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The University of New South Wales
School of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH CLEANER PRODUCTION
by
Andrew Aschner
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
October 2004
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ABSTRACT
The concept of sustainable development is receiving a great deal of attention in industry.
However, the operational processes for industrial environmental management are still at
an early stage of development and despite the best efforts of operations management and
environmental specialists a great many products and services continue to be un-
sustainable. This presents threats to society and risks for survival to manufacturers.
The purpose of the Thesis is to accelerate environmental improvements through the
uptake of Cleaner Production concepts by developing a methodology for guiding
manufacturing enterprises. The tenets of the proposed methodology include:
ooo Reliance on a strategic approach
ooo Development of an implementation path similar to those used in introducing other
major culture and technology changes
ooo Culture and policy change are strategically generated from within manufacturing
organisations
Specifically, the main objectives of the Project are:
1. to invent a relatively easily implementable methodology for planning for
sustainability for manufacturing enterprises of all sizes
2. to address the major industrial environmental management issues at all levels
within the enterprise as one seamless process
3. to configure the methodology so that it may be incorporated into an existing body
of knowledge, e.g., manufacturing management/manufacturing engineering
4. to minimise complexities by standardising key concepts and terminology
The Thesis integrates Sustainability and Cleaner Production concepts, systems and
technologies and performance indicators with a planning model to arrive at what has
been termed as "the Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner Production"
process. This solution addresses the key point of integrating Cleaner Production concepts
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with the manufacturing planning processes, but just as importantly, it also establishes the
links between the steps from strategy initiation through to implementation, from the
boardroom down to the factory floor. The main modules of the work are:
ooo establishing relationships between strategic, business and manufacturing plans
using the concepts of Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production
ooo development of links between planning and operations using the concepts of
Industrial Ecology and Life Cycle Management
ooo development of a classification system, referred to as a Cleaner Production tool-
kit, to promote optimum selection of hard and soft systems and technologies
ooo development of appropriate Cleaner Production Indicators to complete the loop.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
An undertaking of this magnitude would not be feasible without the invaluable aid of a
number of people.
Sincerest gratitude to Professor Hartmut Kaebernick, the Supervisor for the project, who
made the Thesis possible. His resolute support, experience, advice, overseas contacts and
the ability to overcome seemingly impossible obstacles have been crucial.
Genuine appreciation also to the Advanced Manufacturing Centre, its Director Dr.
Farhad Shafaghi for his general support, contacts and the many exchanges regarding
advanced concepts and technologies, and to Mr. Dragan Bejatovic for helping with the
intricacies of information technology.
Of the many information sources drawn on, particular appreciation to Professor Peter
Stonebraker, Northeastern Illinois University for allowing the use of his operations
planning model and to Professor Bill Vanderburg, University of Toronto for making such
a strong argument for considering human values in engineering endeavors.
Thanks also to the management of the case study organisations for extending the
opportunity for and patiently enduring the trialing of new concepts.
Special thanks to members of my family for their exhortations, empathy and patience
over the long journey.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
ABSTRACT i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES xi
ABBREVIATIONS xiii
CHAPTER 1: PROJECT DESCRIPTION
1.1 Background to the Project 1
1.2 Obstacles to Improving the Effectiveness of Environmental
Management Initiatives. 3
1.2.1 Diversity of Approaches 3
1.2.2 Lack of Executive Support 4
1.2.3 Inadequate Reference to Benefits 5
1.2.4 Traditional Technology Objectives and Options 7
1.3 Defining the Problem 8
1.3.1 Objectives 8
1.3.2 Scope 9
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Initiating the Research 11
2.1.1 Background to Sustainability 11
2.1.2 Sustainability and Manufacturing 13
2.2 Results of the Review of Existing Literature 17
2.3 Strategic Planning 21
2.4 Execution – Links to Strategies, Policies and Projects 23
2.5 Performance Measurements 24
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CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK
3.1 The Need for a Guiding Framework 26
3.2 Defining the Concepts 30
3.2.1 Eco-efficiency 30
3.2.2 Sustainable Manufacturing 31
3.2.3 Waste Minimisation 32
3.2.4 Industrial Ecology 36
3.2.5 Life Cycle Management 38
3.2.6 Cleaner Production 40
3.3 Key Relationships and Conclusions 43
3.3.1 Positioning the Concepts in a Planning Hierarchy 43
3.3.2 Cleaner Production and Eco-Efficiency 44
3.3.3 Cleaner Production versus Industrial Ecology 45
3.3.4 Cleaner Production and Life Cycle 46
3.3.5 Concluding Notes Regarding Industrial Environmental
Management Concepts 47
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
4.1 The Need for Speed and Effectiveness 48
4.2 Other Influencing Factors 49
4.3 Development of the Project Structure 50
4.4 Proposed Solution 51
4.4.1 Conceptual Design of the Process 51
4.4.2 The Proposed Planning Model 51
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CHAPTER 5: STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONS
PLANNING (Stages 1-3)
5.1 Meta Strategy 54
5.1.1 Balancing of Technological Development with the Development of
Social Values 53
5.1.2 Systems Thinking 57
5.1.3 Reorientation of Engineering Practices 58
5.2 Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1) 64
5.2.1 Strategy Development 64
5.2.2 Corporate Sustainability and Risk 66
5.2.3 Evolution towards Sustainability 67
5.2.4 Drivers for Sustainability 69
5.3 Business Planning (Stage 2) 74
5.4 Operations Planning (Stage 3) 76
5.5 Implementation Notes 79
CHAPTER 6: LINKING STRATEGIES WITH PROJECTS
(Stage 4)
6.1 Linking Strategies with Tactics 80
6.2 Industrial Ecology as an Enabler 81
6.3 Life Cycle Management as an Enabler 83
6.4 Linking Strategies to Execution 86
6.4.1 Scrutiny of the Linking Process 87
6.4.2 Description of the Process 88
CHAPTER 7: TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS (Stage 5)
7.1 The need for a Tool-kit 93
7.2 Objectives of the Tool-kit 93
7.3 Designing the Tool-kit 95
7.3.1 Optimisation of Design Considerations 95
7.3.1.1 Resource Extraction 95
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7.3.1.2 Pre-Manufacture 96
7.3.1.3 Production Processes 96
7.3.1.4 Product Delivery 99
7.3.1.5 Product Use 99
7.3.1.6 Disposal, Recycling, Reuse (End of Life Systems) 100
7.3.2 Optimisation of Manufacturing Goals 102
7.3.3 Categories of Cleaner Production Technologies 104
7.4 From Operational Strategies to Systems and Technologies 106
7.4.1 Categories of Tools 106
7.4.2 The Classification Matrix 110
7.4.3 Linking Technology Cells to Technologies 112
7.4.4 Implementing and Maintaining the Tool-kit 113
7.5 Classifying Environmental Technologies 116
7.5.1 Technologies within the Assessment Tools Category 116
7.5.2 Technologies within the Material Substitution Category 119
7.5.3 Technologies within the Design Change Category 120
7.5.4 Technologies within the Process Change Category 121
7.5.5 Technologies within the Closed Loop System Category 124
CHAPTER 8: MEASURING PERFORMANCE (Stage 6)
8.1 The Need for Indicators 125
8.2 Required Characteristics 126
8.3 Process Performance Measures 129
8.4 Environmental Performance Measures 133
8.5 Summary 138
CHAPTER 9 CASE STUDIES
9.1 Company A 139
9.1.1 Introduction 140
9.1.1.1 Materials 141
9.1.1.2 Manufacturing Processes and Equipment 143
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9.1.2 The Planning Process 143
9.1.2.1 Step 1 – Corporate Strategy 144
9.1.2.2 Step 2 – Business Strategy 145
9.1.2.3 Step 3 – Functional (Manufacturing) Strategy 146
9.1.3 Conclusions – Case Study A 147
9.2 Company B 148
9.2.1 Introduction 148
9.2.2 The Research 149
9.2.2.1 The Existing Process 150
9.2.2.2 Assessments 153
9.2.3 Conclusions – Case Study B 155
9.3 Company C 156
9.3.1 Introduction 156
9.3.2 Application of the Methodology 157
9.3.3 Conclusions – Case Study C 164
CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS
10.1 Project Outcomes 166
10.2 Case Studies 169
10.3 Future Research 170
REFERENCES: 173
APPENDIX A: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE ASSESSMENT
TOOLS CATEGORY 188
APPENDIX B: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE MATERIAL
SUBSTITUTION CATEGORY 197
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APPENDIX C: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE DESIGN
CHANGE CATEGORY 201
APPENDIX D: TECHNOLOGIES WITHIN THE PROCESS
CHANGE CATEGORY 207
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
1.1 Different Approaches to Sustainability in Manufacturing 4
1.2 Strategic Links between the Boardroom and the Shop Floor 9
3.1 Strategic versus Operational Hierarchy of 44
Industrial Management Concepts
3.2 Scope of Cleaner Production, a Life Cycle Approach 46
4.1 The Proposed Methodology Framework 48
4.2 The Research Project Plan 50
4.3 Strategy Development and Implementation with
Cleaner Production Model - Cleaner Production
Scope, Links to Systems and Technologies 52
5.1 Meta Strategy Inputs 56
5.2 Requirements for a Preventive and Remedial Orientation to
Industrial Environmental Management by Engineers 61
5.3 The Road to Sustainability and Cleaner Production 66
5.4 Evolution of the Enterprise towards Sustainability 68
6.1 Life Cycle Management (LCM) – Scope 85
6.2 Linking Strategy with Execution 86
6.3 Cleaner Production Issues 88
6.4 Multi-year Influence of a Cleaner Production Strategy by Life
Cycle Stage, Evolution, Commercial Function and Environmental
Impact 89
7.1 Goals of Environmental Design and Manufacturing 103
7.2 Cleaner Production Techniques and Approaches 104
7.3 Design and Manufacturing Goals and Cleaner Production
Categories 107
7.4 Relationship between Technologies and Accomplishment of Goals 110
7.5 Classification Matrix for Design and Manufacturing Technologies 111
7.6 Link between the Classification Matrix and Technology Lists 112
xi
7.7 Information Sheet for Technologies 115
7.8 Classification of Manufacturing Processes 122
8.1 Development of Indicators and Indices 125
8.2 Cleaner Production Strategic Planning Process Measurement 131
8.3 Measuring the Linking Process 132
8.4 Corporate Environmental Performance Measures 133
8.5 Eco-Efficiency Environmental Performance Measures 134
8.6 Cleaner Production Environmental Performance Measures 134
8.7 AT&T Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology 135
8.8 Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology adapted from
The AT&T Materials Matrix system 136
9.1 Company C’s Cleaner Production Strategy Options 160
9.2 Company C’s Cleaner Production Strategy’s Functional Impact 161
9.3 Multi-year impact of Company C’s pilot Cleaner
Production strategy 162
9.4 Functional and Environmental Impact of Company C’s
Pilot Cleaner Production Strategy by Year 162
9.5 Categorising Cleaner Production Tools for Recycling
and Waste Minimisation 163
10.1 “The Strategy Development and Implementation with
Cleaner Production” Process 167
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1.1 Ten Global Threats to Ecosystem Viability 2
1.2 Potential Societal and Commercial Benefits of Concern for the
Environment 6
2.1 Foundation Tenets for Sustainability in Manufacturing 14
3.1 Eco-Efficiency Success Factors 30
3.2 Definition of Industrial Wa 33-34
3.3 Waste Hierarchy 35
3.4 Waste Minimisation Evolutionary Stages 35
3.5 Industrial Ecology’s Systems Orientation 37
3.6 Potential Uses of Life Cycle Management 39
3.7 Cleaner Production Outcomes in Design and Production 43
5.1 Trends Affecting the Development of Industrial Environmental
Management Disciplines 55
5.2 New Developments for Consideration in an Enterprise’s Meta
Strategy 58
5.3 Principles of Sustainability 70
5.4 Eco-efficiency Goals Leading to Sustainable Development 75
5.5 Cleaner Production Life Cycle Stages 77
5.6 Cleaner Production Strategies 78
6.1 Principles of Industrial Ecology 82
7.1 Technology List for Assessment Tools and Methods 117
7.2 Information Sheet for the MET Matrix 118
7.3 Technology List 2.2 for Material Substitution during Production 120
7.4 Technology List 3.2 for Design Change during Production 121
7.5 Technology List 4.2 for Process Changes during Production 123
8.1 General Characteristics of Indicators/Metrics 127
8.2 Summary of Cleaner Production Indicators 138
9.1 Formulations used in the manufacturing process 142
9.2 Processes and Equipment Deployed 143
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9.3 Company A’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability 145
9.4 Company A’s Business Plans for Sustainability 146
9.5 Example of Company A’s Manufacturing Strategy for
Sustainability through Cleaner Production 147
9.6 Company C’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability 157
9.7 Company C’s Business Plans for Sustainability 158
9.8 Company C’s Manufacturing Strategy for Sustainability through
Cleaner Production 159
9.9 Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste reduction and Recycled
Materials Substitution Strategies Measures 164
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AG Aktiengesellschaft (lnc.: limited company) AUXi amount of the ith auxiliary material AuxMI auxiliary material intensity BDI Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc. °C grad Celsius Ci maximum admissible concentration of the ith pollutant (in water/ in
atmosphere) ca. circa CAGE Coatings Alternative Guide CED cumulative energy demand CEVC Completely Enclosed Vapour Cleaner cm centimeter Co. Company CO2 carbon dioxide CP Cleaner Production DFA Design for Assembly DFD Design for Disassembly DFE Design for Environment DFEoL Design for End of Life DFL Design for Life DFM Design for Manufacturing DFMAIN Design for Maintainability DFR Design for Recycling DFS Design for Serviceability DFX Design for X (X stands for general design considerations) DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for
Standardisation) ei energy incorporated into the product (of the ith source) Ei energy introduced into the cycle (of the ith source) ECM Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing ed. edition Ed. Editor EDIP Environmental Design of Industrial Products EE energy use efficiency EF(e)i, c eco-toxicity factor for the ith substance in the cth compartment EF(h)i,c human toxicity factor for the ith substance in the cth compartment e.g. for example (Latin: exempli gratia) EPI Environmental Performance Indicator fig. figure Fig. Figure g gram
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GmbH Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (PLC: public limited company)
GWI gaseous waste intensity h hour HIPS High Impact Polystyrol i.e. that is (Latin: id est) IE Industrial Ecology K Kelvin kg kilogram kJ kilojoule LASeR Life-cycle Assembly, Service and Recycling LCA Life Cycle Assessment LCC Life Cycle Costing LCM Life Cycle Management m3 cubic meter mi amount of the ith raw material incorporated into the product Mi amount of the ith raw material introduced into the cycle MET Material, Energy, Toxicity mg milligram MJ megajoule mm millimetre MQL Minimal Quantity of Lubricant n numbered consecutively No. Number OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development p. page P amount of product obtained PMB Plastic Media Blasting pp. pages psi pounds per square inch PVA polluted volume of air PVW polluted volume of water PWB printed wire board QFDE Quality Function Deployment for Environment Ri percentage ratio of the amount of the ith raw material incorporated
into the product RCRA Resource and Recovery Act RME raw material use efficiency s second Si percentage ratio of the amount of useful energy from the ith energy
source SAGE Solvents Alternative Guide SWi amount of the ith solid waste SWAMI Strategic Waste Minimisation Initiative SWI solid waste intensity T period
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Ti emission of the ith substance TCA Total Cost Accounting TV television TWI toxic waste intensity US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency UV ultraviolet VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (association of German engineers) Vol. Volume W amount of water WI water intensity WWI wastewater intensity
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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CHAPTER 1
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
1.1 Background to the Project
The motivation for undertaking this work in the first instance was an increasingly
common sentiment – to improve environmental performance.
The topic of the environment is considered and studied by thinkers, politicians,
business and technical people from many angles and under a wide variety of
headings. As our combined knowledge in this area has increased around the
world, in recent times environmental issues, particularly in industry, have been
bracketed with the concepts of Sustainability and Sustainable Development. The
term Sustainability is used widely in different contexts and has different
meanings, often somewhat fuzzy, and depending on whether one views the topic
from an environmental science, economic, social or industrial perspective.
Hence the first task in this work is to define the scope of Sustainability. The
objectives of this Thesis, essentially a Manufacturing Management project,
necessitate that the focus of Sustainability be narrowed and limited to
environmental considerations as they are affected by manufacturing and by the
use of manufactured products.
The first analysis based on direct observation and environmental reports is that
manufacturing organizations’ environmental performance range from those
enterprises who have not yet seriously considered their environmental impacts at
one end, to those who are adopting Sustainability as policy objective, at the other.
Similarly, regardless of an organisation’s performance and evolutionary status,
the understanding of the issues and the application of appropriate clean-up,
preventive and remedial solutions are new and difficult engineering and
management challenges.
Hardin Tibbs writes “The concept of sustainability amounts to a call to deal with
the entire complex of global problems as an interrelated whole. This is a
challenge that goes well beyond the scope of issues individual organisations or
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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governments have had to deal with before and it demands new ways of thinking
and acting.” [1]
Limits to Growth [2] updated by Beyond the Limits [3] (1972) originating from
the Club of Rome was the first work to foreshadow the problems associated with
relentless growth. Growth in consumption (e.g., energy usage a hundred fold in
the last century), in economic performance (e.g., world trade by 20 fold in the last
century) and in population (four times since 1850) [4] has lead to the degradation
of the antroposphere at an exponential rate since the early 1970’s.
There is a plethora of statistics and warnings regarding the impact of these trends.
David C. Korten in a recent presentation stated “We passed beyond the limits of
the human burden this planet can sustain sometime around 1980. As a species we
are now consuming at the rate of about 1.2 planets.”[5] From a study by the US
National Research Council here are some indications of the potential problems
facing our societies:
1. Loss of crop and grazing land due to erosion, desertification, conversion of land to nonfarm uses, and other factors—about 20 million hectares a year.
2. Depletion of the world's tropical forests, leading to loss of resources, soil erosion, flooding, and loss of biodiversity—about 10 million hectares a year.
3. Extinction of species, principally from the global loss of habitat and the associated loss of generic diversity—over 1,000 plant and animal species each year.
4. Rapid population growth.
5. Shortage of fresh-water resources.
6. Overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution in the marine environment—25 of the world's most valuable fisheries are already seriously depleted due to overfishing.
7. Threats to human health from mismanagement of pesticides and hazardous substances and from waterborne pathogens.
8. Climate change probably related to the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
9. Acid rain and, more generally, the effects of a complex mix of air pollutants on fisheries, forests, and crops.
10. Pressures on energy resources, including shortages of fuel wood.
SOURCE: World Business Council for Sustainable Development (1998).
Table 1.1 - Ten Global Threats to Ecosystem Viability [6]
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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From a manufacturing perspective, many of the issues and causes of un-
sustainability are beyond the ambit of the manufacturing engineering world, such
as land use and excessive consumption of goods and services, and cannot be
addressed through established technologies and systems. On the other hand, the
roots of most environmental problems may be traced to modern science and
applied technology. An examination of OECD green house gas emission statistics
demonstrates that over 50% of emissions were related to production and transport
processes [7].
The two main environmental problems in manufacturing relate firstly to
production processes, their increased use of resources and waste generation, and
secondly the use of manufactured products, including end-of-life disposal issues.
Clearly, the effects of manufacturing processes and manufactured products on
eco-systems are hugely significant. When the growth in consumption is coupled
with 200 years of production since the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the
current position is that degradation of the environment is occurring at a faster rate
than the uptake of corrective action. It is the goal of this work to contribute to the
reversal of this trend.
1.2 Obstacles to Improving the Effectiveness of Environmental Management
Initiatives.
1.2.1 Diversity of Approaches
The literature reviewed evidently indicates that there are a very large number of
diverse approaches taken by manufacturing enterprises to improve environmental
performance. Figure 1.1 displays some of the currently most favoured categories.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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The assortment of approaches leads to the conclusion that there is not yet a
profession in this field, that is, there is not an agreed body of knowledge with all
the attendant rigorous definitions and consistency of methodologies. Research of
this evolutionary stage suggests the perceived difficulties include:
•••••••• expansive range of issues, disciplines and technologies deployed to date
•••••••• great complexity due to the large number of potential scientific and
engineering approaches available with the predictable consequence of extreme
use of jargon
•••••••• lack of integration between advocated solutions
•••••••• considerable differences in priorities between countries, industries and
enterprises
•••••••• wide ranging levels of understanding, education and expertise
1.2.2 Lack of Executive Support
Major organisations employ strategic planning techniques to chart their futures
and to direct attention to what appropriate functions and technologies are needed
to achieve the targets contained in these strategies. Typically, manufacturing
Figure 1.1 - Different Approaches to Sustainability in Manufacturing
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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strategies and the resultant operations and technology strategies, address
entrenched universally accepted practices exclusive of environmental concerns.
Based on observations in industry, environmental issues in manufacturing
companies are primarily in the domain of environmental specialists, engineers,
scientists and middle management. The problems this presents include:
•••••••• lack of top management involvement, leading to lack of appreciation and to
the view that environmental issues are not central to the enterprise
•••••••• sub-optimisation, environmental management projects may not support
corporate goals, in fact, may be in direct conflict with other projects and may
only achieve minor improvements
•••••••• inadequate funding, resources, infrastructure and accountability
•••••••• inadequate performance measurement
•••••••• based on experience with the adoption of other major new initiatives such as
Lean Manufacturing, Total Quality, Enterprise Resource Planning and
Robotics, "bottom-up" attempts to introduce change can take decades; that
may not have been crucial when the objectives were continuous (commercial)
improvements, but in the case of the environment such time frames may prove
too long.
1.2.3 Inadequate Reference to Benefits
Despite growing evidence that concern for the environment is not only a necessity
for sustainable future developments but it is good business, arguments for
exhorting industry to change its policies and practices have generally accentuated
the negative aspects and consequences of existing industrial processes.
Waste management and waste elimination programs in various forms have
produced significant commercial benefits for a number of organisations in the last
30 years, yet the uptake of new approaches is still lagging, inconsistent and often
motivated by reaction to legal compliance requirements rather than on strategic
considerations, that is, benefits. Table 1.2 lists typical societal and commercial
benefits as offered by writers and professionals employed in this field that would
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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accrue from a greater uptake of new and existing environmental management
practices.
•••••••••••• clean industrial production and waste minimisation lead to the
systematic reduction of emissions to land, water and air
•••••••••••• sustainable industries lead to an improved economy and lead to higher
levels of employment
•••••••••••• sustainable manufacturing leads to lower overall costs and improved
value adding
•••••••••••• compliance with legislation and world standards improves
competitiveness, locally and overseas
•••••••••••• improved product designs lead to greatly reduced material inputs
preserving valuable resources, eg, metals, timber, water
•••••••••••• increased awareness of environmental issues within manufacturing
facilities will contribute to overall awareness and cultural change
consistent with educational efforts in schools and elsewhere
•••••••••••• recycling in industry reduces land fill and the need to dispose of
inorganic matter
•••••••••••• environmentally efficient transport is not only cleaner by reducing
dependence on fossil fuels but preserves infrastructure and reduces the
cost of transport in general
•••••••••••• more efficient use of materials and energy will extend the life of many
industries which would otherwise become unsustainable
•••••••••••• cleaner production means cleaner factories hence improved working
conditions and quality of life, both within and around factories
•••••••••••• development of breakthrough approaches and new technologies will
speed the uptake of sustainability and waste minimisation concepts by
manufacturers who are traditionally very slow to change and innovate
Table 1.2 - Potential Societal and Commercial Benefits of Concern for the Environment
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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This Thesis will also argue that the adoption of Cleaner Production policies and
procedures will also help to lay the foundation for Life Cycle Management and
Industrial Ecology techniques (refer to Chapter 3).
One of the tenets of this work is that there is no convenient vehicle for
identifying, documenting and integrating such strategic advantages with existing
strategic planning and policy formulation processes of manufacturers. It therefore
follows that there does not exist a standard set of performance indicators for
effective feedback of enterprise performance and of environmental impacts.
1.2.4 Traditional Technology Objectives and Options
Modern manufacturing in the last 20 years has evolved to be totally dependent on
hard and soft technologies. To date, technology projects initiated and
implemented by engineers were aimed at achieving ‘bottom line benefits’. The
issue being that the pursuit of commercial benefits to enterprises employing these
engineers have not considered and allowed for the impact of new process and
product technologies on humans. Throughout his book The Labyrinth of
Technology [8] Bill Vanderburg argues that future generations of engineers will
not only have to consider the consequences of their work on human values,
including the environment, but engineering curricula will have to undergo
fundamental changes to equip graduates with the requisite skills.
Another issue concerns the selection and deployment of appropriate technology
and system solutions. While there are hundreds of hard and soft technologies cited
as solutions to different environmental management problems (as referred to in
Chapter 7}, the research in this project has failed to discover a systematic
approach to problem solving in this sphere. The conclusion from this observation
is that less than optimum or inappropriate solutions are being deployed, selected
on the criteria of familiarity and availability, rather than on effectiveness.
A third and possibly the most difficult issue conceptually is the idea that new
technologies may have to be invented to achieve significant breakthroughs. This
question is beyond the scope of this project, for it is argued that sufficient
technical capability already exists to achieve the objectives of this Thesis. It is
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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proposed that the need for new technologies should emerge from strategic plans
rather than evolve as point solutions as at present.
1.3 Defining the Problem
The purpose of this work, therefore, is to contribute to the removal of the
obstacles outlined in the previous section thereby accelerating improvements. To
achieve this aim not only requires the invention of a methodology but, in view of
the complexities involved, a clear definition of the problem to be solved. The next
sections in this Chapter outline the objectives and scope of this endeavor while
Chapters 2 and 3 describe the nature of this PhD project as a consequence.
1.3.1 Objectives
As proposed from the outset, this Thesis seeks to help accelerate environmental
improvements through the uptake of Cleaner Production concepts in industry by
developing a methodology to help guide manufacturing enterprises. To satisfy the
need for speed and effectiveness, the fundamental tenets of the proposed
methodology include:
•••••••••••• reliance on a strategic approach to ensure accelerated implementations and
better resourced projects
•••••••••••• to develop an implementation path similar to those used in introducing
major culture and technology changes in the factory used in previous
times in an attempt to follow ‘well trodden paths’
•••••••••••• that culture and policy changes are strategically generated from within
manufacturing organisations, replacing simply reaction to or compliance
with external pressures.
Specifically, the main objectives are:
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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1. To invent a relatively easily implementable methodology for planning for
Sustainability for manufacturing enterprises of all sizes.
2. To address strategic industrial environmental management issues at all
levels within the enterprise as one seamless process.
3. To configure the methodology so that it may be incorporated into an
existing body of knowledge, that is, manufacturing
management/manufacturing engineering.
4. To minimise complexities by standardising key concepts and terminology.
Objective 4 was added following the Literature Review when it became evident
that to be able to achieve the other objectives, clarification of the very wide range
of indiscriminately applied terminology is required.
1.3.2 Scope
One of the first challenges is to define the boundaries for the work. Given the
breadth and complexity of the topic versus the requirement in manufacturing that
solutions to problems have to be focused, it is necessary to be sufficiently
expansive to include the key management, science and engineering issues.
Since a manufacturing organisation is a complex entity, a mini-society,
achievement of the objectives in section 1.3.1 requires consideration of individual
stages from the boardroom to the shop floor as described in Figure 1.2.
1. Corporate Strategy formulation
2. Business Strategy formulation
3. Functional
(Operations/Manufacturing)
Strategy formulation
4. Links to Execution
5. Execution - Policies and Projects
6. Feedback - Performance Measures
Figure 1.2 – Strategic Links between the Boardroom and the Shop Floor
Upper Management
Middle Management, Engineers
Engineers, Shop Floor
St r ategy
E x e c u t i o n
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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This planning and execution sequence is generic but it also follows Professor
Stonebraker’s model described in Chapter 4 (Refer to Figure 4.3) and is consistent
with Manufacturing Management courseware for strategic planning. It provides a
ready platform on which to base a planning process for Cleaner Production. This
line of approach was also considered appropriate for maximum impact and was
the main topic for the Thesis from the beginning. The Case Studies in Chapter 9
confirmed the premise that the top down approach leads to speedier and higher
profile implementations of Cleaner Production projects.
A second factor influencing the work emerged from the Literature Review. The
absence of standardized formal work in this area, coupled with the inconsistent
use of a range of terms and techniques, made a strong case for selecting and
standardising terms and concepts as a foundation for future work and for a
possible new profession.
