to a bar, since it was felt there would not be children
at such a place.
Th~se six questions were ohosen tor the following
reasons. Question on~ was asked of all respond&nts sinoe 1 t
was f 'elt this quee,tion would give the women a fram~ of refer ...
enee e.oneerm.ng their tripe to the va.rloua ,stores. Q.uestion
t,,10 atteropted to ascertain frequency of contact. Aecol"ding).y,
in an af'~~ with a dtv~t's~ phyalcal s,t.ructu:r>e· such as Area B,
agrea't deal of soolal contact ahC;)uld be :round. Oontrast
this with an ares, like AI's$, Ai \shlehdoes not have a d1 verse
physio.alstl'Uc ture and wh10'h shoul d thus be la.eking in con ..
t.Qt ,13 'Questions three and ftv$ attemptad to m~asure the
diversity and: heterogene.1 tJt of contact. As Jacobs says, if
the opportunities fot;> public oontaot in the enternr-i.s0s al.ong
the sidewalks O~ on the sidewalks themselv6"$ are ple.nty a.nd
if there ,are publia hoets in whose plaoes peopla gatheJ' with
no str1.ngs attached.;, it is ~H,s$ible to. know all kinds of
neople~14 Aceot'dingly~ frOHl pn _ Tl:leorx and V~;rlflt}e.t.i,on ;tn
Soc~ol/)gy by nans Zetterb~u?g, SeX and natioOllll1 ty v.r$l'e
,chosen a.s two eh.aracterist1es of their lnteraotants w-ith
which the :respondents $nould be familiar ,15 Sinoe Area 13 was Jft ~i
l)~b~tr~.,:eil pp. 11~ ... 17, 23. and 28.
14Jaeobs; 62 ~
15zetterberg, 58 .
.5.1.
ohosen because of its many ~leiUel1ts of primary a.nd secondal'Y
di versi ty and, therefore,. 5. ts IT..r&ny opportu111 ties for contac t,
people. I n this area. should know more people of dif.ferent
nationalitie.s. and of the opposite sex thfll:l should the lr'$spon ...
dents in Area A, }J'ho do not havo available these oPPol'tunlties
for contact.16 Ques.tion :four was the i'esult of Jaoobs l con-
carn \-Ji th sid0'1J>lalks as a place 'uh@re children are assimilated
into city life~17 For this study" it "las reasoned that, be,..
cause of its physical di verst ty, Area B respondents should
talk with more childl'<lmlrlhile wal1dni to" and while at, the
various stores t han Are-a A respondents, whQ are not aff'ectQQ.
by a diverse physical st~"Ucture.18 Finally, question six was
designed to give us some idea as to the length of time the
resoondents talk with other adults . The question had no
theoretica.l 1lI1gnifiaance inr-elatl on to Jacobs.' "-.fork", but ~...ras
employed to see if there was a difference i n len~th of "eon ...
tact til71e H between :respondents in both gl"QUps .
"inally , sec tion three contained questions on the
personal eha.:r>a.c terist1cs of thereapondents, lifrom On Theory
and VeX'i£icat~on In::;~ocio~og;[, age " national! ty, income, occu ...
pation" and education were chosen as r~levant variables for
this study.19
16 . <
Abo va, pp . 14-17, 23 , and 28.
17Jacobs, 75- 88~
IHAbovc, P'0, 17 .. 19, 23, a.nd 2B ~
19zetterberg , 5a -62~
32
ClLtlPTEH III
AlJALYSIS OF' DA1'A
Frequency of HaJ.ki,ng to the Six Stores . . ___ - ." , I
Each respondent ,-,mg t'lrst a.sked if she ever goes to
any of the six stores. As can be seen from th~ f ol1 oHing
table, evory store excep t a bal' is frequented quite often
by people i n both areas.
'fAEr,E 3
Hmmlm OF PE0 PL·E IN BOTH ABEAS \tlHO EVER GO TO A STORE
Area A Area B Store
(I) Number Percentage NUl:1.ber porcentae;e
~e.kery
Grocery
Pharmacy
Beauj;y ParloI'
Restaurant
Bar
l.?-l 1-_ ,{ 21 20 100 17 95 20 100 18 100
20 100 18 100
19 95 18 100
.20 100 17 94
15 75 ;-; 28
If thp.y ever went to a store, t he respondents \-lore
then asked if they ue.lked frequently, sOlllcti mes,t or rarely.
Tables J+ and;; shot! the distributions!
Store 1
a.kery
G):'oeery
Pharmaoy
'llABLE 4
FRE(;lUENCY OF \1JALKIHG 7.'0 A STORE 3Y AREA A RESPONDENTS
~ .... _L __ ._ ~-
Number \"fal1d!.n""
.J7
11'irequeritlySome1;Tmes ··tfirely-~flev€ll'Go Tota . t2L {3J . (!i) __ {52 . (6) .
4 1 15 0 20
9 4 7 0 20
0 1 19 0 20
Be.a.uty Parlor 2 2 l S 1 20
Restaurant
Bar
0 2 18
0 '0 15
TABLE 5 FHEQtTENOY OF WAI,KING TO A STORE
BY AREA B RESPON1)8H'rS
0 20
5 20
= ;, ;: "roc :: --'
Store. 0,]
Bakery
Grocery
Pharmacy
Bea.uty Parlor
Re staurant
Bar
Number Wal king Frequentl'y Somo tIme s 11801''e1y Never ~ Tom-
2) (3) Od (S) ( 6
If- .2 11 1 18
13 2 3 0 18
7 2 9 0 l u
7 1 10 0 18
3 2 12 1 18
1 1 3 13 18
'--l~
Obvl0u&ly, tftore re~p¢ndents: in Al"EHll. B than in Area. A
walk more often to' these stor6S~ and this 1ffC)uld tend to sup ...
port Jacobs f vle'VJ' that ~toNS j bars f a.nd restau!"ants gi v~,
people "conorete reaSOlla tor using the sidewaU"s on wh:tch the
enterpr1.ses f'Ree~ It1
To those women Hho '·.lalk to as t ,ore irequently or some-
t:troeB~ the follQHing ques tion \"1!aS asked: ~fb.0n you t';®.lk to
a. (STORE) ~ do you. usually go t o (OTHER STORES f!~RE(~lJEN(rr.y.ort
SOM£TTr-1 ES} on the same t;rip'idt 2.'hie \J'QS done for onl y the
bake¥'y, g:r>oc e;ry,. p.harfllB.cY :t end b<;ta.,uty parlor, and i tv/Qs.
therefore possible t{) int€\grat~ the, mru1Y combinations of walk ..
ing to the"ae sto:t'G',s into fout' trips eorltalning t he following
t1rr~ng$ment of sto):'>()S !
'trip 1!
'r:rip 2:
Trip 3:
Trip IU
Bakery and Grocery an d Ph&.r m.a(3 y and Beauty Parlor'
Only Bakery
Groo e r y and Bruiierl and Pharmac y and Bea.uty Parlor
O;r..::l y Groce ry
Pharmacy and Bake:ry and Groc ery and Beauty ParI 01'"
Only J?harmacy
B~auty Parlop and Eakery and Grocery and Pharmaoy Only Beauty l~a,rlor
In eao.h(H1lSe, i f Q stot'e 'Itfa6 ment ioned i n relation to one
trip, it was not i ncluded in any of the. succeeding trips .
1 Jacobs , .36~
For exal1'l)le, if a resnondent said she goes to the Gl"ocery on
the sa.m0 trip as the bakery (trip 1) 1 1 t t'las no.l~ marked that;
under trip 2 she goes to both of these stot'es q lrlo.lking to a
restaurant and a bar were conaiderod separate trips fu"ld "ltl0re
labeled trips fl ve and six, :t'espectl vely.
:r.nd~x of SimilarJty
An Index of 3i milaritY t designed to I'l0a t:'mre the diver
sity of social interaotloovlhich ooeu):>s while the rospondents
are walking to;, and are at , the six store~,- 'Wes constructed
in t h e follOldng Hay. Values of 3, 2 , or 1 tUtlre ass:igned to
frequentl y ,. some 'times . or rar.ely, respectively, for the ques ....
tion, ft])o you walk to a (STORE) frequently, sometimes, or
rarely?U In the easo of wfllking to a bakery, groeery , phar ....
macy, a nd boauty parlor, the questionnair~ was n!'ranged so
that sev~ral stores coul d be gone to on the samo trip_ The
f'req'Uency of the ,store rfloat traveled to. 1.18.a then used as the
frequency for walking to. other stores included on the same
trip . This p r'ooedul's was employed onl y f or questions deal..