Another issue affecting the scope emerged during the Study Tour. Professor
Vanderburg has, for a number of years, argued the need for including human
considerations in engineering and has adapted the Manufacturing Engineering
Courseware at the University of Toronto accordingly. On reflection, this appeared
consistent with the primary motive for the work and the need for prevention
influenced greatly the proposed approach. Specifically, it led away from
researching possible point solutions including Cleaner Production techniques,
Risk Analyses and Life Cycle Engineering, towards a reflective approach
resulting in the development of new processes. The Planning Model (refer to
Chapter 4) and the Tool-kit (refer to Chapter 7) are examples.
It may be argued this is first a Manufacturing Management Thesis and then a
Manufacturing Engineering work.
Chapters 2 and 3 form the Literature Review, Chapters 4-8 develop the planning
model initiated in this Section, Chapter 9 describes Case Studies testing the model
and Chapter 10 concludes the Thesis reviewing the outcomes and suggesting
future directions for this work.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
11
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Initiating the Research
Tackling the topic of this thesis required unorthodox methods. The literature
review demonstrated a number of the difficulties as highlighted in the text, and it
was considered appropriate to group the readings under two headings. First,
Chapter 2 addresses the integration of human values and commercial interests
with environmental concerns. Chapter 3 then reviews the technical aspects of
industrial environmental management.
2.1.1 Background to Sustainability
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the issue in this project is Sustainability. The
literature review [9] needs to begin with an examination of this term as it is used
extensively herein and in industry.
At the highest level, Sustainable Development was first defined by the now
famous Bruntland Commission in Our Common Future as “Development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”. The concept has its roots in The Natural
Step, created by Dr. Karl-Henrik Robert [10], a Swedish cancer researcher, which
provided a foundation for a number of people concerned with Sustainability of the
earth’s environment. The four principles comprising the Natural Step may be
summarised as:
1. Nature cannot withstand a systematic build-up of dispersed matter mined
from the earth’s crust (e.g., minerals, oil, etc.)
2. Nature cannot withstand a systematic build-up of persistent man-made
compounds (e.g., polycarbonated biphenyls (PCB))
3. Nature cannot tolerate a systematic deterioration of its capacity for
renewal (e.g., over harvesting fish, loss of fertile land to desert, etc.)
4. Therefore, if we want life to continue we must (a) be efficient in the use of
resources and (b) promote justice to avoid poverty and the resulting
destruction of resources.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
12
The Natural Step is not a complete strategy for Sustainability but it is a useful
starting point for developing one. It raises philosophical and emotional issues
about survival and preserving nature for future generations, but it has some major
practical implications for industry since most environmental problems may be
sheeted back to inputs and to outputs from manufacturers. Point 4 above in
particular raises two generally accepted crucial points as key future strategic
drivers for manufacturing organisations:
•• Short and long term survival – there is mounting concern as
environmental problems are increasingly exposed that unless we change
existing industrial practices life as we know it will become unsustainable
and, long before that eventuality, organisations threatening the
environment will be legislated or pressured out of existence.
•• Resource utilisation – inefficient use of materials coupled with
population growth will result in shortages; the corollary to this is that
organisations that use key resources efficiently will outperform those who
do not.
The topic of Sustainability extends to ecological, social and economic
dimensions, locally and globally [11].
Narrowing the focus to production, the topic is treated under a range of headings
as outlined in Chapter 3. For the purposes of this work the term Sustainability will
be used to mean Sustainable Manufacturing (refer to section 3.2.2), that is, the
issues will be limited to those affecting the environment by manufacturers.
The need for Sustainability is becoming clearer and more accepted. It is,
therefore, not intended in this work to argue for Sustainability although the
drivers for sustainability will be described in Chapter 5. Many major corporations
are already actively pursuing and implementing environmentally friendly policies
and practices in their businesses and factories and their numbers are increasing, as
evidenced by the growing number of environmental reports from manufacturers.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
13
Their reasons for doing so are varied and range from ‘green’ CEOs to good
corporate citizenship to legal and to a number of other drivers (Refer to Chapter
5).
In other parts of the world, Europe in particular, coordinated effort between
countries is also leading towards strategic approaches for product systems and
their effects on the environment. This concept of Integrated Product Policy (IPP)
advocated by the European Commission promotes [12]:
•• Life Cycle thinking
•• a framework which supports Sustainable Development, e.g., changing
production and consumption patterns, enhancing efficiency, developing
clearer pictures of real impacts of products along the product chain and
identifying potential tools
•• need for information, communication, education and stakeholder
involvement
•• assignment of responsibilities, e.g., for “extended producer responsibility”
(product stewardship).
These initiatives have the potential to impact a wide range of policies affecting
manufacturers including product labeling, product standards, Ecodesign,
government procurement policies and general legislation protecting the
environment.
Environmental Sustainability within organisations has also been receiving
attention from management theorists, academics and practitioners.
Notwithstanding these initiatives the task of directly linking Sustainability with
Manufacturing Management/Engineering has yet to be addressed.
2.1.2 Sustainability and Manufacturing The first issue for manufacturers is that aside from ecological and business
reasons, community concern and pressure resulting in additional regulatory
legislation with an emphasis on manufacturers meeting local and international
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
14
standards. Organisations that do not understand the impact of their operations on
ecosystems, and do not have programs for Sustainability, may well be risking
their future. Eventually, a manufacturer will have to accept that a commercial
enterprise cannot operate independently of natural systems, and find ways to link
‘what it takes, what it makes and what it wastes’.
So how should Sustainability in manufacturing with respect to ecosystems be
defined? And why are organisations that lack strategies for sustainability risking
their future? Writers such as Paul Hawken in the book Ecology of Commerce [13]
and Ray C. Anderson in his book Mid-Course Correction [14] describe at length
the issues. Hiroyuki Yoshikawa also makes the points that in the 21st century we
need methods for the “Creation of designs with thought given to reuse and
recycling from the very early stage” and to improve product functionality by
“redefining the manufacturing industry as a life cycle industry to take wider life
cycle issues into consideration” [15]. Based on these and other readings Table 2.1
is an attempt to summarise the key points as the main foundation tenets for
Sustainable Manufacturing.
1. If we accept that survival of our species as we know it will likely require
substantially new industrial systems, "end of pipe" clean-up systems will
have to give way to non-linear systems resembling nature's biological
systems.
2. Manufacturers will have to earn consumers'/customers' goodwill, and
hence their business, by demonstrating genuine responsibility and track
records as regards the benign impact of their products and processes on
ecosystems.
3. Unless manufacturers become resource efficient through waste elimination
and minimisation, in a world of limited resources, new costing/accounting
principles internalising costs and significant legal constraints, they will
become uncompetitive.
4. Products will therefore have to be designed and produced for longevity,
easily recycled, reused or disposed without harming society and future
generations.
Table 2.1 – Foundation Tenets for Sustainability in Manufacturing
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
15
Achievement of the goals in Table 2.1 is beyond this or any other single work
however it is essential that methodical approaches be developed to work towards
them.
One of the most relevant means for achieving these goals to date appears to be an
evolving idea that is called by another writer, Hardin Tibbs [16], Industrial
Ecology. This is a positive approach for corporations to address environmental
needs within their own natural predilections. Cleaner Production and Industrial
Ecology are two key cornerstone concepts as defined in this Thesis (refer to
Chapter 3), and in the short term are seen minimally as a prerequisite of this
evolution.
The flip side of risks is the benefits from Cleaner Production. Sustainability in
Manufacturing may be envisaged as an industrial strategy of balancing
commercial needs with the no adverse effect on the capacity of the environment
to provide for future generations with many benefits which extend to all sectors of
society, as outlined in Table 1.2.
Among the many problem statements, visions, proposed initiatives and
complexities by the authors there is no evidence thus far of the emergence of a
roadmap, that is, a planning and implementation methodology for the
systematic adoption of Sustainable Manufacturing techniques within
manufacturing enterprises to address the issues.
In Chapter 1, the problems of lack of executive support and the inability to link
environmental performance improvements to commercial benefits were outlined.
To move Environmental Management into the mainstream, environmental issues
need to be elevated from the domain of environmental specialists, often in middle
management. Environmental initiatives also need to be moved from reaction to
the current drivers of
•• legislation
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
16
•• cost reductions
•• corporate citizenship
•• other business pressures (e.g., consumers, investors, parent companies,
etc.) on an ad hoc basis
to strategic issues concerning long term sustainability on all fronts, that is,
economical, ecological and societal.
It is a fundamental objective of this work to develop a planning and
implementation framework for Sustainable Manufacturing. The scope of this
work will require the development of definitions and methodologies, some new,
and some to augment existing industrial processes.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
17
2.2 Results of the Review of Existing Literature
Since the development of the problem definition evolved over a relatively long
period, it was possible to form a preliminary assessment for the state of
Environmental Management in manufacturing, and the kind of work carried out to
date by practitioners and academics. In general, most of the written material
consisted of:
•• commercially orientated publications on Sustainability and Sustainable
Business Development including miscellaneous publications of unrelated
topics by business leaders, thinkers and academics
•• records of achievements by companies and practitioners, typically case
studies and corporate environmental reports – e.g., IBM, Sony, 3M,
Mitsubishi, HP, Nestle, Unilever, etc., etc.
•• descriptions of specific techniques as point solutions, as hard and soft
technologies, in all types of environments and industries, including papers
found in the proceedings of conferences
•• occasional comprehensive technical publications, essentially in product
design
•• State of the Environment Reports, Geographical – e.g., Australian (SOE
2001), Western Sydney, Gosford City Council
•• selected publications – e.g., Introduction to product related environmental
activities in Scandinavia, publications by visionaries (Hardin Tibbs, Paul
Hawken, Ray Anderson), papers on Risk Analysis, a number of
miscellaneous publications in Industrial Ecology, and a variety of material
regarding Cleaner Production techniques.
•• strategic planning publications – Textbooks (Stonebreaker, Hill, Hayes
and Wheelwright, etc.), company planning procedures, courseware
(APICS and UNSW).
Given that this is a new field, it eventuated that there was hardly any literature
specifically dealing with the objectives of this Thesis.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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In Chapter 4 the proposed model identifies six distinct phases of the proposed
methodology, the availability of prior works or studies for the purposes of this
project and relevant to each stage of the methodology may be summarised as:
11.. Corporate Strategy formulation – no specific information, Sustainability
writings provide related material
22.. Business Strategy formulation – limited works in Eco-efficiency
33.. Functional (Operations/Manufacturing) Strategy formulation – policy
information exists under the headings of Cleaner Production, Industrial
Ecology and Sustainable Manufacturing
44.. Links to Execution – defined in this project as Industrial Ecology and Life
Cycle Management, limited information exists
55.. Execution, Policies and Projects – considerable number of studies but
generally without appropriate frameworks
66.. Feedback, Performance Measures – a number of studies, fragmented,
without appropriate frameworks
Two major conclusions were drawn from the status of literature availability listed
above:
1. Instead of the traditional literature review summarising previous studies
and the key points arising from them, “best-evidence synthesis” [17] is
used allowing for the inclusion of qualitative data applying “clearly stated
a priori inclusion criteria”.
2. Figure 1.2 and points 5 and 6 above indicated the need for applying
Occam’s Razor [18] to the large amounts of fragmented studies and the
considerable “technical jargon” deployed by the authors from a wide range
of academic and industrial backgrounds.
The difficulty, therefore, was not one of quantity of literature, in fact, there are an
ever increasing number of publications on Environmental Management topics but
the extra effort needed to streamline the concepts in order to make use of such
papers. The major challenge was to sift through the considerable written material
that has been developed in the last ten years and integrate developments into one
framework. As a consequence the Problem Definition for the Thesis had to be
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
19
based on existing literature in part, as well as experiential episodes and observed
industry practices, typically first hand.
Similarly, this influenced the academic nature of the project, as it was not feasible
to undertake the customary “investigative research” delving into the progress of
others and, furthering their work, instead “reflective research” integrating
manufacturing management, engineering, scientific and government policy
developments was necessary. Not until an overseas Study Tour was undertaken
was it possible to locate sufficient serious engineering work relating to this area to
enable it to be bracketed with the Manufacturing Engineering body of knowledge.
Much of what is written is fragmented, that is, unclassified and written for solving
immediate specific pollution and waste elimination situations.
By lack of classification, it is meant in particular that the fields of Manufacturing
Management and Manufacturing Engineering have not as yet evolved sufficiently
to incorporate Environmental Management in the respective bodies of knowledge.
The current paradigm from some manufacturing thinkers appears to be that the
topic is far too complex to limit to manufacturing, and needs to be addressed
across disciplines.
For example, one of the few authoritative references for the need of a strategic
approach to Industrial Ecology (IE) in general, and for Design for the
Environment (DfE) in particular, was recognised by Graedel and Allenby [19]
writing that “Only through the process of creating a more formal plan can
necessary work items, required resources, critical paths, timelines, and
organisational changes be identified”.
They also write “The integration of the DfE introduction effort into existing
financial, technological, and business plans is necessary if environmental
considerations are to be regarded as strategic considerations rather than
overhead”.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
20
Braden Allenby [20] recognises the need to reconcile a firm’s activities with
global regional and global natural systems and that this is a strategic issue
requiring a “…fundamental integration of environment, economic activity, and
technology at the level of the firm”.
While the amount of legislation from Environmental Protection Agencies is also
on the increase [21], and standards under the ISO14000 scheme have been
developed in attempts to improve performance, they too offer little assistance as
they tend to describe requirements, that is the ‘whats’, not solutions the ‘hows’.
There are even some studies identifying disbenefits from implementing a certified
Environmental Management System (EMS) due to the resources required for
implementation, lack of benefits and high cost of maintenance [22].
It is now evident that the last 40 years of effort in waste minimisation, ‘end-of-
pipe’ or ‘cleaning’ technologies have not proved sufficiently effective despite a
wide range of attempts (Refer to Figure 1.1), as they typically transferred the
pollution burden between locations and life cycle stages.
Even later “second generation approaches” of “Cleaner Technologies” [23] only
led to reduced energy and material consumption without necessarily reducing
waste generation and without regard for the needs of consumers and humans in
general.
Sustainability clearly demands preventive approaches, and this is becoming
increasingly recognised. “Truly sustainable production and consumption requires
planning, design and management practices that facilitate innovative approaches
to the reuse, remanufacturing and recycling of the limited amounts of waste that
cannot be avoided… …consistent with the principles of urban and industrial
ecology” [23].
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
21
2.3 Strategic Planning
In Chapter 3 the major industrial environmental management concepts are
reviewed as a second stage to the Literature Review, to enable the selection of
appropriate vehicles for achieving the goals of this Thesis.
Having justified the selection of the umbrella concept of Cleaner Production in
that Chapter, the next task as alluded to in the title of this project “Planning for
Sustainability through Cleaner Production”, was to integrate industrial
environmental management with a manufacturing enterprise’s planning and
execution processes.
Remembering the fundamental objective of this work, to accelerate the adoption
of Cleaner Production by developing a planning and implementation framework
for Sustainable Manufacturing through Cleaner Production, the proposed model in
Chapter 4 is predicated on the premise that the accelerated uptake of Cleaner
Production is a strategic issue.
As expected, in surveying the likely sources for this type of information, there
does not seem to be any evidence of or reference to Cleaner Production as part of
a company’s strategic planning process, that is, the series of steps required to
convert strategies from the boardroom into specific outcomes at the
transformation level on the shop floor and within the supply chain. Planning
literature, manufacturing management/engineering courseware, company
procedures or environmental reports from major corporations, do not reveal any
substantial evidence that company planning processes extend to consideration of
environmental impacts in a systematic manner.
A typical environmental report from a corporation will include wide ranging
information from a “message from the CEO”, to statements about environmental
philosophies, visions, commitment, plans, operations, management systems and
results of efforts, much of which is strategic in an environmental context but not
in a business planning context. In other words, environmental initiatives are
considered as specialist activities rather than main stream business and
manufacturing strategies.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
22
The major outcome of this Thesis is intended to be the integration of
environmental issues into corporate, business and operations planning processes.
By including Sustainability in the strategic planning process of an enterprise,
environmental issues will receive equal priority with other business imperatives.
As Peter Stonebraker writes in his Operations Strategy book [47] “Corporate
strategy must embody all the essential elements for corporate survival”. Today
major manufacturing enterprises accept the need for strategic planning.
Strategic planning and more specifically operations planning, are relatively new
concepts in manufacturing. To date, planning processes have concentrated on
providing the manufacturing enterprise with a competitive advantage by
supporting commercial goals through the strategic management of resources.
Operations strategy, which is a functional strategy supportive of corporate
strategies, identifies the structural and infrastructural decisions to execute the
strategy through the order winning competitive advantages of:
1. Cost
2. Quality
3. Delivery Reliability
4. Delivery Speed
5. Volume and Variety Flexibility
6. Design
7. Service
as described in the APICS Strategic Management of Resources courseware.
This Thesis holds the view that survival of a firm in today’s world increasingly
depends not only on “bottom line performance’ but on a wider range of
socioeconomic issues. Sustainability is one of these. For that reason the model
developed in Chapter 4 incorporates Sustainability concepts into established
enterprise planning processes. At the operations planning level in this process,
Cleaner Production is added to the list of seven criteria mentioned above.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
23
2.4 Execution – Links to Strategies, Policies and Projects
Once strategies are developed the next steps constitute the execution phase
(tactics), which in this field opens up a vast array of initiatives. Solutions to
environmental problems, which are typically systems and technology projects,
vary by industry, by enterprise and by geographical location. Such solutions may
also be influenced by the background of the practitioners, costs, legislation and
the availability of systems and technologies perceived to be relevant. Projects also
vary in their nature, that is, hard versus soft technologies or structural versus
infrastructural decisions and technology initiatives.
This abundance of possible tools not to mention constantly emerging new ones,
for example those in the Technical University of Denmark’s 2000 Annual Report
NATO/CCMS Pilot Study, Clean Products and Processes [48], coupled with the
absence of planning, presents major obstacles similar to those mentioned in
Chapter 1 to the achievement of this project’s goals.
Point solutions, in the absence of a strategic framework may lead to:
•••••••• inappropriate solutions, including solving the wrong problem
•••••••• technology solutions which conflict with or do not support enterprise and
functional goals and objectives
•••••••• inadequate support for projects - commitment, funding, other resources
•••••••• sub optimisation
An equally difficult issue is the location of optimum, or at least effective,
technology solutions to satisfy strategies. It was considered necessary to address
both of these issues in this Thesis. Chapter 6 describes the process for the
development of links between the operations strategies/plans and specific
methodologies/technologies used to achieve Cleaner Production goals. At that
point two of the concepts discussed in the next Chapter are revisited.
Life Cycle Management (LCM), defined in Section 3.2.5, and in the Proceedings
of the 1st International Conference on Life Cycle Management, Copenhagen
2001[49], as “business management based on environmental life cycle
considerations”, is deployed by European manufacturers to stage environmental
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
24
management projects by functional areas, e.g., operations, logistics, design,
purchasing and marketing. On closer examination, as explained in Chapter 6,
LCM appears to provide an effective link between strategies, and systems and
technologies.
The other, Industrial Ecology, defined in Section 3.2.4 and in Allenby’s book
Industrial Ecology, Policy Framework and Implementation [19], as “The
multidisciplinary study of industrial systems and economic activities, and their
links to fundamental natural systems” is an approach adopted by a number of
American corporations to initiate and implement Cleaner Production projects.
Industrial Ecology like LCM provides a potentially viable approach for the
translation of strategies into specific engineering initiatives.
Chapter 7 describes an approach for the development of a Tool-kit of solutions
and a classification of solutions based on research of available literature regarding
industrial environmental systems and technologies.
2.5 Performance Measurements
Performance measures by way of indicators are used extensively in
Manufacturing Management for a range of purposes. They are seen to be required
for this work also, in part to clarify the concepts as well as to provide valuable
feedback regarding their effectiveness, particularly at this field’s nascent stage. As
in the case of other major manufacturing initiatives, effective indicators should
assist in the adoption of the new approaches. Indicators, as opposed to data,
statistics, indices and models are considered most appropriate and need to:
•••••••••••• communicate complex processes into simple metrics
•••••••••••• facilitate continuous improvement
•••••••••••• measure indicator effectiveness and relevance
•••••••••••• provide performance feedback
Chapter 8 will outline proposed indicators for this Thesis’ proposed methodology.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
25
In an environmental management context, performance measures are also
extensively studied and a great many measures have been developed to assess
environmental performance in a variety of ways. As expected, however, most of
these measures do not satisfy the criteria mentioned in this section.
To satisfy the requirements it will be necessary to measure the effectiveness of the
proposed planning process as well as the environmental outcomes.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
26
CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK
The need for this Chapter as a second stage to the Literature Review is in part:
•• to research the literature in greater detail for the purpose of clarification of
concepts and technical terminology
•• to examine existing terminology to enable the selection of one of the concepts as a
framework for this Thesis
3.1 The Need for a Guiding Framework
After the review of the status of industrial environmental management literature coupled
with a study tour and several years of observation and reading in parallel with analysis
from:
•• waste minimisation consulting assignments in manufacturing organisations
•• many years of working within manufacturing enterprises, including the
implementation of new systems and technologies
•• teaching of Manufacturing Strategic Planning
•• experience in Change Management
the conclusion was reached that achievement of the objectives requires limiting the focus
of the diverse approaches (refer Section 1.2.1) to the themes of:
1. Sustainability,
2. prevention, and
3. the need for a strategic approach
The survey of the available literature established the level of knowledge about this
subject matter, and more significantly, the deficiency in material available (refer Chapter
2) to address the gaps between the existing baseline for Environmental Management in
manufacturing versus the progress needed to reverse the growing gap between
environmental degradation and solutions.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
27
In section 2.1 reference was made to the observation that the fields of Manufacturing
Management and Manufacturing Engineering have not as yet evolved sufficiently to
incorporate Environmental Management in their respective bodies of knowledge.
Inconsistencies in terminology not only necessitate the consistent use of a selected
number of definitions in the Thesis but the selection of a suitable framework for
manufacturing planning and execution as well. Specifically a framework is needed to:
1. Standardise concepts and terminology for the purposes of this work
2. Allow manufacturing engineering processes to be grouped under one banner
The need for the framework and its application will become more apparent in the next
Chapter in which there is a proposed model to address the problem.
As a second part of the literature review, the next sections review some potential
umbrella concepts. This closer examination of the more frequently used concepts is
deemed essential in view of:
1. a proliferation of terminology, if not jargon, with considerable differences in their
definition, interpretation and application
2. significant differences in the uptake of the concepts in different societies
3. in many cases an apparent lack of understanding of the relationship between the
concepts
The integration of science, engineering and management knowledge to form a
Manufacturing Engineering methodology for Environmental Management requires either
the invention of a new concept or the adaptation of an existing one.
In view of the mentioned proliferation of technical terms and jargon the second approach
is preferred. After the evaluation of those concepts with promise as choices for a
framework concept, they were narrowed to the following:
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
28
•• Eco-efficiency
•• Sustainable Manufacturing
•• Waste Minimisation
•• Industrial Ecology
•• Life Cycle Management
•• Cleaner Production.
This is not a complete list of industrial environmental management practices. The main
categories of exclusions included:
1. Operations level approaches, e.g., recycling, pollution control, waste disposal
techniques – on-site and off-site, as these approaches are not strategic and would not
achieve the aims of this Thesis.
2. Environmental Management Systems (EMS), e.g., ISO14000, defined as “…that part
of the overall management system which includes organisational structure, planning
activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes, and resources for
developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental
policy. An EMS provides order and consistency for organizations to address
environmental concerns through the allocation or resources, assignment of
responsibilities, and ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures and processes.”
[24]
A competently implemented EMS may have the objectives to [25]:
•••••••••••• assist compliance with regulatory requirements
•••••••••••• assist a company to meet its own targets
•••••••••••• improve customer and investor satisfaction
•••••••••••• improve a company’s public image
•••••••••••• improve relations with the local community
•••••••••••• improve relations with regulatory authorities
•••••••••••• make licences and permits easier to obtain
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
29
•••••••••••• improve future access to sites
•••••••••••• reduce environmental impacts
•••••••••••• demonstrate due diligence
•••••••••••• improve access to capital
•••••••••••• decrease a company’s liabilities
•••••••••••• improve relations with employees
•••••••••••• allow greater control of operations and costs
While an EMS requires major commitment from the firm, it is a management system
which only does what the firm wants to do but does not address the necessary "know-
how", and achieving accreditation/certification is no guarantee that the firm
understands the concepts or knows how to implement them.
While all the six concepts considered for the framework merited consideration, on closer
analysis all but one were rejected.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
30
3.2 Defining the Concepts
3.2.1 Eco-efficiency
Eco-Efficiency is a concept that brings together ecological and economic goals. In
manufacturing this involves improving the productivity of energy and materials to reduce
resource consumption and cut pollution per unit of output benefiting the bottom line and
the environment [26]. It was first invented in 1992 by the Business Council for
Sustainable Development and was further defined at the first Antwerp Workshop in 1993
as being “…reached by the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that
satisfy human needs and bring quality of life while progressively reducing ecological
impacts and resource intensity throughout the life cycle to a level at least in line with the
earth’s estimated carrying capacity”. The World Business Council identified seven
success factors for Eco-efficiency as listed in Table 3.1.
1. reduce the material intensity of goods and services
2. reduce the energy intensity of goods and services
3. reduce toxic dispersion
4. enhance material recyclability
5. maximise sustainable use of renewable resources
6. reduce material durability
7. increase the service intensity of goods and services
Table 3.1 – Eco-efficiency Success Factors [27]
The Eco-efficiency concept is strongly linked to Cleaner Production but “starts from
issues of economic efficiency which have positive environmental benefits while Cleaner
Production starts from environmental efficiency which have positive economic
benefits”[36].
Paul Hawken (The Ecology of Commerce) and Amory Lovins (Natural Capitalism) [28]
are two well known and influential business thinkers in this area who argue convincingly
for environmental management in enterprises on business grounds.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
31
If Eco-efficiency goals were to be adopted for use within a manufacturing enterprise,
because its thrust is financial, Eco-efficiency as a functional strategic dimension to the
enterprise’s plans would appear to be ideally suited for inclusion in business or financial
plans more so than as a guiding framework for operations or manufacturing.
3.2.2 Sustainable Manufacturing
Sustainable Manufacturing is not a concept with depth as yet; it is essentially an
evocative phrase for a vision for manufacturing in the 21st century. By way of illustration,
references include the Ecofactory projects of MITI in Japan [15] and the achievement of
the strategic goals and objectives set in the EU Sustainable Development Strategy in
Europe [29]. In general, the vision is for an industrial approach which takes into
consideration all the life cycle issues applicable to a given group of products. By
implication, the concept can take into account technologies, research, design tools and
methodologies, disassembly automation or any other initiative aimed at prolonging useful
product life and minimising waste.
Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS), an international research and development
program established to develop the next generation of manufacturing and processing
technologies, defines Sustainable Manufacturing as [30]:
1. Sustainable design, products and manufacturing – supporting the development of
organisational practices, methodologies, tools and technologies compatible with
the challenges of sustainable growth through improved design and development
of advanced process (re)engineering solutions. Results should facilitate the
reduction in use of non-renewable resources and minimise impact and
environmental risk of industrial operations.
2. Sustainable workplace – multidisciplinary development and validation of
sustainable workplace designs incorporating emerging technologies into new
workplace and teamwork concepts. These should enhance creativity and
productivity; ensure safe working conditions; improve the quality of working life
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
32
and reduce the overall resource-use burden on the environment. The activities
should incorporate user-centred design principles.
While the concept of Sustainable Manufacturing may be useful to describe a future state
and to provide a vision for reconciling the management of resources with consumption in
an environmentally friendly manner, it is considered too broad, global rather than intra-
firm, in its goals to be of practical value as a framework at this stage to meet the
objectives of this Thesis.
3.2.3 Waste Minimisation
Waste Minimisation as a framework was considered for its evolutionary significance and
it could be argued that it is operational and not strategic in nature. The concept is used
extensively in the United Kingdom and covers a very wide range of ideas. Waste itself
may be defined a number of ways from industrial waste to rubbish discarded at home or
in the workplace [31]. A useful way of defining industrial waste was developed in the
Advanced Manufacturing Centre’s Waste Reduction Program as contained in Table 3.2.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
33
1. Internally Generated
Input Wastes - Inwards Packaging
- Spoiled Raw Materials
- Damaged Stores
- Excess Handling
Process Wastes - Dust and Dirt
- Trimmings and Off-cuts
- Liquid Effluents
- Steam Losses
- Compressed Air Losses
- Cleaning Materials
- Unused Raw Materials
- Damaged product
- Injuries
Finished Goods - Inspection Rejects
- Damaged Stock
- Obsolete Stock
- Unnecessary Packaging
- Handling and Transport
- Waste Disposal Contracts
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
34
2. Externally Generated
Suppliers - Protective Packaging
- Unprocessed Raw Materials
- Inappropriate Material Volumes
- Transport Damage
Customers - Distribution of Packaging
- Disposal of Products
- Inappropriate Product Volumes
- Misuse of Product
- Poor Storage of Product
3. Life Cycle Generated
Design Decisions - Initial Installed Costs
- Useful Life
- Operating resources
- End of Product Life
(Disposal/remanufacture/recycling)
Table 3.2 – Definition of Industrial Waste [32]
Early Waste Minimisation techniques tended to be “end-of-pipe” clean ups, including
recycling and energy recovery. More recent definitions introduce the idea of
prevention, for example the Scottish EPA offers the definition “Waste minimisation is
the prevention or reduction of raw materials, water or energy consumption at source”.
[33]
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
35
Two particularly useful ideas emerging from waste minimisation programs:
•• Waste Hierarchy – indicating the preferred sequence for minimising waste as
described in Table 3.3.
- Prevention
- Reduction
- Re-use
- Recovery
Recycling
Composting
Energy Recovery
- Disposal
Table 3.3 – Waste Hierarchy
•• Evolutionary Stages – describing a company’s journey towards minimal waste
and the changes in mindset in the perception of waste and how to work towards
its reduction [31], adapted from Finding Hidden Profit, Trade an Industry
Department of the Environment, UK, June 1966 described in Table 3.4.
ii.. Waste is not recognised as an issue
iiii.. Waste is only a disposal issue
iiiiii.. Waste is a cost and regulatory issue
iivv.. We plan to reduce waste
vv.. Waste is coming down as we change the way we work
vvii.. We are achieving big waste and cost reductions
vviiii.. Only a change in technology will eliminate waste
vviiiiii.. Zero Waste
Table 3.4 – Waste Minimisation Evolutionary Stages
Preferred Sequence of Approach
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
36
This second concept of evolution is further adapted and used in this Thesis in Chapter 5.
Waste Minimisation is typically embraced by Environmental Protection Agencies. These
agencies conduct all types of programs in their respective communities. Notwithstanding
the potential usefulness of the waste hierarchy and evolution concepts developed from
these experiences, there is no evidence of their consistent uptake by manufacturers.
Furthermore, the implementation of programs can be moving targets depending on local
conditions and priorities. Because no two Waste Minimisation programs are the same it
was considered less effective than other concepts as a framework
3.2.4 Industrial Ecology
The concept of Industrial Ecology (IE) appears to have great promise and may eventually
emerge as the authoritative body of knowledge for environmental management
practitioners. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘science of sustainability’.
Both the science and application of Industrial Ecology are evolving and its use and value
are still being established. It may be defined as “…the multi disciplinary study of
industrial systems and economic activities, and their links to fundamental natural
systems”. [34] Until Graedel and Allenby, Industrial Ecology was viewed on a
geographical scale across regions, economies and even the globe [35], the most famous
case being the case study of the industrial eco-park in Kalundborg, Denmark.
The works of Graedel and Allenby are referred to extensively in this Thesis for they
applied the concept of IE at the firm level and by doing so their work is most relevant to
and supportive of this project. Their definition is “Industrial Ecology is the means by
which humanity can deliberately and rationally approach and maintain a desirable
carrying capacity, given continued economic cultural and technological evolution. The
concept requires that an industrial system be viewed not in isolation from its surrounding
systems, but in concert with them. It is a systems view in which one seeks to optimise the
total materials cycle from virgin material, to finished material, to component, to obsolete
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
37
product, and to ultimate disposal. Factors to be optimized include resources, energy and
capital”.
This may still be regarded as an over-complex definition, especially given the reference
to the potentially controversial biological term carrying capacity. Similarly, there is no
consensus as yet regarding IE's scope and boundaries. On the other hand it does lay the
foundation for the application of scientific and engineering solutions in an integrated
manner and with regard to human systems. This system orientation may manifest itself in
a number of forms as listed in Table 3.5.
•• use of a Life Cycle perspective – ensuring all interactions with the
environment are considered at every stage in the life cycle
•• use of materials and energy flow analysis – determining the impact of
activities on the anthroposphere, that is, the earth’s natural systems and
cycles
•• use of systems modeling – helping to understand interactions between
industrial systems and their surroundings, and
•• sympathy for multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research and
analysis - identifying the need for insights from a diverse range of
disciplines. [36]
Table 3.5 – Industrial Ecology’s Systems Orientation
Unlike the other concepts mentioned thus far, to date IE has focused primarily on
manufacturing, trying to understand how the industrial system works, how it interacts
with the environment and how it should be restructured for compatibility with ecosystems
[37].
IE viewed globally would not be helpful as a framework At the enterprise level, IE could
be given serious consideration as a framework but the activities of IE that this Thesis is
concerned with consist of a limited number of disciplines, the main one being Design for
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
38
Environment (DfE). This limitation is the reason why IE is viewed as an enabler rather
than as a framework. The application of IE in a practical context is not yet sufficiently
universally accepted to be the best choice for a readily implementable methodology.
3.2.5 Life Cycle Management
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is a frequently used tool by manufacturers to help understand
the environmental impacts of their products, services and processes. Its use dates back to
the late 1960s when it was known as Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis
(REPA) [38]. LCA follows a prescribed methodology consisting of the three main
components of Life Cycle Inventory, Life Cycle Impact Assessment and Life Cycle
Improvement Analysis as a systems approach to evaluate the cradle to grave
consequences of a product/service/process.
While LCA is a controversial tool the Life Cycle approach underpinning it has been
recognized as a useful if not essential concept for engineers whose activities include the
study and performance improvements at all stages of the life cycle. The bringing together
of engineering disciplines such as:
•• material technology
•• design engineering
•• manufacturing automation
•• information technology
•• recycling technology
with life cycle impacts enables the LCA concept to be expanded to the broader concept
of Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) and is a major step towards the development of an
engineering curriculum consisting of technical tools [39].
A further expansion of the life cycle concepts goes beyond technical solutions into the
broader business issues of the enterprise, using the term Life Cycle Management (LCM).
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
39
A case study from the DaimlerChrysler Corporation lists the possible uses of LCM in
their environment as listed in Table 3.6.
i. Ranking projects
ii. Knowledge transfer and education
iii. Investment decisions
iv. Product and process comparisons
v. Providing a common language and understanding for evaluating for
Environmental, Occupational Health & Safety, and Recycling
criteria
vi. Policy development
vii. Benchmarking studies
viii. Evaluating marketing claims
ix. To facilitate total life cycle, multiple media, cross-discipline systems
thinking
Table 3.6 – Potential Uses of Life Cycle Management [40]
In this instance LCM was presented as more effective and less time consuming than
LCA. It also indicates an early recognition that prevention approaches need to be
considered at different levels in the enterprise not only at the technical level. As this
concept is evolving, the definition of LCM begins to take shape as per the following
quotes:
•• “LCM is business management based on environmental life cycle considerations”
•• “LCM is implementing environmental considerations in all kinds of business
decisions…”
•• “Because LCM is highly strategic, it cannot be dealt with in isolation by the
traditional environmental personnel in the company” [40]
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
40
Another important recognition in the application of LCM concepts within a
manufacturing enterprise is that, it is a functional approach mapping environmental
management considerations into decision making processes. Using the term “Entry
Gates” five levels of coordination and interaction are identified [41]:
1 Marketing
2 Procurement
3 Engineering/Design
4 Management (upper)
5 Environmental Department
The advantage of defining Life Cycle Management within a traditional business
management framework is the existing large number of preconditions, mechanisms and
concepts which automatically follow the business management approach. Examples are
concepts and tools related to strategic and organisational issues, co-operation with
external parties, decision making processes, various implementation issues, continuous
performance improvements, and more which are part of the everyday working life of any
professional business organisation [42].
As in the case of Industrial Ecology, LCM is still evolving. While it holds considerable
promise as a framework for manufacturers, and it is an approach used at the firm level, at
the time of this Thesis it seems more useful to treat it as an enabler in concert with the
other concepts. It was noted with interest during the Study Tour that IE appears to be
pursued more actively in North America while LCM appears to be a European initiative.
3.2.6 Cleaner Production.
After due consideration Cleaner Production (CP) was selected as the Manufacturing
Management/Engineering umbrella concept as it appears that in terms of its intent
as well as its continuous development it has the potential to serve as the framework
desired.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
41
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Industry and Environment in 1989
introduced the concept of Cleaner Production. Cleaner Production is the continuous
application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy applied to processes,
products and services to increase Eco-efficiency and reduce risks for humans and the
environment [43].
It applies to:
•• production processes: conserving raw materials and energy eliminating toxic raw
materials and reducing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wastes
•• products: reducing negative impacts along the life cycle of a product from raw
materials extraction to its ultimate disposal
•• services: incorporating environmental concerns into designing and delivering
services
It is also defined as an integrated approach including strategies for pollution prevention,
waste management and control and disposal. The focus is a five step evolutionary process
for improved material and product utility - 1. Treat and Dispose, 2. Recycle, 3. Reuse, 4.
Reduce, 5. Eliminate [44].
Historically, it evolved from waste minimisation within production processes to be more
strategic, bracketed with Eco-efficiency for a strategic approach to improve material
utilisation [35].
The four elements of Cleaner Production are:
1. the precautionary approach – potential polluters must prove that a substance or
activity will do no harm
2. the preventive approach – preventing pollution at the source rather than after it
has been created
3. democratic control – workers, consumers, and communities all have access to
information and are involved in decision-making
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
42
4. integrated and holistic approach – addressing all material, energy and water flows
using life-cycle analyses
Cleaner Production requires a new way of thinking about processes and products, and
about how they can be made less harmful to humans and the environment. [40] “In
essence, it requires a paradigm shift from the current reactive ‘cure’ approach to a
proactive ‘preventive’ approach.” [45]
K.Geiser [46] concludes from international conferences, national roundtables and an
international declaration on CP that it has had significant impacts as a set of tools, as a
programme, and as a way of thinking. He states these impacts can be assessed at various
levels. The strategic potentials of Cleaner Production may be summarised as:
1. promoter of new production technologies
2. managerial catalyst for liberating environmental values placing them nearer to the
centre of product and process design
3. paradigm reformer converting environmental protection investments from costs to
productivity benefits
4. bridge for connecting industrialisation and sustainability
These points are directly relevant to the aims of this Thesis. To underscore the strategic
potential of the concept he also writes “adding environmental values to product design,
marketing and management, like adding them to process management, offers new
opportunities to improve business performance and competitive advantage”, aligning CP
with strategic planning outcomes sought by manufacturing enterprises.
Further consideration of the impact of CP on the design and production of cleaner
products leads to the development of major technology areas and approaches as listed in
Table 3.7 [27].
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
43
1. repairability, remanufacturability and recyclability
2. energy efficiency
3. reduced emissions
4. design for environment
5. product stewardship
6. extended product responsibility
Table 3.7 – Cleaner Production Outcomes in Design and Production
The term Cleaner Production is used extensively world wide partly due to its marketing
by the UN and it seems to have a ‘friendly’ connotation. [39] As is the case in IE, CP is
directly focused on manufacturing and all CP issues concern industrial environmental
management. The final argument in favour of CP as a guiding framework for this Thesis
is it is application orientated, suitable for engineering solutions.
3.3 Key Relationships and Conclusions
3.3.1 Positioning the Concepts in a Planning Hierarchy
One of the aims in reviewing the six concepts in this Chapter is to establish where each of
the concepts would fit in a firm's strategic planning process. The conclusions are shown
in Figure 3.1 below as positions in the hierarchy:
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
44
Strategic - Globally and
Inter-firm
Strategic - Enterprise
Level
Operational
Figure 3.1 - Strategic versus Operational Hierarchy of Industrial Management Concepts
3.3.2 Cleaner Production and Eco-Efficiency
As defined previously, Eco-Efficiency starts from issues of economic efficiency which
have positive environmental benefits while Cleaner Production starts from issues of
environmental efficiency which have positive economic benefits [27].
Both concepts are promoted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and are
complementary. As it becomes evident in Chapter 4, they have the potential to map into a
firm's strategic planning processes. The source of the definition in the previous paragraph
is the first output of the combined UNEP public sector interests and WBCSD's industry
representation.
3.3.3 Cleaner Production versus Industrial Ecology
To meet the objectives of this Thesis Cleaner Production and Industrial Ecology are the
two most applicable approaches. They are synergistic, both focus on industrial processes,
use life cycle approaches and embrace a number of common technologies. Since
Sustainable Manufacturing
Eco- Efficiency
Industrial Ecology
Waste Minimisation
Life Cycle Management
Cleaner Production
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
45
Industrial Ecology seeks to move industrial and economic systems towards a symbiotic
relationship with Earth's natural systems, it looks beyond individual industrial processes.
As indicated in Figure 3.1, it therefore applies at all levels, the firm level, between firms
and regionally/globally [36].
The focus of Cleaner Production is narrower. Elimination and reduction of wastes is
typically for a specific industry process or enterprise. It does not have a regional, national
or global concern and may therefore be seen as a less advanced concept. CP can therefore
be viewed as the application of IE for the benefit of the firm and to reduce risks to
humans and the environment.
J. Alan Brewster writes, "…the two concepts are intimately related and mutually
reinforcing. In practice, both the science and its application in specific circumstances are
relatively new and still evolving"
3.3.4 Cleaner Production and Life Cycle
To achieve the aims of Cleaner Production a Life Cycle approach is required, as
discussed earlier in this Chapter and as depicted by Figure 3.2.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
46
1. Resource Extraction
2. Premanufacture
3. ProcessSelection
4. Conversion
5. Manufacturing Support Processes
6. Product Delivery
7. Product Use
8. Disposal, Recycling,Reuse
Figure 3.2 - Scope of Cleaner Production, a Life Cycle Approach
The stages in Figure 3.2 are a model representing a generic life cycle scenario compiled
from a number of descriptions of the Life Cycle approach, most of which are similar
(Refer to Section 5.4 for descriptions of each of the 8 stages). Figure 3.2 focuses
specifically on the manufacturing environment within the enterprise.
3.3.5 Concluding Notes Regarding Industrial Environmental Management
Concepts
The review of the concepts used to date in coming to grips with industrial environmental
management problems confirmed that from a Manufacturing Management/Engineering
perspective this body of knowledge is at an early stage of its evolution. Individual
authors, thinkers, enterprises and societies have progressed a long way towards
developing their respective concepts and solutions, most of which offer considerable
promise.
What does not seem to have happened as yet is the consolidation of all the diverse
material into a formal discipline with its own standards, definitions and terminology
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
47
which manufacturing enterprises can deploy as they would any other science or
engineering body of knowledge. Clearly there are major technical complexities alluded to
earlier, in terms of the breadth and depth of the problem, which resist the invention of
quick and simple solutions. There are other obstacles as well, beyond the technical, and
these will be explored in later Chapters.
Out of necessity this Thesis attempts to apply Occam’s Razor [18] and to select those
concepts which are deemed to have the greatest potential at this time. It would be
surprising, however, given the short history of this field if new concepts and ideas
supplanting the existing range did not emerge in the not too distant future.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
48
"META STRATEGY" FOR TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL VALUES
INTEGRATION OF SUSTAINABILITY WITH CORPORATE STRATEGIES AND BUSINESS
PLANS
INCORPORATION OF CLEANER PRODUCTION INTO FUNCTIONAL
STRATEGIES
LINKS TO SPECIFIC IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGIES AND TECHNOLOGY
AREAS
C A S E S T U D I E S
I N D
I C A T O
R S AN
D M
E A S U
R E
S
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
4.1 The Need for Speed and Effectiveness
One of the major influences for this Thesis is the need to develop effective
solutions capable of being applied quickly. As already implied, the breadth of
issues emanating from the uptake of Cleaner Production extends vertically to the
entire life cycle of products from extraction to eventual disuse, and horizontally to
every function in a manufacturing enterprise. This complexity together with the
slow uptake of new ideas led to the conclusion that the problems of re-
engineering and rectification are strategic issues that require different approaches
and techniques and should be addressed at higher levels of management within
manufacturing organisations.
After considerable reflection, the approach in Figure 4.1 was arrived at and is
proposed as the most expedient to achieve the integration of the diverse
environmental management principles with a methodology consistent with
industry practices for introducing major change, from the boardroom down to the
shop floor.
Figure 4.1 - The Proposed Methodology Framework
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
49
4.2 Other Influencing Factors
In addition to the need for speed and effectiveness, there were other contributing
influences in designing the approach including:
•••••••• Since the breadth and complexity of the topic does not lend itself to
investigative research, the reflective research approach requires the
integration of a number of key concepts from different fields in
management, engineering and science.
•••••••• The lack of authoritative literature of direct relevance exists suggesting
this discipline is still at an embryonic stage of development requires a
careful selection of ideas and technologies.
•••••••• As the area of investigation is relatively new, and since there is very little
expertise and standardised concepts, terminology and techniques, a degree
of formalisation to serve as a foundation is also needed.
•••••••• Strategic approaches are not only new to Environmental Management but
they are also relatively new in manufacturing and represent a recent field
of study in Manufacturing Engineering.
Therefore from an academic and engineering perspective, a different approach to
the usual investigative research is needed. Instead of researching a narrow band of
technical topics, solutions to industrial environmental management problems, the
work involves the combination of existing scientific and engineering knowledge
with manufacturing management principles in a way that yields an innovative
process capable of providing a solution to the problem described in section 1.3 of
this Chapter.
Bill Vanderburg in his book The Labyrinth of Technology [8] refers to the need
for this type of academic approach as essential for reconnecting previously
disparate technological systems, processes and products with human, societal and
environmental issues. Preventative, and moreover restorative, approaches to
Cleaner Production need to remove any limitations due to divisions of labour
between science and technology fields that exist at present.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
50
Hence the approach to this Thesis and the resulting model attempts to integrate a
number of engineering, scientific and management processes in a way that forms
a readily implementable methodology using concepts which have already been
invented yet are unique in their application.
4.3 Development of the Project Structure
In view of the nature of the project the approach in Figure 4.2 was agreed:
STUDY TOURSTUDY TOUR
Eco-Efficiency/ Cleaner Production Concepts
Eco-Efficiency/ Cleaner Production Concepts
Evolutionary Development to date
Evolutionary Development to date
Pick a model to align toPick a model to align to
CASE STUDY 2CASE STUDY 2
CASE STUDY 1CASE STUDY 1
Refine ConceptRefine Concept
Proven Process & Conclusions
Proven Process & Conclusions
CASE STUDY 3CASE STUDY 3
Conceptual Design of Process
Conceptual Design of Process
Project Objectives
Generalized Concept for industrial application
STUDY TOURSTUDY TOUR
Eco-Efficiency/ Cleaner Production Concepts
Eco-Efficiency/ Cleaner Production Concepts
Evolutionary Development to date
Evolutionary Development to date
Pick a model to align toPick a model to align to
CASE STUDY 2CASE STUDY 2
CASE STUDY 1CASE STUDY 1
Refine ConceptRefine Concept
Proven Process & Conclusions
Proven Process & Conclusions
CASE STUDY 3CASE STUDY 3
Conceptual Design of Process
Conceptual Design of Process
Project Objectives
Generalized Concept for industrial application
Figure 4.2 - The Research Project Plan Relevant details of the stages in Figure 4.2 are incorporated at the appropriate
points in this paper including specifics of the Case Studies (refer to Chapter 9).
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
51
4.4 Proposed Solution
4.4.1 Conceptual Design of the Process
Consistent with the reflective nature of this research, a solution was developed
incorporating four crucial management, engineering and scientific bodies of
knowledge:
1. established corporate and manufacturing/operations strategic planning
techniques
2. sustainability concepts selected from the existing industrial environmental
management literature
3. Cleaner Production concepts, selectively extracted from Life Cycle
Management and Industrial Ecology approaches deployed in industry, in
Europe and the USA
4. existing and new systems and technologies, hard and soft, used for
implementing Sustainability/Cleaner Production strategies in the form of a
"Tool-kit"
4.4.2 The Proposed Planning Model
To be able to map the solution an established planning methodology developed by
Peter Stonebreaker, a professor at Northern Illinois University (whose work is
used in a number of countries to teach operations planning) [47], was selected.
This is a generic model insofar as it represents typical strategic thinking in a
manufacturing enterprise.
Sustainability and Cleaner Production concepts, systems and technologies and
performance indicators were integrated with the planning model to arrive at what
has been termed as "the Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner
Production" process (refer Figure 4.3). As seen from the map, the solution
addresses the key point of integrating Cleaner Production concepts with the
manufacturing/operations planning processes, but just as importantly it also
establishes the links between the steps from strategy initiation through to
implementation, from the boardroom to the factory floor.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
52
As in the case of most engineering processes the loop is closed through
performance measurement, using indicators to:
•••••••• measure the effectiveness of the proposed solution
•••••••• measure environmental performance
Figure 4.3 - Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner Production
Model - Cleaner Production Scope, Links to Systems and Technologies
This proposed model describes the entire strategic planning process for
Cleaner Production. The first 3 boxes follow the Stonebraker model, the bottom
strips in the boxes having been added to augment the planning process with
Sustainability and Cleaner Production concepts. The remaining 3 boxes are
simply universal industrial practice and again the bottom strips add industrial
environmental management concepts and techniques.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
53
In Chapter 1 the overall purpose of this work was stated as “to help accelerate
environmental improvements through the uptake of Cleaner Production concepts
in industry by developing a methodology to help guide manufacturing
enterprises” and the specific objectives were listed. Following the development of
the solution in Figure 4.3, the target deliverables from this new methodology,
achieved in part or in full for a given application, are envisaged to be as the model
outcomes of:
•• statement of the strategies as Cleaner Production objectives to be achieved
•• identification of the life cycle stages affected over time
•• reconciliation with the manufacturing enterprise's evolutionary stage
•• identification of the functional units affected within the enterprise
•• identification of the environmental impacts, materials, energy/utilities and
residues (solids, liquids and gases)
•• creation of projects
•• development of performance indicators for the environment
The ensuing Chapters step through the model and provide details of the six stages:
Corporate Strategy:S u s t a i n a b i l i t y
Corporate Strategy:S u s t a i n a b i l i t y
Functional Strategy:
C l e a n e r P r o d u c t i o n
Functional Strategy:
C l e a n e r P r o d u c t i o n
Business Strategy:
E c o – e f f i c i e n c y
Business Strategy:
E c o – e f f i c i e n c y
Links:
Industrial Ecology & Life Cycle Management
Links:
Industrial Ecology & Life Cycle Management
Execution:
Technologies & Systems
Execution:
Technologies & Systems
Performance Measurements:
I n d i c a t o r s
Performance Measurements:
I n d i c a t o r s
M e t a S t r a t e g yM e t a S t r a t e g y
- Chapter 5 (Stages 1-3)
- Chapter 6 (Stage 4)
- Chapter 7 (Stage 5)
- Chapter 8 (Stage 6)
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
54
CHAPTER 5
STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL PLANNING (Stages 1-3)
5.1 Meta Strategy
5.1.1 Balancing of Technological Development with the Development of Social
Values
In preparing the foundation for this work a problem encountered very early was the
need for focusing on a limited number of initiatives. As this project is a manufacturing
management/engineering endeavor, it was deemed appropriate to attempt to steer clear
of the numerous other popular scientific, political and economic initiatives in society
aimed at solving environmental problems. As part of this focus, the work attempts to
follow a proven path for the effective introduction of new approaches within
manufacturing enterprises.
On the other hand, while the emphasis is on an enterprise level methodology, it needs to
be recognized that no manufacturing enterprise is an island, and its plans need to be in
concert with societal values.
Similarly, this Thesis does not concern itself with the global changes in culture
prescribed by environmental writers and thinkers. They may include such concepts as
customer driven values, the move towards biological systems, corporate citizenship
trends, increased focus on human needs rather than bottom line results, managing
demand and many others. This is not to say such value changes are not desirable, or
essential, but the best that can be achieved in this work is to ensure that any proposed
planning methodology is open to the inclusion of evolutionary developments as they
occur.
One analysis forecasts under the heading META Trends that by 2006 half the Global
2000 organisations will see significant changes in strategic planning as CEOs and
boards of organisations employ more effective strategy development and
implementation processes [50]. With respect to the environment, at present less than
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
55
15% of these organisations employ a disciplined approach towards environmental
analysis, this being one of the areas expected to come under increased future testing for
quality and completeness.
The enterprise level planning approach advocated in this Thesis, while avoiding
assumptions and optimistic sentiments, has to anticipate some likely global
developments for improved environmental management. Based on existing trends they
include the expectations in Table 5.1.
•• greater understanding of industrial activity of ecosystems from on-going
research
•• increased consumer awareness and demands
•• additional policies and strategies from governments and corporations
•• new, cleaner, manufacturing technologies
•• emergence of integrated solutions such as Industrial Ecology
•• accelerated sense of urgency to remediate the effects of harmful activities to
humans
•• new technology strategies in technology saturated economies
Table 5.1 –Trends Affecting the Development of Industrial Environmental
Management Disciplines
The last concept on the list in Table 5.1 is developed by Hardin Tibbs [51] into a
concept of a meta-strategy. While this Thesis does not go down the path of his detailed
proposal, it does take up the idea as a starting point for corporate planning. Tibbs writes
about his vision for sustainable development in the future:
“It is useful to think of an emerging meta-strategy that will shape technology in the
‘sustained development’ economy”. This meta-strategy for technology is an overall
framing of technology itself in a future sustainable society and in the institutions and
organisations within it, including corporations. It relates to the application of
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
56
technology by a corporation to the larger goals of society. It sits beyond or behind the
strategies of individual firms, shaping their individual strategies and being expressed
by them through their detailed technological programs, product development,
manufacturing systems and support infrastructure”.
The reason for adopting this concept in this work is that the idea involves the balancing
of technological development with the development of social values. At present, and
arguably in the past, technological advances occur much more rapidly than social
developments which would facilitate the safe and effective implementation of new
technologies, resulting in an imbalance.
Increasingly manufacturing products, processes and services are viewed as
technologies, hard and soft. By the 1990s, the Factory of the Future based on Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) concepts, has led to totally automated factories being
developed, e.g., Nanya in Taiwan, Samsung in South Korea. Although in this decade
there is somewhat greater reliance on humans and computer software in factories, this
type of development illustrates the extent to which a broad range of automation,
computing and data communications technologies can be integrated as a total
manufacturing and engineering system, and hence the pervasive influence and impact
of technology. To be effective with industrial environmental management, social values
will be needed to govern the use of technology.
Figure 5.1 – Meta Strategy Inputs
Governing Societal Values
Increased use of hard and soft technologies
Meta Strategy
Strategic and Operational Plans
Enterprise Level
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57
To date, enterprises have relied heavily on external influences such as legislation,
covenants, the Environmental Protection Agencies and pressure groups for ensuring
societal needs for environmental concerns are satisfied, and this is unlikely to change
for some time. It is reasonable for manufacturing enterprises to assume these influences
will continue to exist and to grow in intensity.
5.1.2 Systems Thinking
Including human values in strategies also means reducing the adverse effects of
technology on the environment.
Since technological advances will continue, prevention relies not on a reduction in the
application of technology, rather on a more considered deployment. Industrial Ecology
advocates systems thinking, that is, thinking in terms of total systems which combine
technology and the environment.
For a manufacturing enterprise this involves “…looking not only at the total life cycle
of its own products but also at all the components and materials that they use, and at
the environmental and social impacts involved” [52]. This means having to take a
longer term view and a wider perspective and will inevitably lead to consideration of
issues in the Supply Chain and in other organisations forming strategic alliances with
the firm.
Surmising the effects of a change to a systems approach, the potential developments
listed in Table 5.2 are likely to affect firms and their future plans.