InR with contac t at the stO!'e. That 1s, if a pGrson \1a.lkcd
frequentl.y to. a bakery and a grocery on the same trip, she
was assigned a value of '~hreett for her conttiot while a.t both
stcres. 'This value of th}:"es" flas counted only once for ltJ'alklng
to both stores, since it was felt that oounting the thr-ee
twice would be un,ju.stlf'ied <iu.plication. Thero 1s no guar
a:ntee tha.t if a resnondent made separato trips to tho bn.kel"Y
and p't'ocery, she Hould !neet the sa.me peop le on the vw.y.
36
conversely, since the respondent \Vas a.ctua.lly in two different
stores J the three should be counted for her interaction while
~t both 'stares. Second, values of 2 " 1, or 0 1.'4'ere assigned
to frequently, sometimes, or rar€?ly, respectively, aooording
to th~ reapondentfsanswar to the question, "De yQU (fre ...
qUE!mtly, s Ollletimes~ or rarely) ta.lk; wi th people~ athol" than
those wha usually aceOlnpany you, while walking to (or \'I1hl1e
So t) a {.STORE}? ft
Finally, from sm Theo~J and Vo~1rication in Sociology,
sex and nationality Vlere chosen as two characteristics of
their interactants which the thirty-eight respondents would
know. 2 Values of 3,. 2, or- 1 'Wer~ assigned to (1) frequently,
sometimes , or !'a~ely~ respectively, ac,oo:rding to wile'the]:>
these people ld th whom. the r ,EN:mondent.s talked while )-!alking
to; and vihl1e at " the stor61!j were fl'o'qu.ently" sometlmeg . or
rarely the .sama national! ty as th$ respondent Ji and {2} m.ost ,
some , or rew, I'esp6otlvely" aecQrding to whether most" sOUle,
or- few or the people with whom the respondents talke,d were
the same sex as she. Whel'.$ a respondent 1"eoe1 ved a score of
nzero tl on the seeond question , no scores tor both nationality
and sex '-tere registel"ed. Also, where the respondent did not
know the natlonal1 ty or- the people with whom sbe spoke . a
score ot ttzet'O'1 was registered for the third question.
\mnt results \..rhen each apprOTn'>iate value in the thre-e
groupings is multiplied together, therefore t ia a maximum
2Zetterborg t 59 .
scor~ of eighteen, representing the highest shqilar1ty for
both sex and nationality ..
37
In a dd! tion, each of tlle t'Bspondents was asked to
give the flrst na-roe .. nationality, and sex of three people,
~ach living in their neighborhood but not in their' home i to
whom. they most frequently talked, and the same 1nf0:!"111ation
for the three people living outside the neighborhood to whom
they most f'requentl.y talked.. In eaQh t;HlSS. it was assumed
the teJ'm "neighborhood" implied a rough oorarespondenoe to the
same physical boundaries ~s were esta.blished in choosing
both areas.
In oonstructing the I+ldex of Simi 1 a.r! ty values for
these t1liO groups ot qUestions , the, procedur~ was n$ fol1owlS.
Sooiological research on the buses o-r friendship has shown
that poople \-lhom others e ,onslder "friends" tend to h&vo
similar individual Cha.racteristiOs ." Since the respondents
in this study were speald.ng of '*friends,tt it was aSGumed this
could be equated with a SQore of ftthre~fI for the que:3tion"
nDo you walk to a ( STORE) frequently, sometimes, OX' rarely?"
and with a score of fttwoU for the question, Uno you (fre
quently, sometImes; or rarely) talk with pf;iople ~ other than
those who usually accompany you.. while walking to (or while at)
3A. Paul Hare , UInterp~rsonal Relations in the Small Group ; ft Handbook of Modern Soc 101 oBi:!. Robert E .. L . 1+'ar1 a (6d.), {Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1964),p. 239 c1tinp )1 . E. Bonney ~ HA Sociotn.etric Study of the Relat!onship of Some Factors to :Ptlutual Friendships on the Ele!llentary ,. Secondary i and College Level t tt S?o:1pmetn~ 1946 t 21 .. 47.
] '-:
a (STORE)?" Thls value of sIx was t han multip l ied by a value
of 3, 2 , l, or 0, depending upon vlhether three , t wo, one ,. or
none o;f the t h l"'ee persons named in each grouping Here of the
same na tionall t y and/01" sex as the respondent .
'r'.iO points I'1re relovant ~ First 1 each t"lornan \lms asked
the nationali ty o·f both her fath e!' a nd natheI'. If t he nation-
aJlty of either on0 corresponded to t he nationality of any of
her friends JI the res"},)ondent and t hese f riel1ds "Jere considerod
t o be of the same ethnic background. Second" \:lh0re t here
were no friends in find/at' out of the neigll.borhood, no val ues
for b oth t he frequency and similarity components of the
Index were assig-aed.
For tho four cateeories~-while walking to a. store,
at the store, friend~ in the nei f',hborhood, and frlendn out
of the nelv:hborhood--the mean of. a.11 S·Col~e$ was taken and an
Index of S1mil(lri ty obtained.
There a~t'e four ways to analyze the follo1ving Index,
the fir$t two beine; int:t'iaately J;'€Jlateci. F'oI' Are a B, 1 t 1vas
assum.ed that storekeepers 1n t he area realized tha.t a peI'
son's pl."'lvats lite is important. 4 Also , remefllbe:r that Area B
~.za. a chosen bocause of its many elements of both prituary and
secondary diversity .5 Consequently . since the opportunit:tes
for> public contaet1n the enterprises along the sidewalks
4Th.e ;r'Qcognition by storekeepers of the i mportanco or pri vacy ia one of the faotors leading to succes sf ul public contact ( Jacobs. 60-62).
5 Above, pp . 23 and 28 .
J--=J
or on the sidewalks themselves are plenty, someone oan know
all k i nds of people . 6 For "v1h11e walking t o a sto~el' and
"a.t the stor6~ It Area. 13 respondents shoul d h."'!lOW people of dif
ferent nationalIties and the opposite sex a nd, therefore,
have low similarity sCores.
TABLE 6
I NDEX OF SI iULARITY FOR '1~H:li1 T1IIHfJ;Y ... EIGHT RESPONDENTS BY AREA
Nat).Qnal1ty Sex Category l Area A Area 13 Area A
(1 ) {2 (
While walking I (9)& (19 ) (9) to a stor.e Lt •• 56 6.5) 8. 78
(21) . (25) (21) At the store 3. 76 8.04 11.05
Friends in the l20) (17 ) (20) nel~hborhood . 60 9. 88 15. 60
Friends out of ( 20) (17) (20 ) the neighborhood 9. 90 9 .18 14.40
fi.Numbex- in eaoh oa:;ae .
A.rea 13 (
(19) 10 . )2
(25) 13.44
(17) 14.12
b1 7) 1 . 59
Fol' Area A rasponde'nte I on the oth er hand, remember
t hat the stores to vrhich these people go. aI'(\) out o.t: th~
neighborhood . 7 rne following points therefore seem relevant~
A¢oordin.g to a study by Goo d~nouf)l , which deal t wi th selt
diff"erence· and the meaning of words for four hundred men and
6Jtleoba , 62 .
7Above, p . 28 .