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•• systems oriented legislation and covenants, e.g., Kyoto Protocol
•• environmental risk and impact assessments
•• Supply Chain solutions to environmental problems, e.g., shelf ready packaging
•• innovative use of resources for sustainability
•• different costing/accounting systems
•• emergence of Industrial Ecology concepts as a widely accepted discipline
employed by manufacturing professionals and designers, e.g. Design for
Environment
•• reorientation of engineering practices to preventive attitudes
Table 5.2 –New Developments for Consideration in an Enterprise’s Meta Strategy
The difficulty that systems thinking presents is that meta strategies need to consider the
interrelationships between systems and that changing one system will affect other
systems. This level of strategic planning is beyond the scope of this work with the
exception that using a Meta Strategy based on systems thinking is different from
traditional strategic planning as it requires a clear vision of the future desired state of
the enterprise. This allows arriving at specific enterprise level strategies and solutions
and the identification of the relationship between systems that will be required as part
of the solution [53].
5.1.3 Reorientation of Engineering Practices
Achievement of the overall goal of this work, the acceleration of improving industrial
environmental performance, requires new innovative approaches. The challenge of
traditional concepts regarding commercial practices, while likely to be required and to
occur, are unlikely to be driven by engineers. Engineering can however be innovative
and influential in the development of solutions.
Conventional engineering concepts can and should be challenged. The strategic
approach advocated in this work rests on the tenet that there is interdependence
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between technology and human values. Bill Vanderburg writes, “There is no
technology without a society and no society without the biosphere” [54].
From a manufacturing engineering perspective this idea forming the philosophical
backbone for strategies appears to be a crucial and central issue. Traditional
engineering disciplines and industrial applications have focused on economic, bottom
line outcomes. Introducing the consideration of human values into engineering
practices is essential if the prevention objective of this work is accepted.
A central tenet of this work is that the Meta Strategy concept for technology and
social values requires the recognition that to become sustainable industry requires
engineers and engineering disciplines to take into account human values.
Furthermore, stating the evident, such changes would lead to new approaches which are
preventive and increasingly remedial in nature.
Manufacturing engineering curricula increasingly include strategic and operational
planning. The strategic nature of manufacturing became apparent in the 1980’s through
a better understanding of the competitive nature of manufacturing. This was triggered
by the massive transfer of production from the USA to Japan in the post second world
war era (and at the time of this Thesis a similar transfer to China and other third world
countries is in progress which may further emphasise the need for strategic planning).
In the last decade, planning approaches have become more sophisticated and have
successfully linked manufacturing operations, investments in structure and
infrastructure and the management of resources. These strategies also aim to configure
systems and technologies in ways that support specific competitive advantages sought
by the firm.
By including this body of management knowledge in manufacturing engineering, the
scope of the profession is significantly expanded beyond the traditional technical know-
how for product and process design. This change has been significant in terms of
manufacturing management and engineers acquiring expertise to support their
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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enterprises’ competitiveness. From an environmental management perception this
creates a significant opportunity to complement existing planning issues with
ecological and human considerations. It will also be a departure from traditional
practice that allows technical specialists complete freedom to design and use
technology.
The opportunity is not only the means to use existing knowledge and processes in
developing new capabilities but, more importantly, to be able to adopt tried and tested
methods for introducing changes in the factory. Major technology changes such as
Enterprise/Manufacturing Resource Planning systems, Japanese manufacturing or Just
in Time/Lean and Agile Manufacturing philosophies and technologies, Total Quality
Management culture changes and Factory Automation projects are examples of the time
and difficulty involved in the introduction of major changes.
These types of changes, although potentially strategic were financially motivated and
were not seen as threats to humans, hence their gradual adoption was generally
acceptable, in fact sanctioned, as continuous improvements. Their slow adoption was
also due to manufacturing managers and engineers, who possessed the requisite
expertise, occupying middle management non-strategic roles.
Achievement of the goals in this work will require a new type of expert or
manufacturing engineer, who possesses expertise across a number of disciplines. Figure
5.2 is first attempt to scope the dimensions and content definition for an expanded
Engineering Curriculum.
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Figure 5.2 - Requirements for a Preventive and Remedial Orientation to Industrial
Environmental Management by Engineers
This attempt sums up the major new mindsets and expertise to be adopted in concert at
enterprise and academic levels. The importance of adopting these changes may be
summarised as:
•• Expertise in strategic planning facilitates access to upper management in
manufacturing enterprises and the development of effective solutions to
environmental problems – this work prescribes the inclusion of Sustainability
and Cleaner Production concepts in planning processes and subsequently in the
manufacturing management and manufacturing engineering body of knowledge.
This work also advocates that manufacturing professionals will need to have the
intellectual capacity to develop a comprehensive understanding how technology
interacts with the firm’s sustainability needs (refer Section 5.1.4 in this
Chapter).
Integration of disciplines
Preventive &
Remedial
Orientation
New Education
Strategic Panning
Improved Deployment of
Technology
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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•• Integration of technologies is a prerequisite as already outlined earlier,
engineers will need to have access to a range of science, engineering and
management disciplines to develop effective strategies and solutions. Solutions
to sustainability problems will not be point solutions until strategies are broken
into specific projects. Traditional technology solutions accomplishing specific
outcomes will be replaced by “backcasting” [2], envisioning future sustainable
positions and working back from these positions developing enterprise wide
solutions, using existing and radically new technologies. Manufacturing
engineers will need to acquire the capacity to look beyond their areas of
expertise to configure strategies and projects which bring together a range of
technologies useful for prevention and remediation.
•• Improved deployment of technology and systems, hard and soft, will improve
the quality of solutions and minimise sub optimisation (refer Chapter 7,
Technologies and Systems). A new capability is required to allow managers and
engineers to survey available technology and systems solutions. The existing
practice of reaching for obvious solutions, which may be reasonable given the
newness of this field, leads to the selection of sub optimal solutions and less
than effective outcomes as there is no appreciation for how the solution fits into
the ‘larger picture’. Not only are these solutions not preventive, there is no
appreciation for the impacts on the anthroposphere, on society and for other
initiatives in other functional areas in the enterprise.
•• New education programs or curricula will facilitate technology transfer from
more advanced countries and from research and development programs in
industry and educational bodies. Existing education offerings will need to be
augmented with industrial environmental management disciplines and
approaches drawn from a wide range of sources. This Thesis aims to provide a
starting point for the development of a curriculum to equip manufacturing
engineers for undertaking Cleaner Production assignments.
This change in orientation by manufacturing professionals may also be viewed as
innovation and creativity. “Continual innovation is essential for making the most of
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
63
new technological capabilities” [55]. This Thesis purports to be an example of
innovation in the manner existing concepts are configured and applied. It is apparent
that existing approaches cannot provide the preventive and remedial solutions needed
unless innovatively applied.
Preventive and remedial approaches not only require changes in mindsets, but also
require new and additional feedback loops. Traditional manufacturing systems and
technology initiatives typically lead to focussed performance measures which report
outcomes in the form of indices, indicators and statistics. A requirement and a difficulty
in the adoption of high level strategic approaches is the development of indicators
which not only provide a measure of environmental performance but constant
monitoring of strategies for effectiveness.
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5.2 Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1)
5.2.1 Strategy Development
The strategy development process in a firm may be highly complex. The process
minimally involves information gathering, analysis, judgements, organisational culture,
personal value systems, and intuition with contributions from a wide range of sources
from internal and external sources [56]. Contributors to the strategic planning process
may include:
•• External Stakeholders – Shareholders, Governments, Consumers, Suppliers and
Customers
•• Senior Management – Owners, Board of Directors, Executives
•• Employees – Managers, Professionals, Salaried an Hourly Personnel
•• Consultants
Strategic Planning concepts, like all other processes in industry, are constantly evolving
but for the purposes of this work a basic model will suffice. More crucial than any
model is the thinking behind the process.
Traditionally, the highest level of planning in the firm is referred to as corporate
strategy. At this level the strategic thinking links the enterprise with its environment.
Historically, strategies concentrated on the efficient use of resources, the production of
goods to engineered specifications and profit maximisation. Concern for other issues,
national, societal or environmental, were of little or no concern.
More recently there has been increased recognition that the firm is not an island, it
functions within the boundaries of social and physical environments which have an
impact on its operations and need to be considered in management decisions. One of
these socioeconomic issues is environmental performance. Socioeconomic issues
however tend to be vague and managers find it easier to address such issues on a task
by task basis than as formal strategies.
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From a manufacturing perspective, the links between corporate and operations strategy
are crucial. As critical and as complex as operations strategy is in the modern firm it
would be unthinkable that operations strategies could exist that do not support
corporate strategies and plans. Hence for the purpose of this work this linkage is critical
in two respects:
•• long term corporate strategies should provide direction for achieving
Sustainability, and
•• by definition, corporate strategies provide the framework for operations
planning [57], and in this work for Cleaner Production strategies proposed to be
embedded in Operations Strategies, as well as for the downstream detailed work
which ensues in the shorter term.
Figure 5.3 is a Sustainability model developed for this Thesis. This model incorporates
a number of ideas which should be integrated with strategic plans. The three axis
represent the main topics of:
•• corporate Sustainability and risk
•• evolution towards Sustainability
•• drivers for Sustainability
In developing Sustainability strategies at the highest level in the firm these concepts
serve as reference points. Figure 5.3 is intended to represent this strategic approach
towards sustainability, Sections 5.2.2. – 5.2.4 describe the contents of the figure.
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Figure 5.3 – The Road to Sustainability and Cleaner Production
5.2.2 Corporate Sustainability and Risk
Lending weight to the proposition of this work that the road towards Sustainability for
an enterprise needs to start with its strategic planning is the emergence of the concept of
Corporate Sustainability contained in the description of Dow Jones Sustainability
Indexes. Corporate strategy under this assessment scheme is redefined as “integrating
long term economic, environmental and social aspects in (their) business strategies
while maintaining global competitiveness and brand reputation” [58]. This is a
pragmatic, commercial requirement for large businesses to incorporate socio-economic
considerations in their strategies in general, and environmental considerations, in
particular.
1. Disposal
2. Costs Reductions & Legal Issues
3. Planning forWaste Reduction
4. Waste Identified
5. Waste Reductions
6. MajorImprovements
7. TechnologyChanges
8. Zero Waste
9. Restoration
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As Peter Stonebraker writes in his Operations Strategy book “…corporate strategy
must embody all the essential elements for corporate survival”. Sustainability has
become a survival issue for the opposite of sustainability is unacceptably high risk
positions.
Unless industry accelerates the introduction of ecologically sustainable practices,
environmental problems will continue to exist and increasingly create previously
unknown threats for an organisation. At the outset of this work Risk Analysis was
considered as one of the approaches for developing a solution but was not preferred
due to its non specific probabilistic nature, potentially adding to already substantial
complexities. It is reasonable to anticipate that sophisticated Risk Analysis models will
be developed in future for assessing a firm’s position with respect to Sustainability.
Similarly, financial models will emerge to answer such questions as:
•• How to use corporate sustainability strategies to add value? [59]
•• How can sustainability strategies be converted to conventional business issues
and values?
•• How can sustainability strategies be valued (e.g., Dow Jones Index) in the eyes
of stakeholders?
One of the issues raised in Figure 5.3 is the idea of identifying the major drivers for
Sustainability and Cleaner Production which, if ignored, have the potential to threaten
the enterprise’s survival. By including Sustainability in the strategic planning process,
environmental issues will receive equal treatment with other business objectives.
5.2.3 Evolution towards Sustainability
One of the dimensions in the model in Figure 5.3 addresses the notion of the evolution
of the enterprise toward Sustainability. This is a refinement of similar early attempts
through Waste Minimisation programs as described in Chapter 2 and adapted from a
UK model [60] as developed in Figure 5.4.
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Level 1 - Disposal
Level 2 – Cost Reductions
and Legal Issues
Level 3 – Planning for
Waste Reduction
Level 4 – Waste Identified
Level 5 – Waste Reduction
Level 6 – Major Improvements
Level 7 – Technology Changes
Level 8 – Zero Waste
Level 9 – Restoration
Figure 5.4 – Evolution of the Enterprise towards Sustainability
Only waste disposal is recognised as a concern, main issue is the optimum or least costly disposal method
Basic, non-strategic consideration of Ecoefficiency issues, industrial environmental management is seen as another cost reduction program, plus the recognition of the need to comply with environmental legislation and regulations
Recognition that waste reduction is necessary and may be beneficial, investigation of alternative programs
Waste streams, sources and quantities of waste, materials, energy/utilities and residues are identified and quantified
Work practices are redesigned/reengineered to reduce the amount of waste generated from products, processes, and services
Significant benefits are realised from waste reduction practices and projects
Major projects including capital investments in new processes and employing external expertise to achieve significant outcomes
Changes in mindset and culture setting a transcendent goal for the enterprise intolerant of all forms of waste and un-sustainable practices
Remediation and restorative practices, qualitative improvements in strategies, improvements and affluence is dependent on improvements in environmental management performance
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
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The purpose of identifying evolutionary stages is to assist firms in formulating
sustainability strategies and to help assess their progress. Chapter 6 outlines a process
for linking life cycle stages with evolutionary development for a given sustainability
strategy.
5.2.4 Drivers for Sustainability
Notwithstanding the intent of this work to steer clear of political or emotional
sentiments, the amount of ‘green’ thinking in society is on the increase with inevitable
impact on business and technology, hence manufacturers. The model in Figure 5.3
summarises the drivers for Sustainability under five headings:
1. Unacceptable Cost Increases
The running down of the environment carries a number of financial threats for
manufacturers. They potentially include:
•• material shortages driving up raw material purchase prices, or necessitating the
invention of alternatives, and transportation costs
•• increased costs of sustainably produced materials [61] preferred by buyers
•• increasing health costs due to increased toxicity in the workplace and elsewhere
•• escalation of insurance costs to cover risks
•• higher costs of imports due to higher transport costs
•• increased operating costs resulting from compliance with regulations
•• rectification costs
2. Business and Society Pressures
New generations are better informed and educated, and as a consequence more critical
and more demanding. Consumers scrutinise products and services increasingly and
providers who fail to adequately consider environmental impacts will suffer loss of
sales and market share. Manufacturers are now producing environmental reports
disclosing considerable information with respect to their internal processes. The reports
are accessible on the Internet and may be scrutinised by all. Current trends include
consultations with all stakeholders (society, customers, suppliers and employees) taking
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
70
their needs and wants into consideration throughout the life cycle of products and
services.
Examples of this type of pressure were found during the Case Studies described in
Chapter 9. Company A customers, government owned railroads, are regulated with
respect to environmental performance by respective government legislation requiring
Company A as a supplier to comply.
In the case of Company B, their nappy products have come under scrutiny; Life Cycle
Assessment studies have been conducted to assess the viability of disposable nappies.
The company has strategically chosen to be a paragon of environmental responsibility
and stays well ahead of any legislation potentially affecting it. Company C has
recognised the need to consult its stakeholders with respect to its environmental
management plans, including the engagement of its personnel in the development of
Cleaner Production Projects.
Paul Hawken offers as an example a list of principles as listed in Table 5.3 to guide a
moderate size enterprise in developing strategies which respond to societal pressures.
•• replace nationally and internationally produced items with products created
locally and regionally
•• take responsibility for the effects they have on the natural world
•• do not require exotic sources (excessive amounts) of capital in order to develop
and grow
•• engage in production processes that are human, worthy, dignified, and
intrinsically satisfying
•• create objects of durability an long-term utility whose ultimate use or
disposition will not be harmful to future generations
•• change consumers to customers through education
Table 5.3 –Principles of Sustainability [62]
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3. New Opportunities
The pursuit of Sustainability will create new opportunities for manufacturers seeking
new innovative strategies. Some of these opportunities will simply arise from waste
reduction leading to cost reductions and increased market share [63]. Other
opportunities such as material substitution and dematerialisation abound, and include
the example of Interface’s textile business introducing fabrics produced from 100
percent recycled polyester instead of virgin fibres [64].
New technologies, including “green design” in which environmental attributes are
treated as design objectives and new R & D processes which include social, human and
environmental criteria in technology solution will lead to radical changes including:
•• closed loop manufacturing system with zero waste
•• changes in product design processes to include life cycle considerations and
targeting greater technology efficiency
•• new transport systems - roads, vehicles, fuels
•• ultra clean production systems and miniaturisation, possibly using
nanotechnology and molecular computing (the “desktop factory”) [65]
•• changes in vehicle design, replacing steel with aluminium or other light metals
and using different fuels such as hydrogen
•• new, renewable energy forms and technologies, including solar and wind
generated and the use of distributed power generation [70]
•• dematerialisation and material substitutions, including the greater use of “smart”
materials and environmentally friendly alternatives
•• biological systems utilising biotechnology capabilities as technological
processes and the shift to biologically inspired production processes
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4. Legislation
The amount of environmental legislation is on the increase. At one end of the spectrum
local councils regulate disposal practices, at the other country wide agreements such as
the National Packaging Covenant are brought into being. Legislation such as The
Protection of the Environment Act 1997 (NSW) [66] extends to a very wide range of
topics from water and land pollution to clean up and prevention. Manufacturers have to
work within these guidelines while observing licensing requirements and environmental
audit provisions.
Future legislation is difficult to predict, much of it will be in response to local and
global conditions. An indication of this is the Australia State of the Environment 2001
report [67] which mentions a number of Acts and agreements such as the Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, The Australian Mining Industry
Code for Environmental Management and The National Action Plan for Salinity and
Water Quality. The adoption of a national strategy, the activities of the United Nations
Environmental Protection Agency, the Kyoto Protocol/Agreement and its possible
impact on green taxes, carbon credits and environmental economics, or in the case of
Europe a continental strategy for environmental management practices, will lead to new
legislation and will drive enterprise level strategies, policies and practices.
5. Corporate Citizenship/Image
Examining the Environmental Reports of major manufacturers including Sony,
Mitsubishi, Siemens, Nestle, Unilever, 3M, IBM, Hewlett Packard, Electrolux, Coca
Cola and Kimberly Clark it is apparent that large investments are made in order to be
able to present to stakeholders and society responsible attitudes towards environmental
management.
Quoting from one of these reports, “Sony has a broad and lasting responsibility
towards both the natural environment and society. Sony will treat each employee with
respect and help increase his or her knowledge about the environment. Sony will show
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
73
a high level of integrity in our relations with our stakeholders and society. We
recognise the importance of local environments as well as the global environment .We
will participate actively in community activities in different regions of the world aiming
always to be a good corporate citizen” [72]. As mentioned in Section 5.2.1 the Dow
Jones Index is a clear indication of how environmental practices of a firm are not only
publicly evaluated but may affect its share prices.
Examples from local consulting work include food manufacturers refusing to use
landfill for fear of creating the wrong corporate image and the across the board
responsibility taken by these manufacturers to adopt environmentally friendly practices
in their factories including water recycling and energy management programs.
A new generation of management thinkers such as Amory Lovins advocate radical
rethinking of the way businesses conduct their work. The idea of “Natural Capitalism”
[68] promotes new criteria for success replacing current ideas. Lovins is quoted
“Successful companies will be those that take their values from their customers, their
discipline from the market place, their designs from nature” [69]. These same thinkers
refer to this area as the next industrial revolution and assess firms on their level of
uptake of these ideas.
For the idea of Corporate Citizenship, which should be about the communication
between all the stakeholders in society in order to build social capital which in turn
builds sustainable societies, resting on moral principles alone is insufficient; it needs to
extend to social integration and the long term sustainability of the enterprise.
It is advocated that economic relationships be dramatically restructured on the priorities
of balancing human uses of the environment with the regenerative capacities of the
environment and the allocation of natural capital in a manner that ensures people have
the opportunity to fulfil all their needs [71]. In advocating these ideas it is recognised
that corporate culture needs to take into account Sustainable Development. The social
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
74
and political implications of this trend will continue to impact the strategies of
manufacturers.
5.3 Business Planning (Stage 2)
The focus of the Business Strategy is distinctive competence [56], with the competitive
differentiation of the firm based on the achievement of three strategic areas:
•• cost leadership
•• product differentiation
•• focus
as linked to the competitive advantage objectives of the Operations Strategy at the next
level. This conventional definition is focused on value adding and results in financial
outcomes. In section 5.2, Sustainability strategies were integrated with Corporate
Planning. Eco-efficiency, as defined in Chapter 3, readily lends itself to integration with
Business Planning.
Industry Canada promotes the uptake of Eco-efficiency [73] to achieve
•• increasing product or service value
•• optimising the use of resources, and
•• reducing environmental impacts
as opportunities for cost savings.
The adoption of Eco-efficient processes can lead to long-term cost savings, reduce
liability, improve asset utilisation, improve productivity while reducing material usage,
raise profit margins and hence improve competitiveness [74]. Within the proposed
methodology in this Thesis, Eco-efficiency serves as a link between corporate and
operations strategies. These benefits therefore provide commercial motivation for upper
management to pursue environmentally beneficial policies.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
75
In the other direction, linking with operations strategies ensures downstream strategies
and tactics are consistent with board level direction and achieve objectives set out in
strategic plans. This approach is intended to overcome the problem of lack of
commitment from the top. Since Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production are two closely
linked concepts, the use of the first clears the way for the deployment of Cleaner
Production strategies.
Typical Eco-efficiency strategies are not available from academic sources but can be
gleaned from firms’ environmental reports. The list in Table 5.4 from 3M Corporation
may serve as an example.
•• reduce energy intensity
•• reduce use of materials
•• enhance recyclability
•• use of renewable resources
•• reduce/eliminate hazards
•• increase durability
•• increase recycled content
•• use of services to help manage risks
Table 5.4 - Eco-Efficiency Goals Leading to Sustainable Development[63]
Business planning, hence Eco-efficieny, is a strategic concern at board and senior
executive levels.
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5.4 Operations Planning (Stage 3)
In the last decade operations strategy, one of the functional strategies emanating from
the corporate and business plans has developed into a complex process. Simplistically,
it focuses on one or more of the competitive priorities of the firm (cost, quality,
flexibility and delivery) in a way that underpins the higher level strategies. It is
concerned with the optimum management of resources extending to a large number of
structural and infrastructural decisions. It also embraces a wide range of hard and soft
technologies and systems reflecting the wide diversity in volumes, varieties, product
and process technologies found in factories all over the globe.
Despite the difficulties involved in developing and focusing operations strategy, the
process is central to Manufacturing Management and Manufacturing Engineering, for
over time it determines and defines operations with respect to facilities, equipment,
organisation, systems, technologies and all other resources. As the problem of
environmental sustainability continues its prominence, it is predictable that within
manufacturing enterprises the role of operations will become interlinked with
environmental management [75]. The challenge of developing an operation planning
process that embraces environmental concerns is how to minimise the potential
complexities.
In Chapter 3 the idea that Cleaner Production (CP) would provide the best guiding
framework of the available concepts to date was developed, including definitions,
relationships and underlying theories. The task in this Thesis is to integrate CP
strategies as part of the operations planning process. The life cycle view of CP (refer to
Figure 3.2) provides a way of achieving this. Revisiting and describing the life cycle
stages, as compiled from a number of generic life cycle models is summarised in Table
5.5.
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77
1. Resource Extraction resources, materials and energy selection in the main,
nominated to be a part of the transformation process
2. Premanufacture design, opportunity for the systematic integration of
environmental issues into product and process design
3. Process Selection process design and equipment selection, application
of CP techniques
4. Conversion operations, process optimisation including waste and
residues elimination
5. Manufacturing Support environmental management processes in
Processes Engineering, Quality, Materials Purchasing
6. Product Delivery logistics functions, optimised transport, handling and
distribution
7. Product Use intended use and impact and preventive maintenance
8. Disposal, Recycling, end of life processes, optimisation
Reuse
Table 5.5 – Cleaner Production Life Cycle Stages
The task in developing CP strategies as part of the Operations Strategy may be simple
or difficult depending on the level of understanding available within the enterprise. In
larger corporations, environmental specialists, managers and engineers/scientists should
be able to effect the conversion of Sustainability and Eco-efficiency strategies. Small to
medium size companies may require assistance. Table 5.6 provides a list of possible CP
strategies which can be adopted at the different life cycle stages. Descriptions of the
Strategy Options are not provided in this work as they are generally available from
other sources.
Life Cycle Stage Description
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78
Table 5.6 – Cleaner Production Strategies
The development of Cleaner Production strategies should follow the path of the present
practice of linking the operations strategy to higher level strategies by addressing the
competitive advantages sought through structural and infrastructural decisions, and as
such should not present implementation obstacles. The departure requires the additional
appreciation of the potential CP Strategy Options topics only, which is expertise in
Cleaner Production, a feasible and arguably necessary skill for manufacturing managers
and engineers.
Life Cycle Stage
Resource Extraction
Pre- Manufacture
Process Selection
Conversion Support Processes Product Delivery
Product Use Disposal, Recycling, Reuse
S t r a t e g y O p t i o n s Dematerialisation, Services (extended producer responsibility), Renewable Materials, Lower Embodied Energy Materials Extended Technical and Aesthetic Life Spans, Integrated Product Functions, Modularity, Extended Psychological Product Life Spans,
Increased Reliability & Durability, Easy Maintenance & Repair
Cleaner Materials, Recycled Materials, Reduced Material Usage, Development of Alternative Processes, Energy Efficiency, Waste Reduction
Recyclable Materials, Reduced Energy Consumption, Cleaner Energy Sources, Reduced Consumable Waste, Re-Use, Re -manufacture, Design for Disassembly, Energy & Material Recovery
Cleaner Production Processes, Waste Elimination, Fewer Operations, Reduced Consumables
Lower Material Weight & Volume
Reduced, Cleaner & Reusable Packaging, Energy Efficient Transport & Logistics,
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5.5 Implementation Notes
As a footnote to this Chapter, Steps 1 – 3 above were initially founded on existing
planning processes deployed by industry. They were then tested as part of the Case
Studies (refer to Appendices E, F, and G), leading to the following observations and
questions to be considered in future applications:
•• Top executives appear to have little difficulty in expanding their planning
processes to embrace Sustainability and are happy to include new strategies.
•• The business planning level is the first hurdle to overcome, most manufacturers
are cost driven, Eco-efficiency strategies need to clearly identify potential
financial benefits.
•• Operations Directors are likely to require assistance in the form of expertise in
Cleaner Production concepts and applications; this is probably a fertile area for
senior consultants and engineers.
•• Documentation of strategies can be as simple as a series of slides as part of a
management presentation, the difficulty lies in the development of the strategies
themselves. Some of the associated practices of mission statements, SWOT
(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analyses and competitive
analyses are unlikely to be required, however, objectives setting remains a
necessary condition.
•• The greatest hurdle is to restrain senior management from jumping to solutions
before working through the next stage (refer to Chapter 6) in the methodology.
•• Development of these plans to date has been a time consuming process,
typically several weeks are needed for managers to work through the three
stages, not due to the workloads involved but the innovative time needed to
develop and evaluate ideas.
•• Human Resource and Change Management concepts were not considered
strategic for this work. During the case studies, the ideas presented were readily
embraced without the need for overcoming ‘culture change’ obstacles. It may
eventuate that an eventual wider uptake of the proposed process may require
expansion into these areas but these topics are more likely to be implementation
issues.
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CHAPTER 6
LINKING STRATEGIES WITH PROJECTS (Stage 4)
6.1 Linking Strategies with Tactics
Once strategies are developed the next steps as a rule constitute the execution phase
(tactics). In this work the process involves the development of links between the
operations strategies/plans and specific methodologies/technologies used to achieve
Cleaner Production goals. In practical terms this means developing a method which will
lead to the eventual development of Cleaner Production project proposals in a manner
that achieves upper management support for projects, including appropriate levels of
funding and other project resources.
Having conceived a streamlined implementable planning approach, from the Case
Studies it became evident that to invent a way in which strategies can be converted into
tactics, that is, Cleaner Production practices and projects, is another considerable
challenge. Failing to develop such links would retain the status quo, that is, the
deployment of technologies and systems that are familiar to practitioners or are readily
available. This would lead to sub-optimisation at best but just as likely to functional
conflicts and poor outcomes. Another issue is that there are an unlimited number of
existing and ever increasing new technologies which can in some way be deployed in the
name of industrial environmental management.
This stage of the planning and implementation process, therefore, involves the
development of specific links. By focusing on these strategy/tactics links before
embarking on implementation, a path to optimum, or at least effective, technology
deployment will become evident. The need from such links became apparent very early
in the project but the solution did not present itself until a Study Tour was conducted to
North America and Europe. What was learned is that two industrial environmental
management disciplines, defined in Chapter 3, are emerging on these two continents:
•• Industrial Ecology, and
•• Life Cycle Management
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Both disciplines are expansive addressing a wide range of environmental management
issues. Both are in the domain of specialists and middle managers, and are evolving from
technical projects in an upwards direction towards the strategic levels. In both fields there
is a modicum of recognition for strategic approaches even if they have yet to be invented.
6.2 Industrial Ecology (IE) as an Enabler
IE and CP are emerging undertakings with common goals, with IE expected to emerge as
the science which will enable CP to gain effectiveness and to make greater inroads in the
application of knowledge.
Industrial Ecology was defined in Chapter 3, and as outlined it can be applied at several
levels. IE appears to be deployed by American firms which, based on past experience,
could be argued to culturally support readily accept technology initiatives to solve
industrial problems. Also as previously mentioned IE can be applied at different levels
and on a global scale it is an extremely complex concept.
Within the enterprise, however, IE has the attraction that it is able to provide policies,
tools, information and techniques on an objective basis, consistent with the objectives of
this work to adopt a dispassionate professional methodology. It is ideally suited as an
engineering discipline for it relies on the deployment of technology to solve
environmental problems. To utilise IE concepts in this work requires distilling out some
of the less abstract concepts so that they may form part of the overall methodology.
Although Braden R Allenby’s in his IE book [76] discusses a range of implementation
issues and uses case studies as examples of implementation, he does not offer an actual
methodology. But concepts such as those in Table 6.1 will be most helpful in sourcing
technology solutions and undoubtedly will lead to new technologies in future.
.
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Table 6.1 - Principles of Industrial Ecology [77]
•• Products, processes, services and operations can produce residuals, but not
waste.
•• Every process, product, facility, constructed infrastructure, and technological
system should be planned to be easily adapted to foreseeable,
environmentally preferable innovations.
•• Every molecule that enters a manufacturing process should leave that process
as a saleable product.
•• Every erg of energy used in manufacture should produce a desired material
transformation.
•• Industries should make minimum use of materials and energy in products,
processes, services and operations.
•• Materials used should be the least toxic for the purpose, all else equal.
•• Industries should get most of the needed materials through recycling streams
rather than through raw materials extraction, even in the case of common
materials.
•• Every process and product should be designed to preserve the embedded
utility of the materials used.
•• Every product should be designed so that it can be used to create other useful
products at the end of its current life.
•• Every industrial landholding, facility, or infrastructure system or component
should be developed, constructed or modified with attention to maintaining
or improving local habitats and species diversity, and to minimising impacts
on local or regional resources.
•• Close interactions should be developed with materials suppliers, customers,
and representatives of other industries, with the aim of developing
cooperative ways of minimising packaging and of recycling and reusing
materials.
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The principles in Table 6.1 provide a valuable set of guidelines for considering
Sustainability and environmental impact at every stage in the life cycle of a product or
service and as such should be used as Cleaner Production strategies.
Reliance on a finite set of principles is important since IE is an integrative as opposed to
reductionist field integrating a number of disciplines. In addition, the principles provide a
sound basis for framing implementation projects. Daniel Esty of the Yale School of
Forestry and Environmental Studies concludes that “Industrial Ecology thinking will
often be useful to firms seeking to improve their resource productivity and thus their
competitiveness” [78]. This and other comments in his article confirm that IE at the firm
level may not produce optimum financial performance but is suitable as an operations
strategy tool for improving material productivity and waste minimisation.
IE extends beyond the study of materials and energy flows. It requires an understanding
of how industrial systems work before deploying CP concepts for sustainable long term
operating modes [79]. The above conclusions represent the reasons for looking to IE to
overcome the difficulty of putting environmental strategies into effective practice.
6.3 Life Cycle Management as an Enabler
Life Cycle Management (LCM) is not a completely new management invention. It is in
principle already implemented in companies world-wide, because all companies have
management activities in relation to their suppliers, production, distributors, customers
and through these activities the companies manage the life cycle of their products, more
or less directly. However, most companies do not include the environmental dimension in
these management activities. Life Cycle Management is basically a question of adding
the environmental life cycle dimension to the already implemented business management
concepts [80].
The advantage of defining Life Cycle Management within a traditional business
management framework is the existing large number of preconditions, mechanisms and
concepts which automatically follow the business management approach. Examples are
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concepts and tools related to strategic and organisational issues, co-operation with
external parties, decision making processes, various implementation issues, continuous
performance improvements, and much more which are part of the everyday working life
of any professional business organisation [80].
At this time in our evolution, Life Cycle Management is an increasingly accepted starting
point for introducing environmental initiatives. LCM tends to be relatively
straightforward and logical at a conceptual level. However, a common understanding and
definition of the concept in companies as well as in academia do not appear to have been
established so far.
The Hartmann Group defines Life Cycle Management as “business management based
on environmental life cycle considerations” [80]. This is a summary of a number of
concepts and definitions, but is directly relevant to this Thesis as it equates to all
management activities within the firm aimed at minimising environmental impacts and
resource consumption.
Another definition states Life Cycle Management is any management activity that
contributes to the minimisation of the environmental impacts and resource consumption
throughout the full life cycle of a product or a service [82]. This is achieved through the
optimisation of the value chain as its fundamental viewpoint. It requires a continuous,
integrated optimisation of the economic, technological, and social aspects of products. As
a management paradigm, it includes concepts, tools and procedures to reach this
objective [81].
LCM can be used in all environmental approaches. It is increasingly used in association
with Cleaner Production and can be seen as an integral to the concepts of Design for
Environment and Environmental Manufacturing and further functional areas like
Purchasing, Logistics and Marketing [83]. LCM therefore appears to provide an effective
link between strategies, systems and technologies.
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Although the definitions are not easily mapped into organisation structures, some general
conclusions about it are helpful:
•• LCM extends beyond production processes to all life cycle stages and is therefore
more pervasive than previous attempts at environmental management
•• it forms a part of the business thus it is feasible to incorporate it into existing
industrial and management practices
•• although some authors view LCM as strategic, in the context of this work it does
not appear as yet to be a top management consideration, rather it fits comfortably
with a functional approach which is depicted in figure 6.1.
1. Resource Extraction
2. Premanufacture
3. ProcessSelection
4. Conversion
5. Manufacturing Support Processes
6. Product Delivery
8. Disposal, Recycling,Reuse
LCM
•Design for Environment
• Environmental Purchasing
• Environmental Manufacturing
• Environmental Distribution
• Environmental Marketing
7. Product Use
Figure 6.1 – Life Cycle Management (LCM) – Scope
LCM appears to be deployed by European manufacturers to try and link environmental
management with commercial considerations. “Life Cycle Management can be seen as a
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necessary challenge to the predominantly rational and technical approach towards the
innovation of cleaner products and sustainable development” [81]. As was the case in
IE, LCM incorporates Cleaner Production processes, in a narrow sense, and recognises
that CP is one of the pillars of LCM.
6.4 Linking Strategies to Execution
6.4.1 Scrutiny of the Linking Process
Having researched IE and LCM to the point that they are able to be defined and
understood, and how they may be deployed at the firm level, the next step is to develop
the linking process.
Figure 6.2 – Linking Strategy with Execution
This is deemed a crucial step in this work and yet was an obstacle for a long period.
Having decided early in the project that strategic planning and a top down approach is
essential for effectiveness, and having devised a strategic planning approach for industrial
Cleaner Production Strategies
Industrial Ecology Principles
Life Cycle Management Goals
Technology and Systems Projects
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Environmental Management, it was not readily apparent how to proceed with their
implementation. All strategic planning literature for manufacturing agrees tactics flow
from strategy, and the links can usually be established by considering structural and
infrastructural decisions leading to the deployment of state-of-the-art hard and soft
technologies as they exist at that time. Traditionally, this type of capability building
identifies and evaluates skills, knowledge and tasks in the firm in order to develop
competitive advantage for the time horizon of the strategic plan [84]. Because the goals
are linked to competitiveness based on the well defined issues of cost, delivery, quality
and flexibility the main challenge is to configure the right product and process
technologies to achieve distinctive competence and competitive advantage in support of
the top level strategies.
This approach is not feasible when trying to build organisational capabilities for
industrial environmental management. As evident from this work, this field is still in its
infancy, there is not a wide range of management practice and standardised bodies of
knowledge which can readily be brought into the process. The Study Tour led to the
conclusion that IE and LCM represented the opportunity to develop structural and
infrastructural policies, procedures and decisions to support Sustainability strategies in a
similar manner to the traditional approaches (refer to Figure 6.2). This approach too is
time bounded, in so far as it represent the state-of-the-art at the time of this Thesis, and
no doubt sophistication will rapidly evolve as experience with IE and LCM accumulates.
The difficulty in developing the links between planning and execution is not only due to
the newness of this field but to the need to evolve considerably faster than previously.
To date, in developing competitive strategies the emphasis was on being ahead of others.
Sustainability goals on the other hand are transcendent with a sense of urgency, as
outlined in Chapter 1. There are no readily available benchmarks as yet and as this work
illustrates that, notwithstanding the quantity of material written, there is considerable
effort required to source directly relevant authoritative management, science and
engineering support for the process.
In this Chapter a new process is developed to overcome this difficulty, (refer to Figure
6.4), but it should be noted there is a subsequent difficulty to address as well. This
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involves the other end of the linkages, that is, how to implement the outcomes in an
effective and professional manner, Chapter 7 provides this process and the tools.
6.4.2 Description of the Process E
volu
tiona
ry S
tage
s
Cleaner Production Stages
Material Choices
(M)
Energy, Utility
Choices (E)
Waste, Residue Impacts
(W)
Figure 6.3 – Cleaner Production Issues for Environmental Decisions
Figure 6.3 is used in the second matrix in Figure 6.4 and it is an attempt to simplify the
process. After reviewing the relevant literature it appears possible to categorise all
industrial environmental decisions under the three headings of:
1. Material Choices
2. Energy and Utility Choices
3. Waste, Residue Impacts – Liquids, Solids and Gases
The initials M, E and W are abbreviations used in the Tool-kit database described in
Chapter 7.
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Company XYZ 3 year Strategy - Reduction of Hazardous Chemicals
5. Environmental Marketing
4. Environmental Distribution
3. Environmental Manufacturing
2.Environmental Purchasing
1. Design for Environment
Residue Impacts
Energy/Utility Choices
Material ChoicesTechnology
Issues
Figure 6.4 – Multi Year Influence of a Cleaner Production Strategy by Life Cycle Stage, Evolution, Commercial Function and Environmental Impact
Figure 6.4, using a contrived environmental management issue, illustrates the linking
process. The aim is to take a CP strategy stated in specific Industrial Ecology language as
Company XYZ 3 year StrategyConversion, Cleaner Materials, Reduction of Hazardous Chemicals
EvolutionaryStages
Life Cycle StagesResourceExtraction
Pre-Manufacture
ProcessSelection
Conversion SupportProcesses
ProductDelivery
ProductUse
Disposal,Recycling,Reuse
Disposal
Cost Reductions/Legal Issues
Planning for Waste ReductionWaste IdentifiedWasteReductions
MajorImprovements
TechnologyChangesZeroWaste
Restoration
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
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a first step towards a path or paths to technology deployment and their ranking as
prioritised projects. A description of this process follows:
Step 1:
It is envisaged that a matrix approach used as an example in Figure 6.4 be used for each
Cleaner Production strategy which appears as a heading.
Step 2:
The x-axis across the top of the first matrix is split into 8 columns, each column
representing a life cycle stage as described in Section 3.3.4; the columns will be used to
identify the impact of a strategy on different life cycle stages.
Step 3:
The y-axis of the first matrix is divided into 9 rows, each row representing an
evolutionary stage as described in Figure 5.3 and Table 2.7; the columns will be used to
identify the impact of a strategy with respect to the evolution of the firm towards
Sustainability.
Step 4:
Using different colours the projected time span for implementation is graphed by year,
for each life cycle and evolutionary stage. The large arrow is a similar representation of
time and is used to illustrate the multi year impact on evolution.
Step5:
The x-axis across the top of the second matrix is split into 3 columns, each column
representing the nature of the environmental impact of the strategy as illustrated in Figure
6.4. The headings at the top of the 3 columns are generically summarised headings of the
various terms used in the literature for describing environmental impacts. The third
column headed residues are synonymous with waste and includes solid, liquid and
gaseous wastes.
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Step 6:
The y-axis of the second matrix is divided into 5 rows, each row representing a functional
area under the LCM model as shown in Figure 6.1.
Step 7:
As in the case of the first matrix, using different colours facilitates visualisation of the
environmental impact by function, over time.
Implementation Notes:
The design of the first matrix incorporates Sustainable Development, Cleaner Production
and Industrial Ecology principles.
The design of the second, and subsequent matrix, is founded on Life Cycle Management
principles.
The two matrices in combination form the backbone of the linking process and enable the
incorporation of firm level IE and LCM bodies of knowledge to be utilised in translating
strategies into execution.
Clearly, even an apparently simple process like this requires significant capability to be
useful. Population of the matrices requires knowledge of the disciplines mentioned, not
only in a conceptual context but as practicable management and engineering competence.
Contents of matrices will vary with each strategy and application area or industrial
environment. While the development of strategies is clearly a senior executive
responsibility, this linking process would require expertise from operation management,
environmental management, engineers and consultants.
The completed matrices provide focus and priorities for the firm. By virtue of the know-
how required for their completion, and with the focus established regarding:
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•• strategic priorities - Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production
•• evolutionary position and development
•• life cycle stages involved
•• time horizon
•• functional impacts within the firm
•• environmental impacts with respect to materials, energy, utilities and
wastes/residues
•• areas of Industrial Ecology technologies applicable
The matrices provide the starting point for execution and should enable the selection of
effective solutions as described in the next Chapter.
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CHAPTER 7
TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS (Stage 5)
7.1 The need for a Tool-kit
While assessing Cleaner Production initiatives to date, it became apparent there are a very
large number of CP projects of differing complexities, using a myriad [85] [86] of
technologies and applied in a wide range of manufacturing environments.
Not only are these solutions not linked to strategies and other functional areas, there is no
evidence to suggest that alternatives to the technologies used were evaluated for optimum
outcomes before projects were staged. To achieve the objectives of this Thesis, it is a
requirement that the technologies used to achieve the strategies are the most relevant and
effective of those available, rather than those readily simply available or ones with which a
given practitioner is familiar.
Similarly, there does not appear to be a database or any other repository of CP
technologies. For specific technology areas such as DfE there is the occasional text book
[87], but these are the exceptions, and again the technology is an island as regards the other
issues mentioned. It therefore became apparent that the Thesis also needs to provide an
implementation path with respect to technology selection.
After considerable examination the conclusion was reached that a database of solutions
based on an easily referenced classification system is needed hereafter referred to as the
Environmental Systems and Technologies Tool-kit. While the population of the data base
with all known technologies, if at all feasible, is beyond this work it was decided to
develop the model as a starting point.
7.2 Objectives of the Tool-kit
The objectives of the Environmental Systems and Technologies Tool-kit are to
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•• provide manufacturing managers and engineers with a capability to select
appropriate systems and technologies for achieving Cleaner Production
objectives and
•• enable the initiation of system and technology projects required to implement
Cleaner Production strategies.
Consistent with these objectives, the Tool-kit aims to assist managers and engineers to
integrate environmental constraints into their organisation by offering systems and
technologies best suited to meet environmental objectives. It is not designed to provide an
automatic selection of the optimum tool but to present an array of choices for selection.
For the purposes of this work, the proposed Tool-kit refers to two of the five functional
areas comprising the Life Cycle Management functional divisions as nominated in the
previous Chapter as these two are primary or mainstream manufacturing disciplines. They
are Design for Environment and Environmental Manufacturing (hence excluding
Purchasing, Logistics and Marketing), disciplines that affect all product life cycle stages
and are hence interrelated. Therefore, the Tool-kit considers systems and technologies for
both functional units and for the entire product life cycle.
As it is beyond the scope of this project to list all available systems and technologies as
part of this work, the intent is to develop a suitable classification system (Tool-kit) for the
selection and application of systems and technologies. The configuration is designed to
allow the addition of other functional units and systems and technologies, as appropriate.
For the purposes of the Tool-kit, the term “systems and technologies” should be
understood here in a broad sense, encompassing techniques, methods, equipment and
software.
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7.3 Designing the Tool-kit
7.3.1 Optimisation of Design Considerations
Sections 7.3.1.1 – 7.3.1.6 outline the design considerations for the main lifecycle stages
used in the main matrix in Figure 6.4, excluding Process Selection and Support Processes.
7.3.1.1 Resource Extraction
Approaches for the resource extraction phase focus on selecting the most environmentally
appropriate materials and substances, and on optimising material use for products and their
manufacture.
Selecting environmentally benign materials depends largely on the life cycle of the
product. For example, using bronze is justified for a sculpture which is admired for many
centuries, but not for a disposal product. Further examples for materials which should be
avoided because of causing hazardous emissions during their production, use or disposal
are colorants, heat or UV stabilisers, fire retardants, softening agents and fillers.
Environmentally benign materials are, for example, renewable materials which derive from
a living tree, plant, animal or ecosystem which has the ability to regenerate itself. Other
material should be avoided if they are not replenished naturally, or take a long time to do
so, implying that the source can become exhausted in time.
The embodied energy of a material refers to its energy demand for extraction, production,
and refinement before its use in product manufacture. Some materials have higher energy
content than others and therefore, they should only be used if they lead to other positive
environmental features. For example, the use of aluminium could be justified in products
which are often transported and for which recycling systems exists, as aluminium is light-
weight and most suitable for recycling.
In contrast to extraction and processing of a needed raw material, an efficient recycling
operation for this material may be an adequate alternative at much lower expenditures of
cost and environmental impact.
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Recycled materials are materials gained from products that have been used before. Sources
for recycling are industrial off-specification material generated from an industrial process
and not used, and post-consumer material recovered after industrial or domestic use.
Recyclable materials are those that can be easily reprocessed and utilised. Recyclable
materials should be used where possible. Materials should be selected which result in high-
quality recycled materials. Use of recyclable materials could produce significant cost-
savings as they reduce the amount of waste sent to landfill.
Optimising or reducing material usage, means using the least possible amount of material
by developing lean but strong product design. By optimising the volume and weight of
materials less energy is used during resource extraction, production, distribution and
storage. Reducing the weight means using less material and thus reducing resource
extraction which lowers the amount of energy, waste and environmental impact during
transportation. A reduction in volume leads to reduction in size of packaging and to
transportation of more products in a given transportation facility.
7.3.1.2 Pre-Manufacture (Product Design of Physical Qualities)
This product design phase is the most important stage as 80-90% of a product is
determined during this stage. Thus the potential to reduce the environmental impact is
highest in this stage.
Concepts applied in the product design and development phase should focus on basic
assumptions regarding the functions of a product, determining the end-users’ needs, and
how the specific product will meet end-users’ needs. The main emphasis of technologies
applied in this stage is on physical qualities to optimise product functions, improve product
reliability, durability and maintenance, modular product structure, and improve recovery,
reuse and recycling potential through design modifications and material substitution.
When analysing a product’s primary and secondary functions, designers may discover that
some components are superfluous. Integrating product functions or products into one
product may save material and energy by taking advantage of common components, by
using the same energy supplier, for example, combining a printer, fax, scanner and
photocopier whereas common components such as the printing mechanism, power supply
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and scanning assembly perform several different functions. In this way superfluous
components could be eliminated.
Increasing the reliability and the durability of products is a common task to product
developers. Methods such as Failure Mode and Effect Analysis enable designers and
engineers to develop sound products and to eliminate weak links. Reliability is defined as
“The probability that a product will perform its intended function in a given environment
and for a specified period of time, without failure” [89].
Maintainability is defined as “The measure of the ability of an item to be retained in or
restored to a specified condition when maintenance is performed by personnel having
specified skill levels, using prescribed procedures and resources, at each prescribed level
of maintenance and repair” [90]. The aim is to reduce possible damage to the product and/
or equipment during maintenance and service or to eliminate the need for maintenance and
thereby extend the life of the product.
Designing for upgradeability is becoming an important selling point for equipment where
technology is improving at a rapid rate. Computers are good examples where the choice of
a modular structure or adaptable product makes it possible to revitalise a product from a
technical or aesthetic point of view. This enables the product to keep pace with the
changing needs of the end-user. A modular structure allows the integration of a new
technology into an older product. A modular product may be upgraded several times over
its life span by replacing old modules with new ones. Use of a modular structure reduces
waste as new products need to be purchased less frequently.
The approaches summarised under the term optimisation of physical qualities focus on
enhancing a product’s
•• function,
•• technical life span, i.e., the time during which a product functions to specifications,
and
•• aesthetic life span, i.e., the time during which a user finds the product attractive
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Designers who balance and optimise the technical and aesthetic life-span requirements of a
product can reduce the energy and materials dedicated to these requirements. In some
cases, this means designing for a short life span, in others, for a long life span.
7.3.1.3 Production Processes
Optimising production processes lowers environmental impacts by minimising the use of
auxiliary materials and energy. Furthermore, optimising production should lead to reduced
raw material loss and low waste generation.
This approach represents the aims of Cleaner Production through process modifications
and improvements. It is an effective means to reduce pollution and can provide many
benefits by improving efficiency and reducing costly production downtime, and by
increasing regulatory compliance.
Process modifications and improvements can be realised by using alternative
manufacturing technologies which can help generate benefits of process optimisation,
quality control, energy conservation and preventive management. Reducing production
steps, using the lowest possible number of production techniques, and optimising the usage
of manufacturing consumables (using fewer and or cleaner consumables) results in further
improvements.
Optimising production processes to reduce the “non-product output” of waste and
emissions per production unit increases the efficiency of material use and decreases the
amount of material sent to a landfill. To achieve this objective, designers and engineers
should select shapes that eliminate processes such as sawing, turning, milling, pressing and
punching in order to reduce waste and look for opportunities to recycle manufacturing
residues in-house.
Optimising production processes also means optimising energy consumption by using
cleaner energy sources such as natural gas, wind, hydro or solar energy. Furthermore,
optimising energy consumption attempts to increase the efficiency with which energy is
used and to reduce the amount consumed at all stages of production [97].
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Together with reducing waste during production and establishing in-house recycling
programs, the re-design of parts/components is an additional, effective means of reducing
the use of auxiliary materials required for manufacturing processes.
7.3.1.4 Product Delivery
This consideration is needed to ensure that materials, components, and products are
transported from suppliers to the factory to the customer in the most efficient manner.
Optimising distribution systems involves consideration of packaging materials, modes of
transport, modes of storage and handling and logistics.
Reducing the quantity and weight of packaging, or by introducing take-back systems it is
feasible to lower resource use, energy use for transportation and produce less waste and
thereby cut costs as well. Packaging development should be considered separately from
product development as packages have their own life cycle with associated environmental
impacts. Thus, packaging engineers should also apply the concepts mentioned in this
chapter (e.g. optimise physical qualities, material usage, production, end of life).
7.3.1.5 Product Use
Many products consume considerable energy, water, and/or other consumables during their
life span and in maintenance and repair. Environmental analysis of durable products such
as washing machines show that the largest environmental impacts can come during the
use-phase of a product’s life cycle [94]. Therefore, designers and engineers should pay
greatest attention to the use phase for products such as domestic appliances, office
machinery and vehicles, as these products cause the most environmental damage during
this phase.
Design engineers should focus on applications that lead to lower, or more efficient, use of
consumables such as water, oil, filters and detergents. The reduction of consumables
should be applied along with the physical optimisation. Similar to packaging, consumables
and auxiliary products or materials should be regarded with their own life cycle. Thus, the
application of the strategies presented in this chapter can be applied for each consumable
or auxiliary product as well.
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Furthermore, the aim of the use optimisation is to lower the energy consumption and to use
more environmentally responsible energy sources. The use of cleaner energy sources can
reduce harmful emissions at the energy-generation stage, (especially for energy-intensive
products). In developing products, design engineers should consider to use the least
harmful energy sources and encourage the use of cleaner energy such as natural gas and
low-sulphur, coal, wind energy, hydro-electric power and solar energy. If the least harmful
energy source is not available, design engineers should try to find high-efficiency
alternatives.
7.3.1.6 Disposal, Recycling, Reuse (End of Life Systems)
The aim of optimising the end of life systems is to re-use valuable product parts and
components and ensure proper waste management. This concept involves reuse, design for
disassembly, product remanufacturing, material recycling and recovery and waste
treatment.
The optimum is to close the loop of manufacturing processes. Internal recycling involves
recycling of waste products, auxiliary materials, and other emissions within existing
manufacturing processes. The recycled waste could be used for different useful
applications or reintroduced in the same or a different manufacturing process [92]. If
internal recycling is not worthwhile, for example, because of a too small quantity of a
specific waste, external recycling could be an alternative.
Another way of closing the material flow loop leads to remanufacturing which provides a
means for recycling materials. Recycling may only be slightly more environmentally and
economically efficient than the disposal of waste. Reusing manufactured components
should be a more beneficial pathway, provided that those components, which would be
refurbished and/or partially rebuilt, can be reused in the manufacture of another product
[95, 96].
If a product or component is not reused, it should finally go through processes of material
recovery, energy recovery, and waste treatment.
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Waste treatment technologies concentrate on reducing the volume of waste materials or
convert waste into less mobile forms. In contrast, material recovery seeks to convert the
waste stemming from a product into a raw material that can be used as feedstock (material
recovery). In some cases, the recovered product may provide an energy source for power-
generation. Examples for material and energy recovery are thermal processes which can be
used for recovering minerals from waste streams and for recovering energy in the form of
steam or electricity [97].
Note that material recovery is only effective if it directly or indirectly reduces natural
resource consumption. In other words, the recovery process consumes less energy and
generates less waste than the extraction of the needed raw material [98].
The last step in the hierarchy of possible actions is the dumping of waste products on land,
making use of storage facilities, limiting leakage and the control of emission to
surrounding areas [92].
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7.3.2 Optimisation of Manufacturing Goals
As described in Chapter 3, this Thesis employs the Cleaner Production definition invented
by the UNEP as a framework. This definition refers to Cleaner Production as a conceptual
and procedural approach which considers the whole product or process life cycle and
attempts to prevent and minimise the short and long-term risk to humans and to the
environment.
The Cleaner Production Concept aims to consider all environmental problems relating to a
product system at the same time and in relation to each other. The effects of materials and
energy together with solid, liquid and gaseous wastes or residues are all considered
simultaneously. Thus for manufacturing processes, Cleaner Production means conserving
raw material and energy, eliminating toxic raw and auxiliary materials and reducing the
quantity and toxicity of emissions and wastes.
For products, it means reducing the environmental impacts of the product throughout its
life cycle, from raw material extraction, through to production and to ultimate disposal.
Through the application of a preventive environmental strategy to production processes
and products, Cleaner Production not only leads to a cleaner environment but also to
economic savings for industry [85]. At the simplest level, manufacturing companies need
to consider three sets of concerns to achieve the objectives of Cleaner Production (refer to
Figures. 6.3 and 7.1). These three goal areas may be stated as improving the input and
output elements of manufacturing processes in order to:
•• increase efficiency in material usage,
•• increase efficiency in energy and utilities usage, and
•• achieve reductions in waste generation
The first could be achieved by reducing the material usage and by substituting materials,
while in the case of the second, non-renewable energy should be replaced by renewable
energy sources and energy usage should be reduced. The third aims to reduce the waste
generation resulting from products and manufacturing processes.
These three main goals, however, should not be seen independently. Rather, they are inter-
related and influence each other in different ways. In some cases the accomplishment of
one goal helps to progress towards another and in some instances the opposite may occur.
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Material
Usage (M)
Waste (Residuals) Generation
(W)
For example, the reduction in material usage by designing thinner components could result
in a reduction in energy usage, whereas the recycling of a specific material may reduce the
raw material extraction but increase the energy usage.
Many design and manufacturing systems and technologies exist which offer a pathway for
manufacturers to produce environmentally friendly products. By using these systems and
technologies to achieve one goal, manufacturers should make progress towards the other
two goals as well or at least aim not to take retrograde steps in terms of the other goals.
Figure 7.1 - Goals of Environmental Design and Manufacturing
Cleaner Production requires the consideration of the entire life cycle of a product and/or of
a process. Thus the three environmental goals above should be taken into account in every
stage of the relevant product life cycle.