40
four hundred wom~n be"~Y'e.en the a.ges of eleven and tt-Jenty ... tWG,
more women said a bovl ref~rr$d to hair or hair ribbon than
men. Conve:rsely, m.ore men sai d the word referred to archery
than did 1<lOmen. 8 It l-1aS assumod" for 'Ourposes of this study,
that this dlffl(}ul ty in com;munica.tion could be interpre ted as
being unpleasant, It would therefore be expected tha'c in
Area A, men waul d talk H'i th mol"e m4i)n than wom.en. and vic e
Versa for women , slm~e according to Festinger, the aognition
tha.t a. person engag in(s in something unDleasant is inoonsistent
1'11 th the belief tha.t if given a ohoioe l a person t-1111 not
choose somet..'1ing unpleasant . 9 illso , because of different
experiences of vll.rious. ethnic group.e within our SOCiety t many
word.s have oome to ha.ve a sp&cial signifioance .10 !t tvEilS
assumed that talking with SOn1eon~ of another ethnio group
1-10uld be difficult and unpl$asa.nt~ It would theretO!'6 be
exneeted that people in Area A \>lil1 interact wlth people of
the saroe ethnic background, if Fe-stingerf B th00:r>y 1.3 appllca
ble .. 11 For t'1\;fhl1o Wlllld ng to a store ft and. nat the store,"
Area A respondents should thus have high sir;111arity scores • • 1 of- r ' ;iii ~
8Davld lCrech j lUehard Sit O'rutohfield, and Egerton L. Ballaahey, Ipdlvidual ,;in SocietI Otetv YQrl~: !{cGraw-IUll Book COL'lp~ny, '1952}, p . 282e'iting Florenoe Is . Goodenouell" I'The Use of Free A.ssociation in the Ob joe ti va Heasure2"lent of Personal! ty ~ tf 3tu<l1~s ~~ P~r·son~l,l t OQntrib~ted ip. Honor of LJC':n.ris M.,,~~rl;nanU~'..r orlt~ ~toGraw- - l11, 192.
9Tttiren in lecture frol'l Sidn¢y Rosen, Ph.D., Psychology II!.., Social Ps·ychology, 1Jfarquette UniVersity, 1966.
lOKrech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 282-283.
llRosen, 1966.
c~ ....
Corr~PQ:t"inG neiX ~d !latione.l1 t1 sGpartltl!Jly for each
~reu, i,Ahe &l'1;;U il'l '3?llbl0 6 sho~,r tho l"evet~$0 01" t .he prov1.ously.,.
lista,a reason:f,ng. Fot" .t'(l~hil(1 lllaUt1!1f\: to a stOI'f: , l' fiB f $ 11
l1ationnllty VfUUQ of 6.53 is t"rQQi';mr thm:l TtA f a 91 vnlucof: 'I ... :; ...", and Alt'0a ;Ps ,,'l'filue of lO • .32i'o~$1trrtlal'ity of sex 1$ fi,l"f::Hlt;el""
thsn .l'\.!"en A fn vtllu0 of' '3. 78 .. POt'" flat the stn:;:''€l/f "Bta ff
t.r'>a~~lcrm.li 1;y VUl\lO oX' fl .. oIt. 1$ gr011tpt .. than 1tA ' aU vf.'r.lue of 3 . "/6 ~
and "'1 'sU valuo of 13.lth tox' S1~11:!1a.:rlt~:,- of lSex it! gl'(Hltor
-han Arua A's vt-lluQ of' 11 .. OS .
Fox' t heth1:rd :tljf:lthod o.{' nnQlY$is. ,,111cQba st~"\.tos th..'lt:
li11f)n G.n 11l?Oa· of n el ty 1&01<:0 9. :31de~4';1l1c life, th(; '\"Ieo~1.e 'Of' the plac(;l '~rn.'st enlu):'[':tlthe1r pri vatt) .11 VE:tS ,H: th.ey arc to hava anythlnr.; at)'pl""Ofloh lng equ1 Valent contact ,,-,1t;h thoir l1el t":hbcH:'S. Thoy must settle tor some fo:c'cil or togoth0l"'''' Gsa tn 'I...rh1chmore i~ Stared with t')ne anotM4' thl:tll in tho
11:fo of thl.3l sidowalk • • ,. it.
COJ!gir10Zt:'i11f{ ttl,at ~racobs Uses this to' rf)rOl.~ to IIf:rlcndn,1/ it
h'()uld bo Q'JI;.r-eatod thut toOl' tl'w c.a.tegory 1f :t:r:i ()l1da i:n the
n oi r;hbOl--h(HH1" the sim;U tll'1 ty lJcores to·!> iil'tHl A nhoul d be
abc)ut the ~:m;lle &$ t ho GcarOS 1'01'1 th~ tt10 proviously-discuosed
C tlt:00o!l:~leD, (:.tinoo pf:)o'ple t'G~d t.o -cbOO$Q :;1$ th(~1r I1fl'it:1mdaY
othera 111 th sll:~ii lar 1ndl vi dutll cbaruoteristiGs . 13
All thl'"1le ctltegoj:"ies s1..ou1d have: l*el:at1vely hid! levols ot Ii J .~~,- -·t . . .. ~.""" .4 1!A .. Q "M'n- ,. ~.....w...~,,,,,, __ ~,_,,,,,,,,,, ______ _
12,7ncobs'JI 62 ft. Jacobs also gives tho; {l;ltel'fmt1vc tha.t in a.l1 aX'f;il lo.Jith
no n1do".yall~ life. the l'ec}ldeuts tm.u~t tottle fol" l uck of co;';"" tact , Slnco " ho\tGvel' ., tho ,urpon:{.i of this frl;ux:y is to de termine contae t." and 'not 1 ttl a1:mence, the que,st.tnn of '1;0.0 c1U(}h tOr.!etherneas 1$ oNPloyed.
13Ual'!J t 239 jJ
u1lililar1~ ty ,. Pt)l' .:!-\.l'Oa. n, on the oth<;)l~ l:mnd~ se-cres to);' the
throe e,a't:egor'ieu S-hould be x'01a.tlv{i>ly low.t, ~:tno.o on~ (lan
kno); nll kind.so!' peO!>lo.llJ.
fJ."".ClG f'1nd:lnga uQ not tottllly 3Ui"i;ort ttd/il l'iiiHl.aQIlingA
c<moe:rnlng 1\)f>(}Q. A .. tho s~o:t'n for nat1ontel.l1'cy or 6.60 rot'
I . ., .~t:.
'1friands in the t.l.O!f.:!;b.bor;!1.ood'1' is OQi:llpUl·~tl vol;; rreater than
nth-a,."' $OO7"e8 in tl1ls gr'oupb1f:;- .. 4,.56 (1Jalle • .. fi1ilking to
~$tOr.6) and .3,. ('6 (a. t; the store) . Thi So al no StH"JIl1S to \).(1 the
case f'Ol" ah't<t1.u1"11ty ()3: s~x .. '.,r1th 15. 60 greater than either
8_78 (whilt) walk1.ntt to a sto'1"Gj orc 1.1 .. ,05 (a,t th.i.i atol'!') '" In
lld<Utlorl t eu.c,h o-f t)h{ll th,.~oe scores. tor nn.tlollIJ.lity is low in
C01l11'Qri smn \/1 th CCtrrC8!,Ql''HUP.€~ BOOl"as tor siJl'111{1.ri ty of sox,
and tht-1 ~e~)pOB f,(,;);r- si.r~11ar1t~rot s~x aM not as bUl1ehod. to ...
r.~tho~ as they ll~ for tlttt1ol'ltillty. Fo',f' Ar6a H, & $1'flilel'1ty
scoro for l'ltttionttl1t1' of' 9,. 88 fol' Jlrl'1~nda 1t) tho :n.€il£!Jlbo1~
hoooo is ~elfd;lvely close to 8.ot" (at th~ storo). Ho:t>TOVOl;'O .
H; is 3 .. 35 points a:way fX-C£>l thf:) tl1mil~U'ity tlG();t10of 6. 53 for
Ut..fhl1~we.lkil1£i; to n sto):'\e,t' C'on¢~'mlnt;l'; eirlilnrlty ot BH~A.
whilo llt . l2 ffrlenils il1 ~~e netp:hb;:);r>hot')o} is relatively n~a~
13.ht~ (a.t tho stol"'a)., theZ"$ is &. d1tr~l~(1nee tJt .3~8(} he twoen
1!~.",12 and the &-co:r-e or. 10.32 tor umule lu.tlk:inB to n stQlt~h u
Tn &dd1 t1on, each of th& a¢ol .. ~t3 fo:t? I.d!11i.l~wlt-y' of' nationulit"y
1$ lent tneOl.'llr>nl"lst':t;n wi til tH')rl"~larH)nd1.ng $Caras i'o'r s.1tll~,larl ~1
01.' l3ax. and th~ aO()ras fot' similar! ty of sex ~:l:'G not a.s
bu.uohe(;l tQg~th()'1" as t hoy t~~ :ff.)a~ natiol'lJ~lit1.. Pina11;;-. tor
l!t. /i.t.. .... "f'<ZO' 1') "'.'l "'· .... d ?~\ t"itv, y ... " liP ~ c;., t;.,.l ) ""'" c;. tI ~
all scores exceJlt tho sex VLl.lu~$ f011 "ft'ie-nilS in th.~ neigh ...
boX'hood. H AX1&a. B '(("41\l(~,$ .f1,l:~ (9:'()atGt* thar.1 tht) QOI"';,t'.\)apondlns
A.r$8. A val \lea «
".,3
The final tnods o,f QXlalysia 1nvol "If(;) $ tho tollolting
r easoning.. As pl?6<vlously $tat.ed. £Q):> Al'~a A, the $.lm11arit ,y
.seot"es :tot' th~ tb'~et tht>e& ~atGgorioe ehou.ld. be rela.tively
hie'.h .. 15 Tl10 !.'~eo~s for Hfrittn<.ls out or the neir~lbo:rhQcdrl
~')hould a180 be ~lat1vt)ly high alne" p~oplQ oho{)se fltr1an&u
tv"i tb $1!;'l11~r !.ndi v1d\t~1 c"baroc tel~1$tica .16 For AI-ea n. on
the oth~~hand, 't-i'la valuil's tor the tlrut thl"~O co. 1;;egorie$.