Energy Usage
(E)
Reductions
in
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7.3.3 Categories of Cleaner Production Technologies
Cleaner Production techniques are consistent with LCM for Environmental Design and
Manufacturing, and together with Assessment Tools (refer Figure 7.3), they form Tool
Categories for the Tool-kit; a general set of techniques and approaches with which
particular technologies are associated are described in Figure 7.2: [97].
Figure 7.2 - Cleaner Production Techniques and Approaches
•• Reduction at Source: Material Substitution - substitution is an approach to replace
or eliminate hazardous and toxic materials. Furthermore substitution can result in
the use of recyclable materials in place of non-recyclables.
•• Reduction at Source: Design change - when new products are introduced, often
with a wholly new manufacturing process – or when current products are
redesigned, many opportunities exist for cleaner production techniques to be
applied.
Cleaner Production techniques for product design include incremental changes in
materials to replace packaging or components that produce waste problems,
maximisation of the scope for recycling and reuse of products and packaging; and
improvements in the energy use efficiency of the product (Refer to Section 7.3.1).
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•• Reduction at Source: Process Change - Another procedural approach to implement
Cleaner Production is the change of manufacturing processes by good
housekeeping or by changing the process technology.
At the simplest level, Cleaner Production can involve housekeeping changes such
as careful maintenance to avoid waste through leaks or unnecessary repetition of
process activities (such as cleaning of components), improved usage of water,
solvents, degreasers, oil/lubricants, abrasives, solders and cutting tools [99].
This approach also involves changing existing process technologies, for instance
replacing process techniques to reduce later waste and risk. A radical redesign of
manufacturing processes may be considered in exceptional circumstances for
existing products, but major changes are more likely when a new plant is built to
make new products [91].
Process changes include process, equipment, piping, and/or layout changes and
changes in operational settings which reduce environmental impact. Such
improvements may involve the introduction of automation and may require a large
capital outlay [92, 93].
•• Closed Loop: On-site recycling - Finally, by closing the loop, manufacturing
processes approach to the overall objective of zero emissions. Closed loop systems
include recycling, material recovery and remanufacturing technologies.
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7.4 From Operational Strategies to Systems and Technologies
Once Operational or Cleaner Production Strategies are developed as described in Chapter
6, design and manufacturing managers and engineers face the problem of how to
implement them in an optimum manner. Optimisation requires not only the considerations
described in 7.3.1.1 - 7.3.1.6 but the realisation that strategies may overlap and influence
one another and thus may not be able to be approached independently. Similarly, managers
and engineers should have regard for the effect of their technology and systems selection
on the entire product life cycle.
7.4.1 Categories of Tools
To date a large range of systems and technologies have been used to address environmental
problems and this trend can be expected to continue. A set of Cleaner Production
categories and a classification of techniques is used in the design of the Tool-kit (refer
section 7.3.3 and Figure 7.3) in the form of a general set of techniques and approaches with
which particular technologies are associated [90,91,92,93]. The Cleaner Production
categories are linked with operational strategies through LCM functions, as described in
section 6.3 and Figure 6.4, enabling managers and engineers to select systems and
technologies according to specific operational conditions.
This description of the Tool-kit categories follows. The LCM functions of Environmental
Design and Environmental Manufacturing may be related to Cleaner Production categories
as shown in Figure 7.3.
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Resource ExtractionResource Extraction
Pre-ManufacturePre-Manufacture
ProductionProcessesProductionProcesses
Product DeliveryProduct Delivery
Product UseProduct Use
End of LifeSystems
End of LifeSystems
LCM – EnvironmentalDesign and Manufacturing
Goals(section 7.3.1-2)
LCM – EnvironmentalDesign and Manufacturing
Goals(section 7.3.1-2)
Material SubstitutionMaterial Substitution
Design ChangeDesign Change
Technology ChangeTechnology Change
Closed Loop SystemClosed Loop System
Cleaner Production Categories
– Technology Options(section 7.3.3)
Cleaner Production Categories
– Technology Options(section 7.3.3)
Assessment ToolsAssessment Tools
Figure 7.3 – Design and Manufacturing Goals and Cleaner Production Categories
Depending on the industry sector and the technologies of a manufacturing enterprise, CP
categories could be extended or limited. In the following pages, the Tool-kit refers to the
five Cleaner Production categories listed in Figure 7.3
To determine the optimum solution for Cleaner Production, every product life cycle stage
should be assessed considering each goal. For this reason the Assessment Tools category is
added to the categories presented in section 7.3.3. A description of the proposed Cleaner
Production categories follows:
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1. Assessment technologies within the Assessment Tools category enable managers
and engineers to investigate a specific environmental problem resulting from a
product, a process or a service perspective. The environmental problem could refer
to insufficient compliance with regulations, stricter social requirements or to a
strategic specification of the environmental goals set up by the company. The
purpose of the assessment is to determine their environmental impact (e.g. in
comparison to a reference product) and to identify potential improvements.
Furthermore, the Assessment Tools can assist the selection between several
alternatives. This category includes software tools, checklists and assessment
methodologies.
By using appropriate feedback managers and engineers could focus on product life
cycle stages with the highest environmental impact and limit assessment tools and
methods to these identified stages.
2. Material Substitution aims to avoid hazardous and non-recyclable materials. This
category consists of technologies such as material databases, material lists, and
negative lists (list of materials which should not be used) enabling managers and
engineers to eliminate hazardous and toxic materials and non-recyclable materials.
The purpose of improving the efficiency of resource use is to reduce the material
and energy demand and waste generation. This purpose can be achieved by
categories three and four, respectively, changing the product design and/ or by
changing manufacturing processes.
3. Design Change offers technologies which tend to improve product characteristics
in terms of environmental impacts such as recycling potential, choice of
manufacturing processes, distribution and usage. This category includes checklists
for design considerations, software tools for product development and design
technologies for testing the manufacture and usage of products.
4. Process Change consists of technologies concerning processes, equipment and/or
layout changes and changes in operational settings. The purpose of these
technologies is to reduce the environmental impact stemming from manufacturing.
These include resource extraction, manufacturing processes, distribution systems,
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usage (including maintenance and service), and end of life systems (including
waste treatment, incineration and disposal techniques).
Most of the technologies in the fourth category also aim to close material cycles.
5. Closed Loop System is added which follows the overall objective of Cleaner
Production: zero emission. This category consists of recycling, remanufacturing
and recovering technologies.
Beyond these consideration are external recycling, waste treatment and disposal, they
are not considered here as technologies as they are of End of Pipe treatments, however,
they could be included in the categories Process Change and/or Closed loop System.
As the operational strategies may aim to fulfil one or more environmental goals, managers
and engineers need to select systems and technologies accordingly. Therefore, systems and
technologies within each category will further be coded with an M, for reducing,
substituting or eliminating materials, an E for reducing, substituting or eliminating energy
or utilities use and a W, for reducing or eliminating waste generation (Refer to figure 7.1).
This indication signals if a specific system or technology impacts one, two or all three
environmental goals.
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Figure 7.4 - Relationship between Technologies and Accomplishment of Goals
7.4.2 The Classification Matrix
The combination of product life cycle stages and Cleaner Production Categories leads to
the classification matrix (see fig. 7.5). The matrix consists of 30 cells to which systems and
technologies can be allocated. The number of technology cells can vary as companies can
adjust both the product life cycle and the Cleaner Production categories relating to their
individual purposes.
For each industry sector such as metal, plastic, chemistry, pulp and paper, food,
pharmaceutical, and electronic industries, a classification matrix could be set up containing
appropriate technologies.
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Figure 7.5 - Classification Matrix for Design and Manufacturing Technologies.
The classification matrix consists of technology cells indicated with two coordinates where
the first number stands for the category and the second number for the product life cycle
stage. Some technologies can be applied in every life cycle stage and managers and
engineers might be interested in technologies for the whole life cycle. As such, the
classification matrix further includes the cells 1.0 to 5.0 in which such technologies will be
allocated relating to one of the five categories (the zero refers to all life cycle stages in this
case). In addition, technologies can be allocated to several life cycle stages or to several
categories such as software tools with functions for materials selection and product design
considerations.
The classification matrix enables managers and engineers to limit their search for
appropriate technologies by choosing the Cleaner Production category and by selecting
product life cycle stages which should be improved.
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7.4.3 Linking Technology Cells to Technologies
Each technology cell of the classification matrix leads to a technology list. Depending on
the industry sector and the company’s unique needs, these lists can further be categorised
so that each cell provides the user with a comprehensive overview of technologies:
Figure 7.6 - Link between the Classification Matrix and Technology Lists.
Technology lists contain information about the industry sector, the category and the
product life cycle stage. The main part of the lists is divided in n sub-categories to which
technologies are assigned. The sub-categories can be indicated with a third number.
This identification of technologies gives managers and engineers the ability to pre-select
appropriate technologies. By choosing one of the documented technologies, managers and
engineers get to a technology page which includes detailed information and further
sources. The heading of technology pages includes additional information about the sub-
category and the name of the technology.
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The classification matrix for Cleaner Production technologies presents a general
framework for the Tool-kit which can serve as a basis for specific applications. Once, the
design and manufacturing goals and the Cleaner Production categories are nominated
retrieval of the appropriate technologies from the Tool-kit is automatic.
7.4.4 Implementing and Maintaining the Tool-kit
The detailed development of the Cleaner Production Tool-kit for environmental systems
and technologies is not part of this Thesis but some possible options are examined.
Using computer technology, one approach could be to design a web-site where users can
access technology lists by clicking on the appropriate technology cells. As a next step,
users could obtain more information about individual technologies by clicking on them.
The framework of the classification matrix would be converted by using a tree structure
where the first level refers to the product life cycle and the second lever refers to the
categories. Furthermore, each category should be divided according to the sub-categories
in which the technology information sheets would be uploaded.
A more convenient solution would be to design a database to avoid redundant information
storage. Designing a database should be considered carefully, as this solution is more cost
intensive and requires more time. A database should be designed if the technologies exceed
a number where the administrative overhead is otherwise excessive.
Once the Tool-kit is developed, it is the task of the developer to ensure that it is maintained
and populated with technologies. To maintain valid classifications, specialist skills for the
selection of appropriate content and for the technical support need to be maintained to
ensure up-to-date information about environmental technology options.
Some ideas for how to identify, analyse, select and provide information about technologies
include:
1. Research and Information Gathering
Monitoring technical developments to identify emerging and new technologies is the
first and most important task in maintaining the Tool-kit. Information about emerging
environmental technologies could be gathered from scientific journals, web sites,
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expert forums or networks and national and international departments for
environmental issues such as the US EPA, UNEP, OECD and the Frauhofer Institute.
2. Analysing Technologies
Selected systems and technologies for Cleaner Production need to be analysed in terms
of the criteria needed for classifying and describing them. These criteria include
•• the industry sectors in which the system or technology could be applied,
•• the Cleaner Production category and the appropriate sub-category,
•• the product life cycle stages in which the system or technology could be
applied,
•• the purpose of the system or technology,
•• the contribution to accomplish the three environmental goals,
•• the development status of the system or technology which could be
embryonic, emerging or mature,
•• a concise description of the system or technology,
•• sources for further information, and
•• experience with previous applications if possible.
3. Summarising the Results of Step 2
Having finished step 2, the results of the analysis should be structured and summarised
in an information sheet for technologies:
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Figure 7.7 - Information Sheet for Technologies.
4. Sharing and Using Information about Technologies
Once the contents are revised and accepted for the information sheet for technologies,
information is made available for managers and engineers by, for example, uploading it
to the web-site. It is now possible to search for and select technologies according to the
criteria described previously.
5. Collecting Experience about Applied Technologies
After applying selected technologies, managers and engineers should summarise their
experience and the achieved results and share this information by adding it to the
information sheet (experience of previous application, see Figure 7.7).
Some examples for subdividing the Cleaner Production categories follow in section 7.5
and a selection of environmental systems and technologies for several sub-categories is
presented to illustrate the classification of environmental systems and technologies.
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7.5 Classifying Environmental Technologies
7.5.1 Technologies within the Assessment Tools Category
Most technologies in this category evaluate the whole life cycle of a product or a process.
Nevertheless, they can be applied for individual stages. Assessment technologies could be
classified in the sub-categories technical, economical and integration of technical and
economical aspects, whereas this Thesis focuses on the technical aspect.
Van Berkel et al. propose to classify assessment technologies in inventory, improvement,
prioritisation and management tools whereas each category could be further subdivided in
product and process oriented tools [16, 17].
Tischner et al. propose a similar categorisation in tools for environmental analysis,
creativity techniques, setting priorities/decision making and cost accounting [18]. These
categories could yield a more detailed allocation of technologies, but it seems to
complicate a clear classification as most technologies for analysing a problem can also be
applied to generate improvement ideas and to assist in selecting between several
alternatives.
Moreover most assessment tools and methods are designed in such a manner that they can
be used for the evaluation of products and processes. However, the categorisation may
differ from case to case. This Thesis refers to the sub-categories technical, economical and
integration of technical and economical aspects as these sub-categories apply for every
product life cycle stage.
Table 7.1 shows a technology list for the assessment category, cell 1.0. As mentioned
earlier, this category includes technologies which consider every product life cycle stage.
Additionally, there are assessment tools which focus on specific life cycle stages such as
SWAMI and PEMS (see appendix A). SWAMI focuses on the life cycle stage production
and is a software tool using process analysis for identifying waste minimisation and
pollution prevention opportunities within industrial settings. PEMS is a Life Cycle
Assessment software that focuses on the distribution phase. The inventory includes
materials, energy, transportation and waste management information.
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1.0 Industry Sector: All
Category: assessment technology Product Life Cycle: all
1.0.1 Sub-category: technical aspect
ABC analysis W
CED (Cumulative Energy Demand) Analysis E
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) M E W
Material and Energy Balance M E W
Material Flow Accounting/Analysis (MFA) M W
MET (Material, Energy, Toxic) Matrix M E W
1.0.2 Sub-category: economical aspect
Total cost accounting
Life cycle costing
1.0.3 Sub-category: integration of technical and economical aspects
Ecodesign Matrix M E W
EcoDesign Portfolio M E W
Environmental Quality Function Deployment M E W
Table 7.1- Technology List for Assessment Tools and Methods.
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The technologies listed in Table 7.1 are explained in Appendix A. Further assessment
technologies can be found in Brezet and van Hemel, van Berkel et al., Tischner et al. and
Simon et al. [100 - 104]. As an example, this is the information sheet for the MET matrix:
1.0.1 MET (Material, Energy, Toxicity) Matrix
Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all
Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect
Purpose of the technology: A MET matrix is based on an input/output analysis of
materials, energy, and toxicity. It is used as a tool to take stock of the most important
environmental aspects of a product with minimum efforts.
Accomplishment of goals: all
Development status: mature
Description: The matrix combines an input-output model with the product life cycle. For
each product life cycle stage information related to the items materials, energy, and
toxicity are collected and presented in a simple matrix. If quantitative data is missing, the
results can be based on an interpretation of qualitative statements. The matrix can also be
used for weak-point analysis and identification of potential environmental improvements.
The three categories of environmental concerns are distinguished as follows:
1. Materials cycle: environmental concerns regarding nature and amount of resource
consumption and waste generation.
2. Energy use: energy used in each phase of the life cycle of the product.
3. Toxic emissions: toxic emissions to water, air, and soil.
The MET matrix can provide Managers and Engineers with as much data and information
as possible about a product’s environmental aspects in a systematic and clearly arranged
way.
Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, 1997 [19].
Experience of previous application:
Table 7.2 - Information Sheet for the MET Matrix.
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7.5.2 Technologies within the Material Substitution Category
The Material Substitution category consists of technologies enabling managers and
engineers to select environmentally benign materials for the manufacture of products.
These technologies include databases, software tools, checklists and handbooks.
Sub-categorisation depends on the life cycle phase. As an example, a suggestion for the
phases resource extraction and production is given below. The resource extraction phase
could be sub-divided in the main raw material groups depending on the industry. For
example, for the metal industry the sub-categories are ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
for the plastic industry thermoplastics, thermosets and elastomers [105].
Additionally, a sub-category “general” is proposed as most of the databases and software
tools consider all material groups. IdeMat is a powerful software tool for material
selections in the design process which meets all these criteria and thus it can be allocated to
the sub-category, general (see Appendix B). Another example for this sub-category is
materials checklists that provide information for designers, which materials should not be
used to comply with regulations and/ or company policy (see Appendix B).
Furthermore, most of the software tools for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), such as
SimaPro, include databases for material selection so that they can also be applied for
Material Substitution (compare references mentioned in Appendix A, LCA).
As another example, a sub-categorisation for the production phase is given. During the
manufacture of products auxiliary materials such as lubricants, solvents and coatings are
used. Therefore cell 2.2, Material Substitution during production, can be subdivided
relating to the auxiliary material groups. Table 7.3 gives a model technology list.
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2.2 Industry Sector: All
Category: material substitution Product Life Cycle: production
2.2.1 Coatings
CAGE M W
2.2.2 Solvents
PARIS II M E W
SAGE M W
2.2.3 Lubricants
Table 7.3 - Technology List 2.2 for Material Substitution during Production
The technology information sheets to the technologies listed in table 7.3 are presented in
appendix B.
7.5.3 Technologies within the Design Change Category
The Design Change category includes among others design checklists and software tools.
In general, design checklists consider every life cycle stage. An example for a design
checklist is given by the Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance [106]. The
checklist is associated with the product design matrix developed by Graedel and Allenby
[107] and enables a product design team to determine the environmental impact of a
product.
Software design tools can be classified in the sense of DFX for each life cycle stage. For
example, the production phase can be divided into the sub-categories Design for Assembly
(DFA) and Design for Manufacturing. Table 7.4 shows an example for the technology list
according to the cell 3.2.
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3.2 Industry Sector: All
Category: design change Product Life Cycle: production
3.2.1 Design for Assembly (DFA)
BDI – DFA Software M E W
LASeR M E W
PRICE Systems M E W
3.2.2 Design for Manufacturing (DFM)
BDI – DFM Software M E W
PRICE Systems M W
Table 7.4 - Technology List 3.2 for Design Change during Production
The technologies listed in Table 7.4 are described in Appendix C which also includes
examples for software tools for the use phase such as BDI – DFS software and LASeR,
which could be divided into the sub-categories Design for Serviceability (DFS) and Design
for Maintenance (DFM), and the end of life phase such as BDI – DFE software and
euroMat, which could be subdivided into Design for Recycleability and Design for
Disassembly or End of Life (DFD).
7.5.4 Technologies within the Process Change Category
This category consists of technologies such as process techniques, including equipment
and changes in operational settings which reduce the environmental impact during the
manufacture of products. Environmental technologies in this field can be allocated
according to each product life cycle stage. In the following, the phases resource extraction
and production are discussed in more detail for the metal industry sector.
Technologies for resource extraction can be divided in the sub-categories ferrous and non-
ferrous metals as described. Dry quenching is an example for a technology allocated to the
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sub-category ferrous metals. The purpose of this technique is to reduce emissions from
coking operations (see Appendix D).
For the production phase, technologies can be subdivided according to the DIN standards,
DIN 8580, into primary shaping, metal forming, cutting, joining, coating and changing of
material properties (see fig. 7.8). Each of these groups can be further subdivided according
to the DIN standards. Additionally to the DIN standards, a sub-category ‘removal of paint
and coating’ is proposed as these techniques are often associated with high environmental
impacts [108]. As an example, the third group, cutting, will be discussed in more detail.
Fig. 7.8 - Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Cutting can be divided into the sub-categories severing (DIN 8588), machining with
geometrically well-defined tool edges (DIN 8589 Part 0), machining with geometrically
undefined tool edges (DIN 8589 Part 0), chipless machining (DIN 8590), disassembly
(DIN 8591) and cleaning and evacuation (DIN 8592). Table 7.5 shows an exemplary
technology list for the classification of manufacturing technologies.
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4.2 Industry Sector: metal
Category: process change Product Life Cycle: production
4.2.3 Sub-category: cutting
4.2.3.1 Severing
4.2.3.2 Machining with geometrically well-defined tool edges
Dry machining M W
4.2.3.3 Machining with geometrically undefined tool edges
Dry machining M W
4.2.3.4 Chipless machining
4.2.3.5 Disassembly
4.2.3.6 Cleaning and Evacuation
Completely Enclosed Vapour Cleaner (CEVC) W
Vacuum Furnace M W
4.2.7 Sub-category: Removal of Paint and Coating
Plastic media blasting (PMB) M E W
High pressure water blasting M W
Table 7.5 - Technology List 4.2 for Process Changes during Production
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The technology information sheets for the listed technologies in table 7.5 can be found in
Appendix D. Further technologies can be found in Randall, Eversheim et al. and Higgins
[108-110].
7.5.5 Technologies within the Closed Loop System Category
The fifth category consists of technologies such as recycling, remanufacturing, and
recovery.
The category can be divided into similar sub-categories as the category Material
Substitution. In the metal industry sector, this leads to sub-categories such as recycling
systems for residues stemming from making ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals
(resource extraction phase). For the production phase, Closed Loop Systems and
Technologies can be divided into sub-categories related to recycling systems needed for
auxiliary material groups like metalworking fluids (lubricants), solvents, cleaners and
coatings.
In the resource extraction phase, for example, slag generated from blast furnaces during the
iron-making operations is typically disposed of as solid waste instead of being reused.
However, slag can be rapidly cooled down and granulated under controlled conditions for
use in cement. Furthermore, blast furnace slag is used in the manufacture of cement
clinker, ceramic wares, glazed tiles, roofing, tiles, glass, and slag wood [111]. Besides the
environmental benefits, it has been shown that using a mixture of 3 to 4% granulated slag
in raw materials reduces energy consumption by 6 to 7% and increases productivity by 10
to 20% in the glass manufacturing process [112].
In the case of metalworking fluids, reconditioning waste consists of removing impurities
such as dirt, metals, or bacteria. Next, to restore the fluid to its near-original condition
concentrates and individual constituents such as surfactants, bactericides, emulsifiers,
conditioners, antioxidants, or other can be added which make the fluid effective in
metalworking operations. Before requiring reconditioning, many metalworking fluids can
be reused for months or even years. Higgins and Drake present a range of recycling
systems for metalworking fluids [113].
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CHAPTER 8
MEASURING PERFORMANCE (Stage 6)
8.1 The Need for Indicators
The earlier comments regarding the status of industrial environmental management also
apply to the area of environmental performance measures. Much has been written without
achieving standardisation in the form of easily understood and readily implementable
performance measures within manufacturing firms. As before, a variety of terms and ideas
have been used and promoted including goals, themes, indicators, indices and metrics. It is
generally agreed this too is still in an embryonic stage of development. Serious explorations
began in the late 1980s [113], and out of the many ideas the two terms which stand out as
most practicable for the purposes of this work are indicators and metrics.
Figure 8.1 – Development of Indicators and Indices [114]
Figure 8.1 has been used for the development of Sustainability measures thus providing
both a convenient starting point and the ready acceptance of the term Indicators, with the
definition that Indicators are measurable aspects of an enterprise that provide summarised
information on how it is performing [115]. Indicators in this field have more recently
increasingly been referred to as Environmental Performance Indicators (EPIs), and there
Indicators
Models
Indices
Statistics
Raw Data
Levels of aggregation
Engineers
Primary Users Management
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have been attempts to link EPIs with Industrial Ecology as Eco-efficiency metrics with the
objectives of:
•• performance evaluation – program effectiveness
•• management feedback - encouraging, assisting and rewarding implementation
The pursuit of effective metrics in this work is consistent with trends evolving in the last
decade, when performance measures became an integral part of manufacturing
management. Today’s measures range from strategic to operational, individual to process,
global to local and so on. It is therefore considered a reasonable proposition that if Cleaner
Production strategies and tactics are to be integrated with other existing processes within
the firm, there should exist a corresponding set of metrics. It is recognised, however, that
an unlimited number and types of measures are easily developed to suit a given
organisation and set of circumstances, hence the task is to develop a set of guidelines for
general use which is consistent with the aims of the proposed methodology.
8.2 Required Characteristics
Traditionally, performance measures were productivity measures which in turn evolved
into feedback with respect to competitive priorities (operations strategies) and effectively
became performance measures for managers controlling these processes [116].
Corporations, as their environmental management practices evolve, are acquiring direct
experience with such measures. R.J. Eaton of DaimlerChrysler writes “Success depends on
having the correct set of metrics in place to gauge our progress in meeting our business
objectives, and we include our environmental responsibilities as part of those objectives”
[117].
In an Australian Government publication [118] it is stated that “It is important to make a
distinction between the effects of the organisation’s operational activities, and the activities
which are the actual business of the organisation. It should be relatively straightforward to
report the former but may be more difficult to report the latter”. To achieve the aims of
this Thesis there should be an attempt to do both.
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Most Environmental Performance Indicators (EPIs) track non-strategic and non-
performance based factors such as emissions, recycling and waste. Integration of EPIs with
business indicators is still relatively rare [119]. Having selected a framework for this Thesis
and having focused on a finite number of concepts and disciplines a first attempt will be
made in this Chapter to develop measurement guidelines for both performance and impact.
As an initial step it is proposed that metrics have the key characteristics to:
•• address informational needs at all levels in the enterprise with respect to the
effectiveness of internal processes
•• provide feedback for improvements
•• measure environmental performance
The selected indicators must have sufficient breadth to cover all the Cleaner Production
issues yet be concise enough to report against specific targets. Table 8.1 attempts to
summarise the required general characteristics [120]:
11.. Strategic relevance
- indicators should be easy to interpret
- they should refer to specific objectives or targets
- they should be able to be charted for trends if required
- they should be changeable as circumstances change
2. Technical soundness
- indicators should be based on cleaner production principles
- they should be capable of being benchmarked against best practice
- they should adopt new CP, IE., and LCM concepts as they emerge
3. Implementation application
- indicators should be based on readily available realistic data
- they should avoid unnecessary complexity
- they are likely to require frequent updating and maintenance
Table 8.1 – General Characteristics of Indicators/Metrics
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In this Thesis, reporting for external use is not considered, frameworks for reporting as part
of an Environmental Management System exist elsewhere [121], for such metrics are
strategic only to the extent that they are due diligence orientated, that is, responsive to legal
and other external influences. The industry centric issues for tracking environmental
performance of [122]:
•• compliance with regulatory statutes and covenants
•• achievement or strengthening competitive advantage, and
•• improvement of corporate stewardship or citizenship and reputation
should be addressed as part of strategic planning in which case the characteristic in Table
8.1 address such needs.
Since most metrics developed to date focus on environmental burdens and Eco-efficiency
concerns [122], the task is to build on these attempts to extend the use of metrics to include
Sustainability, hence a wider range of issues. In developing appropriate metrics for
industry, it may be useful to understand some of the apparent reasons for lack of
standardised industry centric measures from the literature:
•• the larger corporations only are in a position to devote adequate resources to the
development of metrics, their efforts are not readily visible externally
•• attempts to include Sustainability and Industrial Ecology concerns in metrics leads
to complexities and a proliferation of indicators due to the considerable difficulty in
assessing the synergy between industrial activity and their impact on the
anthroposphere
•• lack of “best practices” data bases for benchmarking
•• environmental metrics are not yet viewed as essential, the way the types of
performance measures are used in industry for assessing achievements against
strategies, projects and on-going activities, whether linked to strategies or
otherwise.
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8.3 Process Performance Measures
1. Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1)
An outcome of any strategic planning process is objectives setting targets. Hence a
simple Sustainability indicator at the strategic level would be the extent to which
objectives are achieved.
Quantitative improvement achieved (actuals) x 100 = % of strategic Target as per Sustainability strategic objective achieved objective
For example, let us say that for a given enterprise the strategic objective is to reduce
energy consumption across the firm for the next five years by X%. An annual
Sustainability indicator for this strategic objective could be:
% reduction in total energy usage per annum (actual) x 100 = % of target reduction Target % reduction for the year achieved
As a general guide, Indicators could be linked to the drivers for Sustainability in
Figure 5.2 referred to as the “Forces of Change”:
•• compliance with legislation
•• exploitation of new opportunities
•• strengthening of competitive advantage (costs)
•• improvement in corporate citizenship/image
•• meeting external (business and society) needs and wants
2. Business Planning (Stage 2)
Similarly, assessment of performance against business plans could result in a similar
simple indicator measuring the extent to which objectives are achieved.