$l1.ould be loVI d'\1e to the effect of' phye10ttl strtwtuI'O Il l'?
Corl'~erauly;: tho ~mil¢\~1t'1 ~.U)Or'e~ tox> f*.t:tt1,(,~da o~J.t ·ef the
fluighbQt'hoodu sr,.ould bo ,g~a,te!' than the $eO~B fot' tho
other thr-e.e catce;orle~ b~~uDe ot e:i.lt1ilarity of individual
chJlraeter1sties tot' '.t1"'1.~nd3, '118
Dato. fo~ Area A dQ not eonform to 0;.cpectat1on.s .
h'hll0 the value of 14t{~O to!" $lmilari ty Qi: $~.x (ff'iends out
of' the nel.rmborhood) is rela1;i'\1'01 Y neal~ 15. 60 (friends in the
nulghborhood) ~ the Mt1one,lity value Qf 9 . 90 (fl,"iends out of'
tho n0tat1.borhood) is 3 . 30 p.ointe nway from 6.ti) (fr1anda 1n
tho neifihborhood} ... ... $ compB;ru.tivel:9' large ditfGrence~ Also,
there 1s th.e lar.g0, dlf'f6~nao between n~'o1Gnali ty soares o£
9 . 90 {tr1f)nda 'Out of' the ne1ghbo:rhood} and 1~.56 h'h11(} ~alk1ng --_ ____ .... _~~ ' s. . f P . 1 • !*!'lit
15Abo"1e p-~. 39 .... ·l,j.2. " t !L t p..,-t
!.6-tlara • 239 ..
17 ~:e.o~. , pp ~ ,; f1 .. 1f,2 ~ 18 2"19 He.re' ) , .. .:J •
~4
to a store) &fld ,3 .. 76 (l\ t 'tnt';) stOrG) und bt;:;-ttfGGJ;-t aax~eol"OS of
:U~.40 {friends, out of t.1:t-e ne1gh.bomood) f B~"'B (:wtd,le ~1a1k1.ns
to ti store) II t1ll'ld 11.05 (at th~ ato:re). lila!' A:r&a 13" the <hlta
Q,.}"0 1nconoluaive ~ COl1eerlling natiQru~.1:i '1;y. 9 . H', (fx'::ten<i$ out
of tl'H~ nolgh1")orh<)o d) i~ laea than 9 11 m3 (1'1'1~nds 1:0 the ll~1gl1 ...
hO):lhood) and, nlthough it 1$ nlUeh g:t'~at6:I" than tl:'I,~ 6!t53 valU$
for ffwhil"0 "sulking to a stora. n it i~ not exactly ftover'Wheln1-
1ngn the score of fJ. . otl,. for tint t~() storo .. H Begr,rd1nl5 a1m1 ...
la~i ty of :;:SeX, the l"<HuH.>1"rl.ng el.tlPloy~(! i a fair-1 Y l'rell. sup ...
p 01"t~d.~ $lnet} 16 .. 5q( fr!e·:rtds QU t 01' the n~1. ghb orho 0 d) it!
,.I ....... a·t0~ thn.n 10.32 (while '(~lld.ng to fA. atot"e)~ 13 . 1~4 (at the
atore) ~ nnd lh",l2 (1'rienda in the h$irj).hornood} ..
On thta 1.1hola tthoretol~O, Je.eob$ f 1d0:a.s do not OOefn to
be eup),)o%*tod ~n(}* ifanyth.1ne;. the dar to. tend to disl')rov$ h$~
propo$.a.l $<.
It is 'Possible to at'tnin a more rA~a.n1ngful aMlysia '
by breaklntl ddwn tb~ Index into titm part& ...... ~qut:)ncy and ulm
l1arlty~ l~lo~~' apccit1oal1y. the t~equ~ncy oomponent to~ both
ne.tiona.l1\;y and a~)t is tltta.int;H~ by nn.tlt1y,lying t.hf1 f\.PPIl'G1U"1 ••
ate va'luQ or tho t~~qlteno!t fot" \ir.t11d.ng tQa sto~ times the
value of tal1dng with oth~lta while val'·ring tOt ~lnt1 t-lhl1e' at,
a sto~ . The l'l\tl.x1m'U'i1l vnlU0 is ohvltously s1x't TIle ~1lax.1l~um
s1tllila:rlty ::oo:t~e fo:t' both b...',:blonul1 ty Md sex. rCVlain t}-l,.ree.
Ono~ $na11.'l, thtl~ (tl-.e t'ou~ Wt).ytl to analYZfJ tho fal ..
lowing il'ltotwl.tion. OOM4ill:rnlng I1wh11~· walldnS to a $tol'e.u
"rea at B sltlll1$.J·1 ty t3(l:ore ot 1 t 68 fOl'th" nQ.tionttl1 ty
lV~
va.riable is greater than Area A' s value of 1.44, and'i} ' sn
value of 2 . 68 for simil arity of sex is el"'EH'lter than "A f sll
vulv,1i:} of 2 . 67. For flat the store , flItB,sll value for national
i t y of 1 . 72 i s greater th€ln !fA ' s 11 value of 0 . 81 , Ilnd tf ~3 t s ff
value of 2 . SIt for aimila :!."i ty of sex 1 s £~rea. tor' than Area A' s
value of 2 . 76 . The direction of each cotllparisol1 is contrary
to exn8otatiopa.19
TABLE; 7'
n~D~X OF S ! HI LAR!TY BR OKEN OO\'lN I NTO ITS F'REQUEHCY A.ND S I MI LARITY COMPmmNTS
FOR EACH Afill./\ t S RE3PONDEli'l'S
Nationality Sex Category Ar~a.A b Area B Area A Area B
f . ' ,Sf
JIJ -.11) (~)
l'i1hl1 e walking (23 ) (9) to a sto:r>e 1 • 26 ·1 . 1.114-
( 2.$) '( 21} At the store 3.4.4 '0 . 81
Friends in the (20 J (20 }' neighborhood 6 , 00 1 . OS
Priends out of' ( 20) (20) tl+e ne1 g..hborhood 6. 00 1.65 ~,.
~Frequency Similarity
1' .. (4,)
(37) 1 . 95
(45) 2. 60
.(lB) 6 . 00
{18) 6. 00
S .• f . s . ('0) (5) (6 ) ( 7)
{19} (23 ) (9) (37) 1 . 68 1 . 26 2. 67 1 . 95
( 25) (25) (21 ) (1.~5 ) 1 . 72 3.44 2 •. 76 2 . 60
(17) (20) (20) (18 ) l r' . i .?9 6 . 00 2 .. 60 6 . 00
{17} ( 20 ) (20) (lS) 1 . 47 6 . 00 2. 4·0 6 . 00
19T'ne renson;ing ~mployed for these analyses was disoussed in rela t10n to Table 6 (AbstV'e, chap . III, pp. 38-41) ..
s . (9) .
- ~.
(19} 2. 68
(25) 2. 84
(17 ) 2. 35
(17) 2. 76
46
rrt11 :t><l, f> or Al,.~}t'l A., the na t101'1Sli t'1 11001.'0 s f O!~ the
t~,;o 'ry~vlrn.t31:r .... di$oug~ed ct;l.tarrOl"'le!.h.-l .. lth (while '\rtllldng to
n stora) and 0 •. '31 (ut the st~or~)- .... ar6 rolat1.vcl'1 :sl'r:d.lal' to
the natlon:ll1.t;r valtw of' 1.05 :f;;)l"' n.rl~iGnd3 1-n the neif,hbor
hnod. It Also, the t;'.11111a.ri ty of' .s.x value of 2. &0 t.or
tff'r1(1nds in tho n~i!"';hho,!ho~du is ~lai;1vely sl~".il1al· to 2.67
{wh110 -walktYlff, to (1 $i>o~) e.nd to 2 . 76 (at the st6~e)., HO'tfl ...
evor, the ell'ltilarity '£H;:O'!~fHl tor nat1one.llty tiro (l) lo~.ral'"
than tl:u} CQrr~arond:b1t! soores for the sim:'!.la:-t'1 ty of ;'3Q:t,and
\ 2) nt)t l)unonoc.. n::; Ql()$t~ly ·to~etller a.s. e.rQ the e,o'<:)t.'e-f!l fOl" tl:l&
~$X vnrinblG. Fo~ ell B, tho nati rma.ll ty S¢Ol'ea of 1 . 68
(lvhlle walking . to a.stot-e), 1 ,, 72 (a.t tho $t¢rsE)f and 1 .. 51.)
(friobdg in the n016h.bo~hood) nre, all rolatively $1m.tlal'~ In
addit1on" the thre6 $11il11arlty ot aex va1ues ... -2",6fJ (~th11
walk1nll t~ a store) II 2, mt. (at the sto:ttQ), and 2.3.5 (tri>Ct1do
in tho. noitShb<')ri1ood) ....... are nll relati.ve.ly ~lmil~:r. Fu:rthel .....
tr101"$. the slrllilarity $eortH~ tor nationality e.~tl (1) net 6.$
h!eh taS t~eor~ajlond1ngS(}Q;NH1 rOF $1m.,1.1ari ty or !fox., and
(2') bunched mort) closely togath$r than th~ vs.luos :tor the se!t
'V'a.riQbl$, Finally ~ tor 0.11 $eO~$ ~)t~H)nt tho Grot v-alue$for
ftfr-iende In the ne·1~)~borjhood,lf A:~6(j a vaJJja$ ~ rret.\tertnan
tho ~o!,~Gt"ond1ng Area A VtUuaa. 20
FOUl'th, .ror Area A. 'lih11e ths n:::.tionn11ty v~lu.Ga or j . I i a i!); £ _ 11 J _ ~ - " ;iJ J r ( :.. -c S , IJ- ~ t;tt -5 fa ". 9t -
20Tho l"eason1nl~ e n:ploy+)(l for 'these Ma1yoeS\i~$ dinoussed in rolation tQ i!11hle, 6 (~,ehspt; III, !,p , 41 ... 42)«
47
l,4h (while walki:ng to a store) and 1~65 (triendsout of th.e
lleig1:1borhood) are relatt vely 811:1'111a1' ... both sco:pe,s di:fi'ttr from
0 . 81 (at the sto~e) and 1.05 (fl"iends in the neighborhood}.
Ooncerning simile.!'! ty of sex, all foul:' 5cores ..... 2.67 (wb.11~
walking to a atore) ,lP 2 . 76 (at the $tol'e), 2.60 (tlliellds in
the neighborhood), and 2.40 (friends out of' the neighborhood)
.... -are re1at:tvely slmila.l?; although 2 . if-O is 0.36 points ati'ay
frOlT1 2 . 76 • . This; of' cQurse, supports expectations .. For
Area B. all four nationality SCOI'i$·s ....... 1,,68 (while lYall-d.ng to
a store), 1.72 (at the atore), 1~59 (fl->lend.s in the neigh ...
borho'Od) ,; and 1_47 (friends out .of the neighborhood)--tend
to cluster at a s1m.11ar level.. Inaddi tion, the 1 .. 47 va.lue
for ttrriends out of the n~lghbo:rho.odfl is surprisingly lowe~
thw the othel:~ th'ree ., Gonce:rning similarity of sex, 2 . 76
(frienda out or the neighborhood} is ~reate-r than 2.68
(whIl.e walldng to a sto;r>e) and much greater than 2 • .35
(friends in the neig..hborhood); however l it is surpTls1ngly
. ' 21 b~low the 2 _84 va.lue fo·!" 11at the store" 11
In ~eneral, tho:reforo. physical structure seems. to be
playing a smaller :role th·an ex})ected., In fao.t, it ha.s almost
no effe,¢t 'On interaction with people of the sa.me sex.
One final note must be mtlde " In order' to condUot ' ", y st. " .1 t · " :. t
21The reason1ng employed for these ana,lY3es was dis ... <fussed in l'ela tion to Table 6 (Above , chap.. III t p .. 43).
Fol" natlol'l:$.l:ity _ the follotd.ng Index was obtS..ineci.:
'ill II- tl'T ~i' 0. .... ~:;)~ . I-J;.Jf 0'
lfAT'IOWAf.JI"l'Y' !!1l)EX RQ!.DnrG 1l;J,)'tfCATI01,}, C01~STAl~T FOR RES?Ol~DEN:rS IN EAOH ARi~
==)10 [ "J,~~l ,ef ( .! l~ ·.! ' ; .P~tf ' dn t ,. ) -- 1 _%t" J'i;fl J T' "% . 11..,_ 0 -00. % )'flIQ';t_m to n i 1 I
Aloe-a A Area 11 G ato. gory I l .... ~ l~
'r. s . S. J.\ a . I r,« s . . ~ ' , (1' ,, ' 2 'n (5) (6
,,.."' ...... ~
While wal.k1n&1 (8) (3) (15) (6) I (30) (l.7) I (7) ( 2) to a f:l'to~e 1,00 1. 33 l t L~O 1.,$0 2,. 20 1 .. 16 0 \1 86 1 . 00
(8) (6) (11) {lS) I C~n} (22) 1 (7) (3) At the store ':hOO 0. 61 3. 65 0. 87 2. 61 1.77 2._51 1. 33
'1\10 'tll~thods will. '0$ employed to analYZ0 this tablG.
aa wellaB all tul"thOl" tubles bo.s&d on ;ruriablo$ having (Ul
Gft"eo t on. th$ Index.. Fix-st,., tor the two ca.te6o~les Ifwh11
wtukinft to a 3to~e ttand ttat th~atQ~e,,, If the scores rOlf' the
baa:o Q.f' $l~d.la~i t1 undeJ' dis.euas1on will bo eOh'lpar.ed f'or oaob 2~
level gl"O'up1.ng in (!taoh ttrca.. ~ Sacond" t.he simila.r1ty values
in these tabl~s: tor eaeh level ~uplng, catee0ry t and area.
w111 bo eOl'llpf11"ed with ~tlj oorl"'$$pond1ng value in Tablo 7 a
e. teat for ¢ons1atenoy of tho. valu~s. In l'esTlGet to tho level
grouplng.. the si'Ml1ari ty 8QfJr~.$ £or both level s 1n <laeh ~:vea
and for eaoh catoe;ory will. be OOl'tlPa:t'&d with tho single seo~e
fot' the eOrP~~rr:"G:nd.1nlt b~$e of ,a:bnilarl t7, a.reo., and category
as g1~n in, Tablo 1. ' ·rf' 4. cl1fterenee 0.1" groat!3r than t'h4.0 i n ,HI _' I - ~ ' .lIp 'f i ' ,-,oM n . ' s- 3 i ,_Orr 'i1@ l l -- i' 'r "''''''
22T110 reallJoning bl;).hlOtl tb.es& o()t'lPQr1sons. was d1ee-u.sse.d In relation to Table 6 (Al?<>v;e . chap ~ III. Pil'. 36 ... 41),
tio
exists with respect to the comparisons of' two·or more of the
values, an a.ttempt will be made to explain these differences.