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%age reduction in total energy expenditure per annum (actual) x 100 = % of target Target % reduction for the year savings achieved
Quantitative improvement achieved (actuals) for a product or process x 100 = % of strategic Target as per Cleaner Production objective achieved Strategic objective
%age reduction in energy usage for a product or process per annum x 100 = % of target Target % reduction for the year savings achieved
Financial benefits achieved (actuals) x 100 = % achievement Target as per Eco-efficiency strategic objective
Using the same example, the Eco-efficiency indicator in this case would become:
3. Operations Planning (Stage 3)
Measuring the performance of the Operations Planning process is also similar to the
other levels except:
•• metrics may be for an individual product or process
•• time horizons and periods may be shorter
a. Performance against objectives
Using the example of energy reductions, cascading from the strategic and business
plans, the Indicator measures the achievement against the objectives set by
management:
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b. Performance over time
As an alternative or to complement the single indicator in a. above, values could be
graphed as a form of time series analysis against a baseline as illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Cleaner Production Strategy - process performance indicator
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
months
Cum
ulat
ive
Ene
rgy
Usa
geR
educ
tions
(%)
Target Actual
Figure 8.2 - Cleaner Production Strategic Planning Process Measurement
4. Linkages (Stage 4)
In Chapter 5 the concept of how to link Cleaner Production strategies with execution
using Industrial Ecology and Life Cycle Management principles was developed. Due
to both of the breadth of these bodies of knowledge and the fact that they are in their
infancy simple metrics to measure the effectiveness of these linkages have yet to
evolve. It is suggested that post-implementation benchmarking against “best practice”
be attempted to assess the relative effectiveness of the process by collecting industry
data for comparisons (refer to Figure 8.3). This type of data would not generally be
available at present but as the uptake of IE and LCM increases in industry, data
should become increasingly available. The benchmarking envisaged would help
evaluate the direction and scope of the approaches selected in terms of:
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•• number of stages in the life cycle impacted
•• degree to which the firm’s evolution was advanced
•• professional competence in selecting IE sciences and technologies
•• functional impact
1. Resource Extraction
2. Premanufacture
3. ProcessSelection
4. Conversion
5. Manufacturing Support Processes
6. Product Delivery
8. Disposal, Recycling,Reuse
LCM
•Design for Environment
• Environmental Purchasing
• Environmental Manufacturing
• Environmental Distribution
• Environmental Marketing
7. Product Use
Figure 8.3 – Measuring the Linking Process
5. Technology and systems (Stage 5)
Unlike the measurement of the previous stages, metrics for this stage are
straightforward as they are the same as measuring the outcome of any technical
project, that is, assessing the deliverables against project goals.
Benchm
arking Studies against best practice
Life Cycle Stages 1-8
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Tonnes of Material Used Tonne of Product Produced
Quantity of Energy or Water
Tonne of Product Produced
Quantity of each type of Residue Tonne of Product Produced
8.4 Environmental Performance Measures
1. Corporate Strategic Planning (Stage 1)
At this highest level, Sustainability indicators are based on aggregates of information
pertaining to impacts on the environment of corporate strategies. Thus they reflect the
returns on effort by the firm and company managers towards improvements in
industrial environmental management performance [123].
These measures are difficult to standardise as each measure is linked to a unique
strategy. It can however be expected that they are unlikely to be Absolute Indicators,
that is, typically single figures of total resource use, residues and wastes, rather they
are more likely to be Relative Indicators such as production or service specific ratios,
energy and water quotas, material ratios and emission quotas as indicated in Table
8.4. [124]
Figure 8.4 – Corporate Environmental Performance Measures
22.. Business Planning (Stage 2)
Eco-efficiency Indicators are concerned with reporting the results of resources and
residues reductions relative to the dollars invested. Adapting Figure 8.4 for the
purpose, examples of these measures may appear as in Table 8.5:
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Value of Material Reductions ($) Investments in Performance Improvements ($)
Value of Energy or Water Reductions ($)
Investments in Performance Improvements ($) Value of Reductions of each type of Residue ($)
Investments in Performance Improvements ($)
Figure 8.5 – Eco-efficiency Environmental Performance Measures
3. Operations Planning (Stage 3)
The aim of operational indicators is to measure environmental impact in terms of
inputs and outputs of materials, energy/utilities and residues. Potentially there could
be any number of such measures, the following are some examples:
Material consumption
•• Quantity of materials (raw or packaging) used per product
•• Quantity of processed, recycled, re-engineered or reused materials used
per product or process
•• Quantity of packaging materials discarded per product or process
•• Quantity of waste generated by product or process
Energy/Utilities
•• Quantity of each type of energy used
•• Quantity of non-renewable energy used per product or period
•• Quantity of water per unit of product
•• Quantity of water used not recycled
Residues
•• Quantity of solid and liquid waste for disposal by product or period
•• Quantity of hazardous of wastes by process or period
•• Quantity of specific emissions by product, process and period
•• Quantity of air emissions with climate changing potential
Figure 8.6 – Cleaner Production Environmental Performance Measures [122]
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4. Linkages (Stage 4)
As noted, the breadth and newness of IE and LCM result in a dearth of indicators. One
useful approach from the literature is The AT&T Materials Matrix system [125], (refer to
. This approach takes both a life cycle and a systems approach consistent with the two
bodies of knowledge and attempts to develop a workable methodology. The matrix
approach is both qualitative and quantitative thus requiring assessments. It appears
simplistic but it is a useful tool in evaluating complex systems involved in industrial
activities.
The technique uses a 5 x 5 assessment matrix, one axis representing the generic life cycle
of a material, product or process and is varied accordingly. The other axis uses 5
categories of environmental concerns.
Ecological/ biological impacts
Energy use
Solid residues
Liquid residues
Gaseous residues
Initial production/processing
Secondary production/processing
Application: manufacturing stage
Application: usage stage
Disposal; recycle
Figure 8.7 –AT&T Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology
The industry ecology assessor studies the object of the assessment and assigns ratings
ranging from 0 (poor) to 4 (low environmental impact) thus the overall maximum rating
for the 25 matrix elements is 100. This type assessment underpinned by detailed
checklists [126] is familiar to engineers thus avoiding potential complexities. The
approach is semi-quantitative by design in response to the conundrum of indicators that
are able to quantify environmental impacts.
Lif
ecyc
le s
tage
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On completion of the assessment the main uses are cited as:
•• ranking of the material, product or process studied
•• improvement analyses
For the purposes of this work the Matrix could be adapted to the Life Cycle stages and
environmental concerns headings used previously, as in Figure 8.8, and the information
obtained from this process could be linked to the Cleaner Production strategy which
initiated the linkage in the first place. Any conclusions should include the extent to which
the linkage supported the achievement of the strategy.
Environmental Concern
Residues (Wastes) (W)
Material impacts
(M)
Energy Impacts
(W) Solid Liquid Gaseous
Pre-Manufacture
Resource Extraction
Production Processes
Product Delivery
Disposal; recycle
Disposal, Recycling, Reuse
Figure 8.8 - Performance Measure for Industrial Ecology adapted from The AT&T
Materials Matrix system
5. Technology and systems (Stage 5)
Chapter 7 describes a classification system (Tool-kit) for design and manufacturing
technologies. The aim of the Tool-kit is to provide managers and engineers with a
method for choosing systems and technologies to achieve strategic objectives, related to
the three environmental goals; after applying selected systems and technologies,
Lif
ecyc
le s
tage
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managers and engineers should have the means to evaluate the environmental
performance of system and technology projects.
The environmental performance improvements from systems and technologies are
decided by the company’s choice of approach and after setting project objectives. A
simple procedure to measure the performance of new applied systems and technologies
may be achieved through comparison to previous performance.
The relative value changes are calculated for each selected system or technology to be
measured by dividing a selected environmental performance value calculated before
applying a new technology by its value after applying the technology. Examples of such
values could be the ISO14031 measures of:
•• Materials – Quantity of materials used per unit of production
•• Energy - Quantity of energy used per unit of production
•• Residues - Quantity of waste used per unit of production
or their MEPI equivalents (material, energy and waste intensity measures) [127].
For calculating the percentage change, the calculated ratio is multiplied by 100 which
yields the percentage change.
Values measured before applying a technology – x 100 = %.
Values measured after applying the technology
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8.5 Summary
Table 8.2 summarises the disparate indicators so that they may be viewed as a whole.
Company Material, Energy/Utility & Residue performance quantified
Percentage of essential summarised information provided
• Indicators -Feedback
Incremental improvements
Achievement of project objectives
• Systems and Technologies - Projects
Matrix analysisBenchmarking by lifecycle & functional area
• LCM/IE - Links
Consumption & residue aggregates by product/process
Achievement of operational strategy
• Cleaner Production –Operations Planning
Returns on investmentsAchievement of financial strategy
• Eco-efficiency –Business Planning
Relative aggregates, strategic ratios
Achievement of corporate strategy
• Sustainability –Strategic Planning
Environmental Performance Indicator
Process Performance Indicator
Stage
Table 8.2 – Summary of Cleaner Production Indicators
The last two columns of Table 8.2 represent the two groups of indicators considered
essential for this methodology. As there are potentially considerable complexities in the
integration of the firm’s environmental management performance and the environment,
this area is the attention of much discussion and development. It may be reasonable to
anticipate new developments before too long.
The shaded area under step 6 implies that it is feasible to measure feedback itself if it is
of value and some guidance is provided in that direction, however, as all data collection
requires resources it may not be practical to try and implement this type of process for
commercial reasons.
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CHAPTER 9
CASE STUDIES
The research Project Plan in Chapter 4 (refer to Figure 4.2) includes 3 Case Studies to be
undertaken. The first of these served as a learning opportunity to develop the concepts
while the next two were conducted to validate the applicability of the concepts
developed. It was intended that, provided suitable opportunities could be found, the latter
be used to test the entire proposed process, stage by stage from Strategic Planning
through to Performance Indicators.
There are a great many impediments to tying up the resources of a manufacturing
organization for the purposes of an academic case study. Time limitations in particular
meant the methodology used relied on working with senior management as available for
the development of strategies and their nominees as their workloads permitted for the
other Stages.
By way of assessment criteria, although Performance Indicators as outlined in Chapter 8
are useful as part of testing the methodology, the effectiveness of these case studies is
primarily based on broader criteria, that is on the ability to:
•••••••••••• list significant environmental improvements from the deployment of the process
•••••••••••• demonstrate the use of each of the six stages in the planning and implementation
process
•••••••••••• demonstrate that the one process can be fitted to different manufacturing
operations
•••••••••••• derive new learning
In the first instance, the proposed methodology is a Manufacturing Management process.
Its deployment will therefore vary in each application depending on the:
•••••••••••• Availability and commitment of management and key personnel
•••••••••••• Complexity of the organisations and of its business/products
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•••••••••••• Extent of knowledge and awareness of Environmental Management by
participants
Accordingly, the 3 case studies described in this Chapter required different approaches in
applying the process and for arriving at the desired outcomes. It is also important to
recognize that application of the methodology for the purposes of a case study means
collapsing the elapse time of the programs from a time horizon of 1-5 years to months.
Due to the required involvement of board level management, case studies were several
months in duration and it was necessary to adapt to availability limitations in each case. It
was therefore also necessary to compromise at times with respect to the amount of detail
able to be extracted.
9.1 Company A
9.1.1 Introduction
The objective of this first case study was to test the concept of the proposed
methodology, specifically the planning stages. While the methodology appeared to be
viable in concept, it was deemed necessary to test its relevance and feasibility before
proceeding with the rest of this work.
Company A is a wholly owned subsidiary of a U.S. global corporation engaged in the
manufacture of railway friction brake shoes and disc brake pads. The range of products
meets breaking requirements from heavy haul to light rail and tramways, and meets the
demands of mass transit and metropolitan rail services.
It has a 40 year history in Australia and hence enjoys a degree of autonomy in the
management of its local operations, an important requirement for this trial. Products are
sold to a wide range of customers, local and overseas, including government corporations
which are expected to adopt increasingly stringent requirements with respect to the
environment.
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Product formulations have been designed to maximize adhesion at all times and are
designed for high speeds and frequent stopping, wet or dry. Formulations vary for
different applications.
The company was kind enough to make available its corporate/strategic plan on a
confidential basis.
In the next two sub-sections lists of materials and processes used by the Company are
listed to provide some insight to the complexities present.
9.1.1.1 Materials
Formulations do not contain asbestos, zinc compounds, lead or cast iron debris. Materials
in current production include the list in Table 9.1.
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•• Shredded waste newspaper •• Mineral wool •• Chopped glass fibre •• Chopped steel wool fibre •• Resin •• Tetra bromo bisphenol •• Phenolic resin •• Rubber latex •• Powdered nitrile rubber •• Wollastonite •• Thiofide MBTS •• Tyrin •• Talc •• Aloxite •• Calcium tearate •• Barites •• Limestone •• Rutile •• Sri Lankan graphite •• Hydrated lime •• Zircon sand •• Black iron oxide •• Ground silica •• Coal dust •• Sulphur •• Hoskins blacking •• Orasol black •• Cast iron grit •• Aluminium powder •• GilsoniteProcessed sand •• Ground rubber •• Hoganas iron powder •• Hexamine •• Formaldehyde •• Phenol •• Cashew nut shell liquid •• Ethanol •• Trichloroethylene •• Steel
Table 9.1 – Formulations used in the manufacturing process
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9.1.1.2 Manufacturing Processes and Equipment
Materials are mixed, weighed and formed in to “bricks” which are preheated, moulded,
and cured. Table 9.2 lists the processes and equipment deployed in production.
•• Chemical bulk storage
•• Cashew nut shell liquid heat treatment
•• Bulk material storage
•• Bulk material weighing to batches
•• Mixers – plowshare and blender types
•• Performing
•• Resin manufacture
•• Hot moulding process
•• Vapour degreasing and coating
•• Mechanical steel stamping presses and toolong
•• Batch gas and electric ovens
•• Dust collection bag hoses
•• Fume extraction high temperature incinerator
•• Steam raisin plant
•• Air compressors
•• Full scale rail dynamometer
•• Material testing laboratory
Table 9.2 – Processes and Equipment Deployed
9.1.2 The Planning Process
Although the company is actively engaged in conducting Cleaner Production projects it
was indisputably established that existing strategic plans did not include strategies and
objectives towards Sustainability.
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The uniqueness of the objective required the development of an acceptable approach to
the Company. After meetings with the CEO and Chief Engineer it was agreed to ‘piggy
back’ onto the regular management meetings. These sessions brainstormed the issues and
their relative priorities.
9.1.2.1 Step 1 – Corporate Strategy
At the highest level, for the existing product and process technologies and an
environmentally friendly service, the potential strategies for best practice were identified
as the following Sustainability issues:
•• Material Separation and Recycling
•• Reuse
•• Product Redesign
•• Reduced Packaging
-- simplify
-- eliminate
•• New Transportation/Handling Methods
•• Lower Energy Usage
•• Product Stewardship
These strategies were further refined and prioritized as shown in Table 9.3.
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Strategy Driver Priority
Product/Process Redesign Costs, Competitors 1
New Transportation(1),
Handling (2) Methods
Costs 2
Lower Energy Usage Costs 3
Reuse (Products) Costs, Corporate
Citizenship
4
Material Separation, Recycling
(Process/Product)
Consumers/Markets, Costs 5
Reduced Packaging Legislation,
Consumers/Markets
6
Product Stewardship Competitors 7
Table 9.3 – Company A’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability
9.1.2.2 Step 2 – Business Strategy
Having established Sustainability strategies the next step was to translate them into
business goals in the form of Business Strategies. The resultant Business Strategies for
Eco-efficiency are listed in Table 9.4.
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Strategy Driver Eco-efficiency Priority
Expected Benefit
Product/Process Redesign Costs, Competitors 5-10% COG
Reduction
1
New Transportation(1),
Handling (2) Methods
Costs 10% Labour Savings 2
Lower Energy Usage Costs 1-2% COG
Reduction
3
Reuse (Products) Costs, Corporate
Citizenship
10% COG Reduction 4
Material Separation,
Recycling (Process/Product)
Consumers/
Markets, Costs
Not known
5
Reduced Packaging Legislation,
Consumers/Markets
Not known
6
Product Stewardship Competitors Price advantage,
market protection
7
Table 9.4 – Company A’s Business Plans for Sustainability
9.1.2.3 Step 3 – Functional (Manufacturing) Strategy
As is the case for planning processes in general within manufacturing companies, it
would be the task of manufacturing and engineering management to develop operational
strategies to achieve the Cleaner Production goals emanating from corporate and business
plans. Due to availability limitations it was agreed to develop just one Cleaner Production
strategy to indicate how the process would work.
The first of several possible strategies developed with the manufacturing function of the
Company is in Table 9.5. The table underneath the strategy indicates the manufacturing
endeavours impacted by this strategy.
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Cleaner Production strategy #1 -
“Change/redesign products and production processes”.
Focus Technology Comments Priority
•• Process
Simplification
New Chemical
Formulation
Shorter Cycles
Times
1
•• New
Formulation
Existing
Engineering
Processes
Lower Density and
Cost, Same
Performance
2
•• Shape Change
Design Change 3
•• Tighter Tolerance
CNC M/Cs
Better Tooling,
Repeatability
4
•• Waste Reduction-
Compression
Moulding
Better Tooling,
Repeatability
Mass Control
5
Table 9.5 - Example of Company A’s Manufacturing Strategy for Sustainability through
Cleaner Production
9.1.3 Conclusions – Case Study A
Steps 4-6 of the proposed methodology were neither able to be tested at this early stage of
the project and, nor was their trial required to achieve the objective of the case study as
they are essentially the formalisation and standardisation of existing practices. It is not
difficult, however, to envisage how IE and LCM concepts would apply, how the Tool-kit
could be deployed and how performance could be measured.
The crucial question for this Thesis was whether the expansion of industry standard
planning processes to include Sustainability issues was practicable. In assessing the
process afterwards, the Management of the Company agreed that the methodology was
both feasible and useful.
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It was interesting to note the majority of drivers were cost related, although business
pressures from customers and competitors, legislation and corporate citizenship were also
recognized as survival issues. This tends to corroborate the evolutionary stages described
in Figure 5.3 and the conviction that in the early years Sustainability drivers will be legal
and cost based.
9.2 Company B
9.2.1 Introduction
The second case study carried the objective of validating the proposed methodology.
Company B is a global marketer of consumer goods with many well known tissue/towel,
personal care (diapers, feminine protection adult incontinence) and health care brands
through the Personal Care, Business-to-Business and Consumer Products Divisions with
sales in excess of $14 billion. The stated values of the organisation today, expressed
through its “Leadership Agenda”, include a range of strategy areas in which it will
measure itself against the world’s best. One of these is Sustainable Growth which
incorporates the requirement to “act as responsible stewards of corporate and
environmental resources”.
Furthermore, in 1994 the then CEO initiated a business orientated environmental
program. The early request for candidate objectives were formalised in a company wide
program called Vision 2000. This program has since been succeeded by the Vision 2005
Strategy and these initiatives suggest the Company is a leader in incorporating
environmental considerations in its planning processes. This evolution appeared to be
similar to the strategic approach recommended by the writer.
The Company maintains its image as a leader in Environmental Management, its
Environmental Report is available as part of its corporate profile on its website and
provides considerable detail with respect to its environmental and energy policies and
projects.
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While there is a comprehensive local operation including head office functions and
manufacturing sites, strategies are formulated at board level in the U.S.A. and are
promulgated to all operations. As part of this Case Study it was necessary to gain an
introduction to the Corporate Director of the Environment overseas to gain an insight
intohow corporate plans are formulated.
It was also apparent that it would not be feasible to influence the established processes of
the corporation hence it was agreed to adapt the approach accordingly.
9.2.2 The Research
A number of interviews with key personnel in Management, Environmental
Management, Operations Management and at project level, as well as with Management
in the U.S.A., were conducted. The purpose of the interviews was to:
•• understand how the Company plans and executes its Environmental
Management initiatives
•• compare this approach with the methodology advocated in this Thesis
•• analyse the gaps, if any, and modify the approach as needed.
The outcome of the research revealed that Company B is at an advanced stage with
respect to other corporations’ environmental programs and should be regarded as ‘best
practice’. As a consequence the most appropriate approach to this case study turned out
to be a comparative analysis consisting of:
•• step by step analysis of the proposed planning and execution methodology with
the Company’s practices.
•• identification of differences (if any) and gaps.
•• conclusions with respect to the outcomes.
•• suggestions for improvements
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9.2.2.1 The Existing Process
Step 1 - Corporate Strategic Planning and Sustainability
Company B’s vision emanating from its corporate strategic planning process is to lead
the world in all it does and this goal extends to Environmental Management. The
resultant initiatives and programs have to make environmental and business sense. This
has two major strategic implications for Sustainability:
a. to be a leader means being ahead of potential legislative and other compliance
requirements for products and manufacturing processes
b. being ahead of other manufacturers of like products also leads to a high business
benchmark rating, i.e., the Dow Jones Sustainability Index, which in turn may
lead to favorable business outcomes, e.g., share prices.
The corporate policies underpinning the Strategy as stated in the Company’s 2002
Environmental Report comprise:
•• Protection of the Biosphere
•• Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
•• Use and Conservation of Energy
•• Reduction and Disposal of Waste
Step 2 - Business Strategic Planning and Eco-efficiency
The corporate strategies mentioned above have resulted in 6 specific Business Planning
objectives contained in the Environmental Vision 2005 program:
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a. Efficient Water Use
Water use targets to further reduce total water use have been set for each tissue, pulp
and paper manufacturing facility. As an indication of the success of this program
worldwide use of water in the last 2 years was reduced by 15.2%.
b. Energy Efficiency Improvement
Benchmarks for energy efficiency are in place for each major production process,
converting process and site utility operations. By meeting these benchmarks
estimated cost savings of $152 million US would be achieved.
c. Reduction in Carbon Emissions
Recognising the goals of carbon emissions reduction outlined in the Kyoto Protocol,
to date KCC has reduced its worldwide carbon emissions per dollar sales by 23.3%.
Further reductions are targeted.
d. Solid Waste Recycling
Objectives include the elimination of all manufacturing wastes being sent to landfills.
Current diversion levels are at 88%. Value-added landfill alternatives have generated
$24 million US to date. Alternatives include recycling, compression of materials into
fuel cubes and other plans for waste-to-energy facilities.
e. Packaging Reduction
A 10% reduction in transportation and final product packaging is targeted and would
achieve a $67 million US reduction in packaging material costs per year. To date
improved design and dematerialization have reduced materials going to landfills by
more than 58,000 tons per year.
f. Environmental Management System (EMS)
A new EMS program is planned with the primary goal of ensuring that significant
facility environmental aspects and regulatory requirements are identified and
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controlled. An efficient EMS is expected to reduce unnecessary compliance costs
and disposal costs while improving product yields.
Step3 - Manufacturing (Operations) Strategy and Cleaner Production
Conversion of business strategies into functional, i.e., manufacturing strategies in the
organisation, is expected to occur at plant level. At this stage of evolution, manufacturing
strategy formulation to achieve corporate objectives does occur but not for Cleaner
Production strategies. Environmental Management projects can get less attention than
mainstream planning priorities (when compared with other competitive issues as per the
Company’s World Class Manufacturing program).
Step 4 -Commercial Processes linking strategies with execution – Industrial Ecology and
Life Cycle Management
On receipt of corporate environmental objectives Head Office and Plant Environmental
Managers/Coordinators, who report to the Plant Managers, meet to review the corporate
objectives. After consideration of these objectives, and considering local environmental
issues plus inputs from auditors, a Plant Environmental Plan is prepared. This Plan
includes:
•• activities to achieve environmental Vision 2005 objectives
•• projects
•• compliance reporting tasks and dates
•• employee training activities
•• other related activities
These steps are seen as essential at the plant level but they are not necessarily driven by
corporate, business and operations strategies. The Environmental Management expertise
is from the Australian Environment Manager and technical personnel from the Plants.
There was no evidence of formal Life Cycle Management or Industrial Ecology based
programs, i.e., segmentation by function or life cycle.
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Step 5 - Technologies and Systems - Facility Policies and Projects
Technologies and Systems used to implement Environmental Plans are typically based on
recommendations from corporate inspections/audits. These occur annually at the pulp and
paper mills and two yearly at ‘dry’ manufacturing facilities. Expertise in the selection and
application of appropriate systems and technologies at this stage is from the Australian
Environment Manager at head office and the International Auditor who works in the
Environment and Energy function at corporate headquarters in the USA. Besides
possessing technical expertise the Auditor also promotes Vision 2005 objectives at the
Mill level.
Step 6 - Measurements – Indicators/Feedback
The Plants’ Environmental Plans are updated quarterly and are presented to local
Management. By way of feedback, progress reports against audits are also required. Any
incidents are reported monthly. Waste reports by type of waste, water usage, and recycled
materials are reported monthly. Energy use by primary source is reported
comprehensively and monthly in a standardised format. It covers external self-generated
sources of energy and is normalized against production levels.
9.2.2.2 Assessments
Step 1 - Inclusion of Sustainability concerns at the corporate (highest) planning level is
exactly what the proposed approach advocates for effectiveness and indicates Company
B is a pioneer in this practice.
Step 2 - Although the term Eco-efficiency is not used as part of the business planning
process, the planned outcomes of significant commercial benefits from environmentally
friendly practices is by definition eco-efficiency, and as in the case of Strategic Planning,
it is consistent with the proposed approach.
Step 3 - Operations strategies concentrate on a set of best practice guidelines which do
not as yet include Environmental Management as a strategic element. While there is a
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high awareness of the corporate environmental goals, their conversion into projects at
Plant level depends on the perceived relevance and feasibility of the targets.
This does represent a gap between the recommended methodology and the Company’s
current practice. Incorporation of Cleaner Production concepts into mainstream
operations planning could help prioritise environmental initiatives and increase the rate of
change, that is, speedier implementation and adoption of new solutions to achieve
corporate goals.
Sep 4 - The current practice is the norm in industry, that is, environmental management
activities being directed by local priorities, e.g., legislation, efficiency, waste
minimisation, rather than LCM and IE concepts. The Company is ahead of most
enterprises as some of the activities are linked to corporate goals and integration of plans
from the top and activities at plant level are evolving. As this integration advances, it is
likely the plant level of expertise will continue to increase accordingly.
Step 5 - As part of the proposed methodology in this work an environmental Tool-kit has
been specified. This is a new concept, no such capability is available to manufacturers in
general, hence technology and systems expertise are obtained in the usual manner from a
number of internal and external sources as considered appropriate.
Step 6 – In Chapter 7 it is described that the ideal performance measures should provide
feedback in two areas generally:
•• effectiveness of the company’s approach
•• environmental performance
The latter is clearly satisfied as demonstrated by the Company’s Environment Reports but
whether there is any attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the Company’s approach at
each level is not evident.
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9.2.3 Conclusions – Case Study B
In assessing the Company’s Environmental Management process versus the
recommended approach of this Thesis there is considerable synergy between the two.
Both processes have the same thrust and are heading in the same direction, that is, have
like objectives. Since the latter is an academic work, it does not incur the burden of
having to evolve over time whereas Company B started this process in 1994 and is well
into its second five year program.
While it is the view herein that there are some gaps in the Company’s process including:
•• in the translation of corporate strategic and business objectives into plant level
operational strategies, and
•• limited uptake of operations orientated Environmental Management disciplines
(LCM, IE and Cleaner Production)
which would enhance existing programs, such gaps represent opportunities as the
Company’s approach continues to evolve to a more formal process in these stages at
plant level.
The corporate planning level processes are an excellent example of how manufacturing
enterprises should escalate their environmental programs.
The activities at the implementation level are very similar to the activities of other
manufacturing organisations, it is anticipated however that as programs such as Vision
2005 become increasingly mainstream plant level planning and implementation will be
emphasized to a greater extent and this will present further opportunities for innovative
solutions.
Similarly, with respect to feedback, while there are a considerable number of
performance measures and reports used these will continue to evolve in step with internal
and external reporting requirements.
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The most positive aspect of this case study is the evidence that what is being considered
as a much needed approach by industry to accelerate sustainability from a manufacturing
engineering and academic perspective is actually in the process of becoming mainstream
at this organisation. Without this process, the significant achievements cited earlier
would not have been possible, instead a major world wide corporation has embraced and
is implementing a range of environmentally friendly programs.