Concerning Table 8 " for uwhl1e walking to a store,"
while for grouping one t hrough riva, the 8COra of 1.76 tor
Area B 1s greater than the saore of 1.33 for Area It, for
grouping six through nine , Area Ata score of 1.50 is greate r
tha.n "B's" value of 1.00. Ooncerning the latter figure, it
mus t be noted t hat only two cas~s en at for Area a. For
"at the atorejJ't tor g~QU.p1ng one through five, Area Bfa soore
of 1.77 1s greater than Area A l' S value 01" 0 . 67. For Bl'ottping
s ix through nine, US' s "· value of 1 .. 33 1s greater than "Ate H
value of 0 . 87, Thel"6 is, the:retore, little. "directional ll
support for Jacobs t ideas . Also, this topic does not consti
tute a deviant case .. a$ onl y Area Bfa value of 1 .• 00 I"or
grouping six throue:..h nine and the oategox>'Y f1while walking to
a s tore tt di fters by more than 0 .. 4.0 poin ts f'l~orn Area B t 51
nationali ty score i n Tab1.e 7. The values of the Index of
Si milar! ty ~ which did not baaically support Jacobs I thinking,
are not substantially contradicted.
OOf'1parison of Boores for s1rol1arl ty of sex reveal s
t h e fol1ovdng information found in Table 9 on pa.ge fitty ... one,
ApplyIng the se..m.e analytical proc~du:r6a e mployed wi th
Table 13 , whlle for grouping one through five , Area A' s value
of 2. 61 for 'lwh1le 'Walking to a store If is greater than
Area B ts value of 2 . 6~ for grouping six through nine, "B ' s»
value of 3~OO 1s greater than " ,AtSff valu.e of 2 . 67. Because
of the small number of oases inyol veti, however, 1 t i.a
51
d1fficul t to draw eonclus1.ons for this eategor'y. Cone¢}rn1ng
tho values fo'!> the ca.tegory ftat th.0 ator~, tt for grouping one
through five,. Area A's value of 3 . 00 is g;t>eater than Area Bfs
vs,lue of' 2 . 82, supporting expect~t1ons. For grouping six
through ni nEl' , howeve:r, Us f s ft se ora of 3,00 i a gree. tel'" than
flA t s" val U$ 01' 2. 67,. Some ftdlrec tional ff avJ.Qe.nce does eXist ...
However" nOSClore in Table 9 1$ greater than o.tj.O from it.$
seore i n Ta.ble 7 J and this is not a deviant case ", 1,1 ttle
eoncretfJ support tor Jacobs exists,
rABi .. ! <1
SEX !NDEX F!OI,Dn~G EDUOATION CONSTANff FOR RESPONDENTS IN EACH AREA
B Category ~;5 6 .. 2 1~5 .
'1
While wa,lking (8} t3) (15) (6) (30) to a atore .00 2.67 1 .40 2. 61 2,,20
( 6) (17) (15l (.38) at the store 0. 00 .3.00 ) , 65 2. 67 2. 61
HOLPING AGE COl'lSTANT \ » . . ~ _ . I ' . _ _ t -
6 ... 0_"" __ " ___ .• l.o';'
(17) 2 6c
'" ::>
( 7) 0 .. 86
(22) ( 7) 2. 82 2. 57
(2} 3 ,, 00
(3) 3 . 00
Each r:espondent was also a.sked to .state he:r &ge..Ten
levels, as shown on page twenty-seven, viera oonsidered. Once
aga.in . in ord~r to present the aimilal'i ty vo.luea in tabular
f'orro , i e ,,faa neC~$sary to (1) diohotomize the distribution,
but this time into groupings containing le~el$ one through
five and six through ze):'o, and (2) present data on both
slm:il ar1 ty rae tors .separa tely.
FoX' nationali ty 1 the follolJing Index was obtained:
TABLE 10
NATIONALITY INDEX HOI,DING AGE CONSTANT FOR RESPONDENTS IN EACH AREA
Al~ea A lil:'ea B Oategory 1 t' 6..,,0 1 .. 5 . ... ') '-f. . f. f' . s . s . s.
(1 ) 1(2) . (3) {4} (5} (6) ( 7 )
\Albile walking (14) (7} (9) (2) (12) (9) to a snore 1 .. 50 1.'~3 0 . 89 1 . 50 2 .1 7 1.78
(16) (IS) ( 9) ( 6) (13) (10) 1\ t the store h . 06 1.07 2. 33 0 . 17 2. 54 1 • .50
- ~
6,-0 - . f . (8)
(25) 1 . 8tl-
(:32 ) 2. 63
52
Ell! iql
(10 ) 1~60
(1 5) 1.87
The same methods used in holding education .constant
can again be employed. First I for "whil e \-ralking to a store * fI
Area B'a value of 1.78 tor grouping one through five is
grea tel? tha.n Area p,. 1 S value of 1.43. Pol:' grouping six through
zero , !JE'e H value of 1.60 is greater tha.n tfA'sft value of 1 . 50,
the llle an of only two ea$e8~ For "J;l. t the store, It for g:r:>ouping
one through 1"1 'Ve, ~ea I3 ' S so ori) of 1 . 50 is gren ter than Area.
Ata value of 1~07 . Conoerning groupi ng six through zerO' ,
Area Bt s v~lu,e of 1. 87 is g:reate-r t han Area At S value 01' -0 .17.
No tfdirectional ll evidence theref'ore exists tor Saoobs . See ..
on4, only one SOO2:'& ...... 0 .17 f or Area A, gl~ouping s1x through
zero ~ and ,oategory "at t he sto-re" .... - 1s greater than O!l.j.O from
1 ts corresponding value in Ta.ble 7.. Therefore II since no
deviant t1ase exists , no eVideneestlPTJorting Jacobs" ideaa hae
been found.
t,.."
. -
Oomputa.tion of scores for similarity of sex revGals
the following table!
TABLE 11
SEX IHDEX HOLDING AGE COlmT;.4.lQT FOR RESPONDENTS I N EACH. AP;.EA
53
~ . .1" _ ,. I
Cate£to:vy
tll
rJhl1e walking to a s tore
At t he store
Area A 1.5
(14) 1.50
(16) 4. 06
6-0
(7) \ (9) un 2. 57 0 . 8'9 3 . 00
(15) 1(9) (6) 2. 67 2. 33 3. 00
B 6",,-0
(12) ( <}) 1( 2$ ) (to ) 2 . 17 2 , Lt1~ 1. 84 2.90
(13) (10) I (32 ) (15) 2.54 2 . 8{) 2 . 63 2.87
GoncerninR tlwh11e 't..talking to a $ tore. fI f or grouni ng
one through five . Ar ea A' $ soore of 2. 57 is greater than
Area 13 ' s value of 2.44. Also" for grou1)ing six through zero ,
rtA's" acora of 3 ,, 00 is greater> thllUl "Bts lt value of 2 . 90 . It
should be noted, h o\.rever,. that there are onl y two caa-es f ·or
Area A' s score of 3 . 00 . For the category !tat t he otore , fl
\-.1111Je for gron.ping one thrQugh tl ve , Area B t S scorO' of 2 . 80
1s ~reattrr than A)?ea. A,t's value ot 2. 67. tor grouping six
throu11'~ zero , "A , sl. value of 3 .. 00 1s graater tha.n !lB t S I1 value
of 2 .. 87 . There i s ; ther:etore . considerable. f'directiona.l"
support for Jacobs .. ROil/over,. no soore greater than 0 . 4,0 from
its c orr-es pond:1.ng value in Table 7 exists, and this t opic can
not be oons1 dered a deviant ease . In eonclusion j . while 1:'llore
support for Jacobs t ideas exists ho:r'o t han in Pl~evious dis ..
C USSiOl'lS , there i s not the total amount of evidence whioh t he
writer If.ould 11k~ to se~ .
Wh!le. W~lkj,ng . to and, ,~.11e Jat" tl;.l~ G~9P~rZ
A.r;; can h~ seen from an a~aIl11nation of Table 12, a
gl"oce:ry 1s the store to which mO$t of the res1c1~nts wa.lk,
both $6parately and wlthothel" stores on the sam~ trip.
TABLE 12
NUMB8R OF TI~tms THE TfIIRTY·~EI(iErr R~SPOIiDl1'NTS \;.lAIJK TO ! STOllE
~·-·--j;j r;;;s'];; ~ ....
l'fuml:HU" of Times \Ja1~ To St'Ol?4iI .,. ,' ''I - . ' ." . ,. "- , , ,
54
Store t'
Separately t2
t11 th other Store~
Bak~rY Grocery Pharrllac y Beauty Parlor neetaurant llar
6 22
6 10
1 2
8 6 4. 2
• 1/
9' !,
Att$r computIng th~ lli~X to%' thos* who vU1.1k to a
grooery,. the foll 'ow1n$; infQrmation was obtained. For nation
ali ty; in support 0·£ Jacobs I thinking, Area A! S SQ:ore .of 1 .. 60
for "\+lh11 e walking to a store}f 1$ greater than A!>o$. B I 8 val\!$
of 1.43, Ct;>nce:rnlng this oatagory ,and the 'scor1l')s for simi
larity ·of sex ~ tlBl$tl valu¢ of 2. 11 is gree.telr' than UA'gU
valu~ of 2 . 60. Conc·el'nil1g the oategory Hat the store. H Area
13'$ natlonflllty value of 2~OO is greater than. Area A's valuo
of 0 . 90 " and ?lB ! S n score of 2 . 89 :rot' similar! ty of sex is
grea ter than 11A f S n value of 2.80" Q:nly n modicUlu of
55
"directional n evidence thus exists for Jaco.bs .. 23 In Qddi tion.
all e1ght scores are less than 0 .4.0 from their corresponding
sooren in Table 7 ~ a.nd vla1k1ng to $ grocery does not oonet:1 ....
tut$ l\ deviant CCii.$e. Physioal str\lcture as descI'ioed by
,jaoobs continu6sto pla.y a minot' r~le in determining d1 veX'si ty
of soei&laot.i vi t y"
TABLE 13
INDEX OF Snn:LARI'l"'Y FOR WALKING IrQ A GROOERY FUR THOSE HES'POt:!DI'SNTS I N EAOH AREA HHO
"MIX TO If HI S TYPE OF STORE
iL, ...... ,.';" P )' T
Natio-nal1 ty 3e~ Category I Area .A . Area B Al"ee. It
, -,s . f s . f io :$ ~ • 1 I,
I r ..
While walking (13) (,S> (15) ( 1) (13) (5) I (1$) to a store 1.54 1.60 2.07 1 . 43 1 .,$4 2 . 60 2. 0?
(13) (10) (15) { 9) (13) 1:86 1 1:~~ At th~ ster. 13 . 2.3 0 . 90 2. 93 2 . 00 3 . 2.3
Nutnbel" of Children With Whom l~lomen Talk %11,6 'W~~Iii5tp ~nd jVhl].a !it 'a ' Sto~i
s .-
(7) 2.71
(9) 2. 89
Jacobs devotes an enti~e chapter to e~lalning the
importa.nce or sidewa.lks as a plao'0 where children are assimi ...
lated into oity &oeieuy. 24
Oonoerning this s tudl t beoause of 1. ts physical d1 vet> ...
sity, Area B respondents $hould talk with more ohildren while . -~ - -~-=- .. "----~~->-.. ~--~~-- ' • .
23Tl'le reasoning behind these aoml)(iu:~1sons wse disoussed i n l'elation to Table 6 . (AboVEl# chap . III. pp . 38-41l ,,-* , ,
24Jaoobs . 74 ... 88 .
walking tOjt and while at, the various stores than should
A:r'ea A respondants, who a,re 110t affected by a d1VG1"'Se
physical atruoture ,~ 2S
......
The following table shows the m.ean number of ehildren
wi th \-'hom women in both areae talk while walkir..g to, and rmile
a t, a sto~f,) t
TABLE 14 Mean NUl'1bet> or Chi1.dl-;on To t:hotl'l l1:omen In
Both Ar()a.sTalk Whir e Waltd.ng To And \,,'hile At A Store '
l{e~l1 Nwnbi)I', of Chil ~n
Oa te~o;ry j Area "A Area,' B 11 ) {ZJ tJl ' . ( E ~ '" . . ' _ 0/ • "l !I
\fuile walking to a store
At the, sto're
2 . $6 l . 8h
1 ~1~3 1 . 61 ; .. ~ (
The data only p.a.vtlally support expec tat1ons. For
''while walldng to a st~re;, tI the nUI~bel" of children talked. to
is higher for Area A, 2. S6.than tor Area B; 1.84. For the
seoond c&tegory~ how$ver. "E's" value of 1 . 61 is greater than
"A 'sft value of 1 .. 4.). \' 'ft '
2!JThe reasons tor choosing both areas was prfb1110usly discussed (A'bo~e, chap . II. pp~ 23 and 28}. Also previously discussed viaS the importance of physical structure to the assimilation process (Above, chap . I , pp . 17-l9) .
''''
SUlWtlRY g - . ;I f t
In or de 1'" to test Jane Ja.coba' 1dea.$ on th~ :rolationahlp
botween physical structure a.nd lelsure ... t1me activity in tt~O
a1'6a.a of MilwaUkeG # thirty-eiff.ht women were fit"st asked the
frequ&ncy w1,th irlhlch they walked to a bakery. erooery .. phar ...
macy . b()@.uty pal'>lor, restaux-ant J Qnd bar. Th.e :findings showed
that more wo..-nen who lived in an area with adivarse physical.
atl"lle.tllre, tvalked tamora stores more of'ten than did women who
lived in a. totally residential area .
The· thil"ty-eight \-[()Ulen wer-e then asked a series of
qu.estions . baaed on the interactions of the resfrondenta u1 th
peonle oc.f the name oX' different sex and natl ,':n1al1 ty, for while
walking to, and 'Wh.ile 9. t ~ six t:YPGS of $tores ... - a bakery, gro~
cery , phannaoy" beauty parlor, restau);>ant, ,and be.r.. The
respondents wer$ th~n asked. ' the national! ty and sex of three
ftfriends ft in her neig):lborhood and three Jtfriends tJ out of her
ne1ghboroood. ThefJe four g:!?OUpS of questions \-.~e:re then
integrated into an Index of Similar! ty, w~iGh was designed to
measul"ftthe degreo of similarity ot: both the sex and nation
ality of the people ~Jith whom the thlrty ... elght respon4ents
lnterao t~d.
The Index, which tended to disprove Jacoba ! proposals,
was also broken dOlffl into 1 ts frequency a.nd similar! ty com ...
ponents in orde:p to provt de e. mor~ meaningful anal. 11;11$8 Even
here . however , the effeot of physical structur~ on ~eisure~
tlm~ aot1vlty was n.ot supportive of" Jacobs' tb.1nking t
58
FinallYt even holding age and education constant
and oonsidering the store to whioh most ot tht'J women li'lalked
and the reaponde.nts' inwraction" with ohildren, little eon ....
crete support f'or Jacobs was found;
59
CHAPTER IV
A REASSESSHENT OF JAC 0133 t THIHKIUG
Since the refr\ll ts of this study do not supnort
Jacobs' proposals, it was decided to reas3eas he;r thinking.
l~iO areas-.tha physical aspect generating social aotivity on
which this study was based and an illlportant fa.cet of public
contact--w:tl1 be dise.usse·d"
By lrlay of 1ntroducing the first topic" to our knoHl
edge , no area in the City of Hil'\vauk$6 completely meets
Jaoops t specifications. Area a f \-11 th 1. ts predominance of'
dwellings , several offices, lapd the elements of secondary
dl varsity on v.lhich the questionnaire was based, Has chosen
because it provide d the olosest approximation to the Uutopia 't
,~h1ch Jacobsdiscm.,ssas.
Two problelus, both of whioh could have affected the
results of the study, exiat , F1rat$ as stated on page
twenty-elght~ to be eff~ti¥e in genorating diversity in
social aetiv1ty~ a primary mixture must have the following
charao tex'1s tic 's 1 {l} nthe people using the streets at dit ...
ferent times must actually ua-a the same streets T'; (2) "the
people using the same streets at differing tin16S must inolude,
among the1l'l # people 1rlho lull use some or tho sa...rne fac11ities tf;
(3) If,the mixture of people on the atre~t at one titlls must
bear some reasonably proportionate 'relationship to people
~ .... ~
there at othe:r times of the day . ,,1 It was thoua;bt that all
t~e apply to the dwelling unlts _ except that there are
proba.bly not vfJry :many p~opl~ out extremely late a.t night.
It is known,. furthermore 'I tha.t the offices in Area B do not
remain open all niept ~ 11'irmll y. 1 t !flight behoove us to ques
tion \-fhether offJ.ces aotually form a vi tal part of the pri ..
mary uae l1lixture, as basod upon the first two points or effeo
tiV~l'1e8s. Future research on phys.io~ll structure might test
the type of' priJ!lax'Y us,as needed in cUfferent oity neighbor ..
hoods to co:tlt1titute an f.;ltfeetlve ll'u.;.;:.tu:re .•
This tmattex' of e.ffect1 veness leads to a second prob
lem. If it is a.ssumed that the several or-fices do not con ....
at! tute a tI;r;>igo1 0uS fl p-r1mary .funct1(}n~ the seoondary uses of
build1nggwou:ld nQt have the desired. ef'f,ect. As Jacobs says,
l,tIf this secondary dlv$.):>sity serves slngl~ primary uses, no
matte!" It/hat the type of "Use , it is innately inefficient . ,;!!
Thor~fore t the assumption that aski!l@; people ab01,lt their
interactions \Jhlle- v.ralldl1g to , and vlhlle at, the. six elements
of secondary diversity W'ould provtde, a sound rn-easu'J:'>ec of so ..
oia1 aotivity 'Would be £a1s& .
Rather than discuss loisu~ ... tlme aoti vi ty in tel"I'ns of
safety, contact. and theassirllilatiofl ot ohildren. it 1s more
fru1 tful to analyze what 1s believed &0 be the most inlpo:rtant
aspect or an aotive public life relti:tJ1ng to this study. As
lAbove~ P . 2 ·.) .
2Jacobs,. 162,
61
previously noted, it was assumed t h at :
because of the ~Teat plen ty of opportunities for public contact in'hhe enterpri~es alQng the ~idewalks , or on the sidevralks the'Ulsel ves a.S people move to and fro or deliberately loIter ".;'b.en they feel 1tke it GIlle n 0001-
::!Jine d ,.11 th the notion of tfriendlyf storekee:perv. " •• it 1s possible in a citJ street neighborhood to k now al l k i nds of people ••••
..:..,~: .. " . Several err ors mi ght h ave been made. First, perhaps
sex and nationality are not good i ndicators of all "types of
people. " Second , pe r hap s nn Index of Si'fl"lilarity is not the
type of i ns trument to use in mea.suring social interac tion.
T'na.t Is, some sociologi$ts have mai ntained that the disci
pline should be sol ely concerned with. humetn behavior. 4 Si nce
age and nationality do not oonstitute behaVior bu.t are essen ..
t.ia.lly variables used as Indicatorsof b ehB.'v1or, poss:i.bl y
t hese and all other i ndicator s a re too "artifiCial. f!
EVen consi <Wring the above problems, however , it is
believed t h is study throws some doubt on t h e ideas of Jane
Jacobs~ It also 'Points to the faot. t hat more r esea rcho,n t he
relat10nshi p b att/oen an urban area f S physical structure and
human b ehavior 1$ neede,d.
Such research can take one or more of' the fol10lrTing
pat h s. First, a cl arification of' Jacobs I i deas is needed.
JApove, pp , 15-16.
4See t for example, the ideas of Wi l liam ,Poate \v11yte i n criticizing the use of values by Talcott Parson s (William Foote vlhyte, u'Parsonian Theo!'y Appl i ed t o Organ:t,zations, It The Soc1al Theories ot Talcott Parsons" }1ax Black ( ad.) ~nglewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentic e- Hall , Inc., 196t], p . 261. )
62
For eXliUllple. whfat tYP'(;1l::l 01' primary uses a~e needed in O11'er·
e:nt 01 ty l'1eighbQrhooda toconstl t'Ut e. an effee.U . V-G tl).,ixiRtrO'?
Al so, il4'hat specifically constitutes a !IS11(H't bloek fl in var t ...
GUS ():1 t'1 neigh.1')orhoods!? Boo ond, t he :resea.1'Ch@I' shoul d. ob ...
se~ve urban l1.f'e as al't'ec ted by physical structure and pro
ceed to empir~oa.lly verify these obsovvations t ~dth the
aSBtunptions drawn from these observations constituting
theory~5 Fi nally f in his popqeptual Fou!:\<l&t;ioP.sof Bud~s(s "Re$Qal?Ol'l,. Paul H. lttghy speaks of 1t1nquiryH as the type of
resea..l:'<}h which one can do at his d.~$k. I n attempting to
oreat! vely develo-p eonoeph, l aws , principles; hypotheses,
a.nd theorl~s, the J:'ea·$~hfH? should be tam11ia:r? W'i th existing
t heory a;nd its impl1Qat lons and use this infOl"matlat).-to de~
velo},> these eOl'1Qepta f law$f p:r1neiplea j [email protected]$,and
theo·r1EH~. 6 Re.$earohet's ex:plor!ng the relationship b~tween physiGal $t:t'Ueture and human bahavto!' ancm.ld u.se e~1.st1ng
th~ory in attempting to ol"eati vely analyze this Nlatlonship.
5':l.'hli s t-ype of res{;)a.rch is what Paul H t: lUgby terms ltde se·r1p't1o:n$t ,( P.aul R. Rigby ,Oonqe~tual Founda.t.tortS Ocr Bl!$lnes! R~$,aNh {)ew York ~ JOhn ' lleyand Sons ~ Inc . , 196!D. Ih 77 '"
6I:bi d. , pp ; 80 ... 81 . --
BI BLIOGRAPHY
PIUHAHY SQURCES . . -. '
Al. ... t ic1es and Periodicals
Low ., Robert A. ItSweet, t Dep:re~Hsecl Area f Home, If Sa.turda.;y Review, 4t~ {December 2; 1961), 28 .
BookS
Jacobs, ::Tane. The Deat~ .and L·ire of' Great. A!J1e);'ican Cities. NeW' York ~ Random House, 1 953. .
LastruGc;t, Carlo t. $'10 ScientifiC' .Approaoh : . Baa1c ~rlnGipl~sof the Scientific ~e~b,oa. Crunbrldge ,," Ma$sachu.sett·es: . Sliellkrnan Pub l ishing Company, I ne . " 1963.
Ri gby, Paul H. Conceptual Foundatlon~ or .Business' Hesea,re}J.. Ne.t.; Y.Qrk : John Wiley and ' Sous ~ Ineo,; 196.5 ..
\1,1]:1 yte , ltll111am Foote .• uParsoniau Theory Applied to Organizations. n The Socia;), 'l,'heo:ries of 'l'a1cottPa.rson~ .. b1d1tGdby Nax Bla:ck: ' ~ng~Qwood Cn.ffs, N .. • T.: PrenUce-Hall; I nc " 1961.
Wirth, Louis. On Cl,t:les and 3.0018.1 ):,11';e.. Edited by Albert J" Re'ias. jr-. Ch icago: The Univers.i. ty of Ch1ca~o Press . 1964 -
Zatter'berg, lIans. I, . pn 'n).aoPI ,fWd Vel;';tfio,ation in .soCiQld{ff~ 3rd enlarge. d edi tron • . l,tew York : The Be ' instar Press, 1965 ..
Public Documents
DepartMent of C11>'1 Development. C pmmu,nity Renewal Proaram $tudy. Mi l waukee: Ootober, 19&4.
" ,
63
Hare,
Krech,
SECONDARY SOURCES
Books
A. Paul, "In terpersonal Relations in the Small ' Gt>oup." Handbook 0.1' :t-1oderrt Soc iology. Edited by Robert E. L. Faris. OhIcago: Rand Hc J~ally &. Company, 1946, eiting 14: . E. Bonney. IIA Sociometric s tudy of the Relationship of Some Factors to Mutual Friendships on the Elementary, Secondary, and College Le vel,u SQCiometn. 19l~6, 2l-47~
David, Crutchfield. Riohard S. , and Ballachey , Egerton L . Indivldualin Sooiety. New York: McGraw-Hill Book CompanYA 1962, citing Florenee I. . Goodenough, The Use of Free Association i n the Objective Measureme n t of Personality. tI Studies in Personality Contributed in Honor of Lewis }i . Te:m.an. New York ; Hc Graw~FIi n:. 1942.
OTHER SOURCES
• Leoture material taken from l-Uchael Ai ken , ----·'ph , D • • Sociology 645 , Modern Amer1.can
COl.'I'tnlunitles, UniversIty of Wlsconsin. 1965 .
___ .......,. Leeture material taken from Roman Gawkoski , Ph. D., t Psychology 260, Advanoed Stat1Gtlcs, Ma~quette 'University. 1'966.
Lecture material taken 1'FQffi Sidney Rosen, Ph. DO!, Psychology III t Sooial psych ology, Narquette Unl varsi ty, 1966 .
Nilwaukee Strcet Address Pirectory. Mi lwaukeet Wisconsin Telephone Comp any. 1967 .
61,.