Company B’s evolution over the last 10 years confirms the validity of the methodology
and supports the conclusion that this process is capable of being replicated by other
manufacturing enterprises, large and small.
9.3 Company C
9.3.1 Introduction
The third case study also had the objective of validating the proposed methodology.
Company C is part of a worldwide organisation with its Head Office in the UK which has
been associated with metallurgical industries for over 70 years. Its products were born
from the need to find better ways of producing castings and are the result of close
cooperation with foundry operators. It is firmly established as a leading supplier of
metallurgical chemicals to the higher quality segments of the foundry industry.
The Australian operation has a full complement of head office functions, manufacturing
and distribution facilities as well as state level service functions. Its management enjoys a
degree of autonomy and is able to take an interest in new initiatives and most importantly
for this Thesis, it has been able to fulfil the top management role required. Local
Management is increasingly aware of Sustainability issues and their relevance.
The Company is a pioneer and leader in molten metal filtration and feeding systems
technologies. Major product groups include:
•• Tundish and ladle linings
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•• Melt additives
•• Moulding products
•• Feeding systems
•• Furnace linings
•• Ceramic filters
•• Ceramic and refractory shapes
•• Direct pour devices
9.3.2 Application of the Methodology
As in the case of Company A, the company is actively engaged in conducting Cleaner
Production projects but existing strategic plans do not include strategies and objectives
towards Sustainability.
After meetings with the CEO it was agreed to develop the top level, strategic and
business plans with him, and to address the remainder with the Manufacturing Director.
The following describes the process:
Step 1 – Corporate Strategy
It was brainstormed that to achieve the Company’s vision to become the ‘best company’
requires the Environmental Management corporate strategies for Sustainability listed in
Table 9.6.
•• Compliance with EPA legislation and Covenants
•• Inclusion of the Community’s expectations in the design of products, services
and processes
•• Cost reductions in materials, energy/utilities and residues by adopting a zero
waste ideal
•• Waste minimisation in the Supply Chain, customers and suppliers
Table 9.6 – Company C’s Corporate Plans for Sustainability
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Step 2 – Business Strategy
Translating Sustainability strategies into business goals in the form of Business Strategies
resulted in the plans for Eco-efficiency listed in Table 9.7.
Legislation and Covenants
•• Fully comply with or stay ahead of all regulations
•• Plan for minimising potential risks
Community expectations
•• Be aware of community (suppliers, customers, neighbours, employees)
needs/wants at all times and exchange knowledge
•• Incorporate customers design needs/wants with respect to environmental
management
Cost Reductions
•• Materials
-- Reduce material usage by X%
-- Substitute others’ by-products or wastes for primary raw materials
•• Energy
-- Reduce energy consumption by X%
•• Residues
•• Work towards zero waste by eliminating process (solids and liquids)
waste.
The Supply Chain
•••••••• Reduce excess/obsolete stocks by X%
•••••••• Increase the use of returnable packaging
•••••••• Reduce the use of packaging materials (incl. cardboard) by X%
NB. – quantifying % reductions was not a requirement for the case study
Table 9.7 – Company C’s Business Plans for Sustainability
Step 3 – Functional (Manufacturing) Strategy
Company C’s Business Strategies for Sustainability lead to the following Operations
Strategies for Cleaner Production, developed with the Manufacturing Director:
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Legislation and Covenants
•• Develop and maintain an Environmental Management System (EMS) which
documents all applicable legislation and provides for regular audits
•• Stay abreast of legal requirements by acquiring expertise in environmental
legislation and covenants
•• Identify all potential environmental risks by process/product/material and
their respective probable impacts
Community expectations
•• Design a consultation process with the community (suppliers, customers,
neighbours, employees) to obtain their specific needs and wants.
•• Operations to participate in the design process to prevent potential waste or
pollution
Cost Reductions
•• Materials
--- Reduce material usage through the identification of opportunities for
dematerialisation and waste minimisation
--- Establish an environmental purchasing program for substituting by-
products and waste for primary raw materials
•••••••• Energy - Reduce electricity and gas consumption across the company
•••••••• Residues and Waste Minimisation - Develop a waste measurement system
leading to a waste reduction program
The Supply Chain
•• Introduce a formal inventory system for reducing excess/obsolete stocks of
different classes of inventory
•• Develop new policies for increased order quantities to allow the use of
returnable packaging to customers/from suppliers
•• Investigate innovative packaging approaches in the supply chain
Table 9.8 – Company C’s Manufacturing Strategy for Sustainability through Cleaner
Production
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Step 4 -Commercial Processes linking strategies with execution – Industrial Ecology and
Life Cycle Management
As in the case of Company A, one particular strategy was selected for a pilot to validate
the process. In Tables 9.6 – 9.8 this strategy is in italics, and follows a Cost Reduction
drive leading to the Operational Strategy of reduced material usage for the nominated
product group of Exothermic Insulating Sleeves
Figure 9.1 was used to pave the way for linking the Strategy with specific actions. It
identified the life cycle stages affected, that is, the stages of Conversion, Support
Processes and Product Delivery and enabled homing in on specific options, that is,
Recycled Materials and Waste Minimisation, as shown in italics.
Figure 9.1 – Company C’s Cleaner Production strategy Options
Figure 9.2 was used to establish the commercial functions likely to be affected:
Eothermic/Insulating Sleeve - Cleaner Production Strategy Choices
Life Cycle Stage
Resource Extraction
Pre- Manufacture
Process Selection
Conversion Support Processes Product Delivery
Product Use Disposal, Recycling, Reuse
S t r a t e g y O p t i o n s Dematerialisation, Services (extended producer responsibility), Renewable Materials, Lower Embodied Energy Materials Extended Technical and Aesthetic Life Spans, Integrated Product Functions, Modularity, Extended Psychological Product Life Spans,
Increased Reliability & Durability, Easy Maintenance & Repair
Cleaner Materials, Recycled Materials, Reduced Material Usage, Development of Alternative Processes, Energy Efficiency, Waste Reduction
Recyclable Materials, Reduced Energy Consumption, Cleaner Energy Sources, Reduced Consumable Waste, Re-Use, Re -manufacture, Design for Disassembly, Energy & Material Recovery
Cleaner Production Processes, Waste Elimination, Fewer Operations, Reduced Consumables
Lower Material Weight & Volume
Reduced, Cleaner & Reusable Packaging, Energy Efficient Transport & Logistics,
Strategies for Pi lot
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Figure 9.2 – Company C’s Cleaner Production Strategy’s Functional Impact
The functions in bold letters, Design for Environment, Environmental Purchasing and
Environmental Manufacturing are the functions the Company considered would be
impacted.
Combining all this information into the linking process described in Section 6.4, Figures
9.3 and 9.4 display the multi-year impact of the strategy and its effect on the Company’s
evolution towards Sustainability. It was estimated that the life of the strategy is 4 years as
shown in the first matrix. The large arrow indicates the life cycle stages affected.
Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste Reduction and Recycled Materials Substitution Strategies
Links to Technologies – LCM Functional Impact
1. Resource Extraction
2. Premanufacture
3. Process Selection
4. Conversion
5. Manufacturing Support Processes
6. Product Delivery
7. Product Use
8. Disposal, Recycling, Reuse
• Design for Environment • Environmental Purchasing • Environmental Manufacturing • Environmental Distribution • Environmental Marketing
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Figure 9.3 – Multi-year Impact of Company C’s Pilot Cleaner Production Strategy
Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste Reduction and Recycled Materials Substitution Strategies
Links to Technologies – Cleaner Production Issues by Function
5. Environmental Marketing
4. Environmental Distribution
3. Environmental Manufacturing
2.Environmental Purchasing
1. Design for Environment
Residue Impacts
Energy/Utility Issues
Material IssuesTechnology
Issues
Figure 9.4 – Functional and Environmental Impact of Company C’s Pilot Cleaner
Production Strategy by Year
Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Recycled Materials and Waste Reduction Substitution Strategies
Links to Technologies
Evolutionary Stages
Cleaner Production Scope Resource
Extraction Pre- Manufacture
Process Selection
Conversion Support Processes
Product Delivery
Product Use
Disposal, Recycling, Reuse
Disposal Cost Reductions/ Legal Issues Planning for Waste Reduction Waste Identified Waste Reductions
Major Improvements Technology Changes Zero Waste Restoration
Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4
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Step 5 - Technologies and Systems - Facility Policies and Projects
Once the technological nature of the task was established, this step was about applying
the appropriate technology to achieve the strategy. It was neither feasible to apply the
Tool-kit in Chapter 7 nor practical as the recycling and waste minimisation work had
started before the strategies were developed and essentially consisted of the crushing of
out of specification sleeves and reusing the material in the production process. It may be
said this step was retrofitted to Figure 7.3.
Over the four year horizon it is planned to eliminate waste altogether, obviously
necessitating additional solutions in future including product and process redesign
initiatives extending beyond this case study. It was agreed with the Company that Figure
9.5 shows how a solution in Year 1 would be arrived at.
Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste Reduction and Recycled Materials Substitution StrategiesTechnology/Systems Options Categories
ExtractionExtraction
DesignDesign
Production – Process Selection, Conversion,
Support Processes
Production – Process Selection, Conversion,
Support Processes
DistributionDistribution
UtilisationUtilisation
End of LifeEnd of Life
Product Life CycleStages
Product Life CycleStages
Material SubstitutionMaterial Substitution
Design ChangeDesign Change
Technology ChangeTechnology Change
Closed Loop SystemClosed Loop System
Solution CategoriesSolution Categories
Assessment ToolsAssessment Tools
Figure 9.5 – Categorising Cleaner Production Tools for Recycling and Waste
Minimisation
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Step 6 - Measurements – Indicators/Feedback
Table 9.9, adapted from Table 8.2, displays the measures derived from the case study. In
any one environment and for any one strategy the measures will vary, and the measures
produced will depend on the availability of information.
Cleaner Production Indicators
(Company Material,performance quantified)
(Percentage of essential
summarised information
provided)
6) Feedback
5) Systems and Technologies
(Matrix analysis potentially)4) LCM/IE
.6% reduction Sleeves material usage5% target reduction for the years
3) Cleaner Production
Value of material savingsInvestments in performance improvements
2) Eco -efficiency
1) Sustainability -Strategic
Environmental Performance Indicator
Process Performance Indicator
Stage
tonnes of material used(4749)
tonnes of product produced(4685)
Actual %reduction in material expenditure p.a.
Target % reduction for the year (20%)
Quantity of recycled/reusedMaterials per Sleeve
(6 grams)
(Potential comparison of technologies used with Co. Divisions in other countries)
Actual %reduction in material use p.a.
Target % reduction for the year (20%)
Zero waste in sleeve manufacturing-To date progressively - 96%-% remanufacture of balance – 100%
Cost of waste before the project ($48703) X 100
Cost of waste after the project ($39819)
Table 9.9 - Exothermic/Insulating Sleeve – Waste reduction and Recycled Materials
Substitution Strategies Measures
The measures reported in the table are those that were readily obtainable; they indicate
how the outcomes may be assessed, including the effectiveness of the process and the
corresponding environmental impacts.
9.3.3 Conclusions – Case Study C
As the last case study, it is the most complete as all elements of the methodology were
attempted to be applied. It clearly demonstrated that with committed top management
participation it is quite feasible to develop Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner
Production strategies for a small to medium size manufacturing operation.
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It was also demonstrated that with the support of Manufacturing Management the
Cleaner Production strategies, using LCM an IE principles, could be converted into
specific technology projects focused on environmental performance improvements
consistent with the company’s stated strategies.
Other outcomes of interest included:
•• the importance of Company C’s culture, in particular of management support and
commitment
•• to condense what might otherwise take many years of evolution, particularly in
the absence of environmental specialists in a SME, into a relatively short (six
months) program, a formal methodology is needed
•• the presentation materials based on the Thesis were indispensable in
communicating the objectives of the initiative - notwithstanding an organisation’s
interest in improving its environmental performance the concepts need to be
presented in formal manufacturing management/engineering terms while the
deliverables need to reflect commercial realities
•• implementation of the methodology, though far from simple, with specialist
support is capable of being carried out without formal qualifications or specialist
expertise in Environmental Management
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CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSIONS
10.1 Project Outcomes
The main conclusion is that the Thesis topic leads to a wide range of technical and
non-technical outcomes, leading to the expansion of ideas rather than a deeper
probe of a specific area of research. Returning to the original motivation for the
project, at the time of this Thesis the battle for Sustainability is being lost.
Broadly, the reasons are a lack of:
•• awareness or knowledge
•• motivation to actively pursue improvements
In Chapter 1 it was stated that manufacturing industry is a major contributor to the
deterioration of the environment, hence the reason for inventing the advocated
planning and implementation methodology. While it is new in content, a similar
process for planning has been in existence for the last ten years in medium to
large firms. This latter point leads to the goal of accelerated change.
One of the main conclusions reached right at the outset is that it is more urgent to
overcome the problems of inaction mentioned above then to add other
technological solutions to the myriad already in existence. No doubt new
technologies will lead to improvements in Environmental Management but there
are already a sufficient number of existing systems and technologies which are
capable of being rapidly deployed if not reversing the trends, provided the will
and know-how exist among managers and specialists of manufacturing
enterprises. Hence the reason for the approach, that is, the reflective nature of the
research, and for a number of diverse outcomes.
These outcomes are intended to be contributions to Sustainability and may be
summarised as:
1. A new methodology for speedier uptake of Cleaner Production
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The methodology put forward in this work, in Chapters 4 – 8, and depicted in
Figure 10.1 as the complete process has the potential to assist organisations
that are already on the way towards striving for Sustainability.
Corporate Strategy:
S u s t a i n a b i l i t y
Corporate Strategy:
S u s t a i n a b i l i t y
Functional Strategy:
C l e a n e r P r o d u c t i o n
Functional Strategy:
C l e a n e r P r o d u c t i o n
Business Strategy:
E c o – e f f i c i e n c y
Business Strategy:
E c o – e f f i c i e n c y
Links:
Industrial Ecology & Life Cycle Management
Links:
Industrial Ecology & Life Cycle Management
Execution:
Technologies & Systems
Execution:
Technologies & Systems
Performance Measurements:
I n d i c a t o r s
Performance Measurements:
I n d i c a t o r s
M e t a S t r a t e g yM e t a S t r a t e g yForces of Change
(Drivers)
Figure 10.1 –“The Strategy Development and Implementation with Cleaner
Production” Process
Development of a structured methodology for integrating Sustainability and
Cleaner Production concepts with a manufacturer’s strategies at all levels
offers the advantages of a formal approach with measurable outcomes,
commercial and societal, using performance measures and indicators. As
mentioned elsewhere, the process would lead to the initiation of
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environmental management projects that are supported by upper management,
properly funded and resourced, and most importantly, directly linked to the
strategies of the firm.
2. A vehicle for providing strategic direction and implementation assistance
to manufacturing enterprises for adopting a prevention orientation
For all enterprises, especially SMEs who do not have the resources and
expertise to adopt Cleaner Production strategies and projects in a considered
manner, this work contains sufficient material written in common language to
enable them to:
•• start on the path towards Sustainability
•• develop strategies suitable for their environment
•• understand how to select suitable implementation systems and
technologies
3. A new body of knowledge and profession
Another goal of this work is to initiate a profession for manufacturing
engineers in this field. There is sufficient need, scope, complexity and
challenge for industrial environmental management to become an area of
specialisation for manufacturing specialists. It would involve the integration
of manufacturing engineering techniques with Cleaner Production, Industrial
Ecology and Life Cycle Management approaches. It is not difficult to
visualise a curriculum and all the accoutrements typically accompanying a
profession.
4. A Tool-kit of hard and soft technologies
In Chapter 6 a framework for a classification system for the deployment of
hard and soft technologies, for a variety of industries and applications was
described. When fully developed, this database containing essential
information about each technology deployed in Cleaner Production, including
implementation experiences would greatly assist firms in the selection of
optimum systems and technologies.
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5. Encouragement of further research and development
Achievement of the project objectives required the investigation of a broad
range of topics. Due to the popularity of the Sustainability theme many
diverse ideas, systems and technologies, hard and soft, are being deployed in
all industries under a plethora of headings. Although it was intended to
encapsulate all the complexities as a new profession, as a first work of its type
in this line of engineering it is inevitably just a first step and, as all first works,
it invites improvements, expansion and greater depth of study. (Refer to
Section 8.3)
10.2 Case Studies
Chapter 9 contains three case studies undertaken to verify the feasibility of the
methodology proposed in Chapter 4. The first was a learning assignment carried
out early in the project at a manufacturer of train braking systems. The details of
the case study describe:
•• Sustainable Strategies and their relative priorities
•• Eco-efficiency strategies including their financial potentials
•• Sample Cleaner Production Strategies for the first Sustainability strategy
Section 9.2 contains a case study carried out at a manufacturer of a range of
consumer products typically paper based, after the methodology was well
developed. Due to the size of the corporation, the extent to which the local
operation follows global procedures and the fact that components of the
methodology were already in place, the work was essentially an evaluation of the
company’s environmental management operations as compared with the proposed
methodology. The analysis covered:
•• Corporate Planning
•• Business Planning
•• Operations Planning
•• Commercial Processes linking strategies with execution
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•• Technologies and Systems
•• Performance Measures
and concluded there was considerable synergy between the two. Section 9.3 describes the outcome of the third case study at a division of a global
manufacturer of foundry service products. This was a particularly successful
introduction of the methodology for the local division enjoys considerable
autonomy and is motivated to be environmentally responsible. It demonstrated
that it is feasible to develop Sustainability, Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production
strategies for a small to medium size manufacturing operation.
The Case Studies reinforced the idea that it is feasible to deploy CP, LCM and IE
principles, in converting high level strategies into specific technology projects
focused on environmental performance improvements.
10.3 Future Research
1. The new methodology for speedier uptake of Cleaner Production
The concept is based on manufacturing management and Sustainability
concepts as they exist at this time. Both bodies of knowledge are still
evolving, particularly the latter, hence the methodology should be reviewed
and updated as additional proficiency becomes available. This includes the
monitoring of developments in CP, LCM and IE.
2. Implementation assistance to manufacturing enterprises
This subject matter should readily lend itself to the development of a line of
consulting, delivered either by professional consultants or academic
specialists, and possibly fully or partly funded by governments. Development
of the program would lead to creating:
•• Packaged products and services (deliverables)
•• Presentation materials
•• Documentation of the process
•• Subsequent products and services based on the experience gained
from assignments
•• Valuable documentation from projects completed
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3. A new body of knowledge and profession
To initiate a profession for manufacturing engineers in this field would require
research into what topics would realistically constitute a curriculum. The
integration of manufacturing engineering techniques with Cleaner Production,
Industrial Ecology and Life Cycle Management approaches could mean
specialisation in years 3 and 4 of a Bachelor’s degree. Introduction of a
qualification in “Industrial Ecology” or perhaps “Industrial Environmental
Management” would need the difficult task of developing courseware for the
disciplines in the curriculum, where very little usable material exists.
4. The Tool-kit of hard and soft technologies
The classification system for the deployment of hard and soft technologies out
of necessity is conceptual only in this work. The actual development and
maintenance of extensive data bases of existing and emerging systems and
technologies could lead to a significant number of research opportunities.
Examples of projects might be the development of databases for an industry
sector, for a technology area or for a category of tools. The research would
comprise the population of the databases and the development of authoritative
descriptive data for each “Tool”.
5. Advanced research and development
As previously stated, this is a first step in the creation of a stand alone
manufacturing management/engineering profession. Even at this early stage,
the fields of Cleaner Production, Industrial Ecology, not to mention
Sustainability, have received considerable attention from researchers around
the world in different contexts, academic and industrial. The task of continued
assessment of developments and their interpretation or adoption as a
manufacturing engineering discipline would be a natural continuation of this
project.
Hence a list of other potential areas for advanced research work includes:
•••••••••••• In-depth investigation of strategic issues with the aim of further
defining and quantifying the drivers for Sustainability.
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•••••••••••• Development of advanced manufacturing/operations strategic planning
processes to evolve the human dimension, and hence preventive
approaches, in engineering disciplines, particularly as they impact
environmental management.
•••••••••••• If the proposed concept herein becomes widely accepted, detailed
implementation procedures will need to be developed which should
include a broader range of considerations for successful
implementation such as culture change (Change Management), job
skills (Human Resource Management) and team approaches (Project
Management).
•••••••••••• In parallel with the development of a Tool-kit setting up another data
base of recorded Cleaner Production implementations, similarly
classified, by industry sector and technology, would be a very useful
learning tool.
•••••••••••• It became apparent that additional development work on Performance
Indicators would be most useful and has considerable potential for
further research.
Planning for Sustainability through Cleaner Production
173
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DIN 8580: Manufacturing processes – Terms and definitions, division
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DIN 8589 Part 0: Manufacturing processes chip removal - Part 0: General;
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DIN 8590: Manufacturing processes removal operations - Classification, subdivision,
terms and definitions
DIN 8591: Manufacturing processes disassembling - Classification, subdivision,
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DIN 8592: Manufacturing processes cleaning - Classification, subdivision, terms and
definitions
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Report Appendices, Part II, Appendix 2: Environmental Performance
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[127] Measuring the Environmental Performance of Industry (MEPI), EC
Environment and Climate Research Programme: Research Theme 4, Human
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Report Appendices, Part II, Appendix 2: Environmental Performance
Indicators: State-of-the-Art, Page 34
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Appendix A: Technologies within the Assessment Tools Category
Product Life Cycle Stage – All Stages Technical Aspect 1.0 ABC Analysis Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: The ABC Analysis focuses on assessing hazardous substances. Accomplishment of goals: Waste Development status: mature Description: The assessment of environmental impacts incorporate a number of groups of criteria which lead to three values:
• A: problematic, action required, • B: medium, to be observed and improved, • C: harmless, no action required.
The assessment can be conducted in a simple table whereas the columns refer to the three criteria and the rows to the potential environmental impacts (toxicity, air pollution, water pollution), the compliance with environmental regulation, social requirements and the product life cycle stages. Sources for further information: Lehmann, S. (Ed.)/ Institut für ökologische Wirtschaftsforschung (1993): Umwelt-Controlling in der Möbelindustrie. Ein Leitfaden. Berlin, 1993. Experience of previous application:
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1.0 Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) Analysis Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: This tool identifies and assesses a product’s environmental impacts across its life cycle on the basis of its energy input and content. – The analysis is primarily used for energy-intensive products. Accomplishment of goals: Energy Development status: mature Description: For a CED analysis all direct and indirect energy inputs connected to the product system should be compiled. Direct energy inputs are those needed for resource extraction, production, use, distribution and end of life. Indirect energy inputs are those that are delivered primarily for other purposes than producing the product itself, e.g. infrastructure. A CED analysis normally results in the following data:
• Cumulative direct energy inputs into the product • Cumulative indirect energy inputs into the product (depending on scope of
planning and system borders) • Cumulative energy content of the product (the energy content of the end
product could be recycled). Those data can be used as a rough basis for evaluating the environmental compatibility of a product. Software: Furthermore, the Internet site (see source for information) offers a software program (GEMIS) for calculating the cumulative energy demand, which can be downloaded free of charge. Sources for further information: VDI Richtlinie 4600: Cumulative Energy Demand – Terms, Definitions, Method of Calculation. (German title: Kumulierter Energieaufwand – Begriffe, Definitionen, Berechnungsmethoden.) VDI-Gesellschaft Energietechnik, June 1997; VDI Richtlinie 4600 Blatt 1: Cumulative Energy Demand – Examples. (German title: Kumulierter Energieaufwand – Beispiele.) VDI-Gesellschaft Energietechnik, June 1996; Umweltbundesamt: Kumulierter Energie Aufwand: Mehr als eine Zahl! http://www.oeko.de/service/kea/ (29.07.2003); Software GEMIS http://www.oeko.de/service/gemis/en/index.htm (29.07.2003). Experience of previous application:
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1.0 Life Cycle Assesment (LCA) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: Life Cycle Assessment is an analytical method to identify and assess the potential environmental impacts associated with a product throughout its complete life cycle. The quantification of environmental impacts makes it possible to compare alternative designs and to identify the environmental improvement potential of a product throughout its life cycle. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature (a lot of specialised LCA software is available) Description: A complete LCA begins with raw materials acquisition and follows manufacturing stages until the product is produced, used and discarded. According to ISO 14040 the methodology involves a framework in which
• the goals and scope are defined (purpose and scope of the LCA, functional unit, data-quality assessments),
• inventory analysis (system boundaries, process flow charts, data collection, calculation, sensitivity analysis) and
• impact assessment (classification, characterisation, valuation) are formulated and
• the results are interpreted. As noted in the Standard there is no single method for conducting an LCA and the framework is made sufficiently broad to allow the study of wide ranging environmental practices. Depending on the environmental goal different LCA approaches and software can be applied. Software:
• SimaPro: Developed for LCA experts and designers, additional databases can be integrated.
• EPS Design System 4.0: LCA tool for decision support in product development and Environmental Management System. Focus on mechanical engineering and automobil sector, allows sensitivity and uncertainty analysis.
• Umberto: LCA package which can be used for determining material flows. • PEMS: LCA tool for evaluating the life cycle of packages (see PEMS (1.3)).
Sources for further information: ISO EN DIN 14040 (1997): Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework; Wenzel, H.; Hauschild, M.; Ating, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products. Volume 1, Methodology, tools and case studies in product development. London: Chapman & Hall, 1997; see references in: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application:
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1.0 Material and Energy Balance Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: The Material and Energy Balance is used for the quantification of all material and energy flows at the level of separate production processes or production units. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The Material and Energy Balance can be applied as part of an environmental improvement project for manufacturing processes. - The basis for all material balances is the law of conservation of matter, which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a given system (same law applies for the energy). (This does not apply to nuclear reactions.) In the case of stoichiometric calculations, this means that the weight of products of a reaction have to equal the weight of reactants. In the case of processes, this is not necessarily the case. It is possible to have an unsteady-state situation in which accumulation or depletion within the process may occur. In general, therefore, the following equation applies: Mass Input = Mass output + Mass Accumulation. For each of the unit operations identified in the process flow diagram, a Material and Energy Balance can be compiled. The analysis of the balance contributes to the understanding of the relative importance of different causes of waste generation and energy consumption and is needed for the evaluation of the relative importance of each of the possible waste generation causes. The compilation of the balance might be hard and time-consuming, as there is generally a lack of detailed data. Therefore, the compilation of a material balance is often limited to the most important material flows and/or processes. Criteria for this selection can be the volume, cost or environmental burden of the respective material flow or processes. Software: See SWAMI (1.2). Sources for further information: Ayres, R., U.; Ayres L.W.: Accounting for Resources, 2. The Life Cycle of Materials. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1999; Fine, H. A.; Geiger, G.H.: Handbook on Material and Energy Balance Calculations in Metallurgical Processes. Warrendale: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), 1993. Experience of previous application:
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1.0 Material Flow Accounting/ Analysis (MFA) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: Material Flow Accounting has been developed and applied to systematically describe the flow of materials including resources, products, wastes, and other emissions. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: MFA is a systematic tool, which comprehensively describes material inflows to a system, material outflows from the system, as well as material throughputs throughout the system. Both of the terms, Material Flow Accounting and Material Flow Analysis are abbreviated as MFA whereas “Accounting” is often used in the integration of environmental and economic aspects. The term “analysis” is used more in general. However, both of them are often used as an identical term without definite differences. MFA deals mainly with solid materials, but sometimes accounts for air and water as well. In some cases, accounting for water and air is often important to keep the mass balance (see Material Balance) between inputs and outputs. The system to be analysed by MFA is a unit of human activities, e.g. a household, an industrial process, an enterprise, an economic sector, a municipality, a country. Sources for further information: Moriguchi, Y.: Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2001. Proceedings EcoDesign 2001: Second International Symposium on , 11-15 Dec. 2001, pp. 880 –885. Experience of previous application: 1.0 MET (Material, Energy, Toxicity) Matrix Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: A MET matrix is based on an input/output analysis of materials, energy, and toxicity. It is used as a tool to take stock of the most important environmental aspects of a product with minimum efforts. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The matrix combines an input-output model with the product life cycle. For each product life cycle stage information related to the items materials, energy, and toxicity are collected and presented in a simple matrix. If quantitative data is missing, the results can be based on an interpretation of qualitative statements. The matrix can also be used for weak-point analysis and identification of potential environmental improvements. The three categories of environmental concerns are distinguished as follows:
• Materials cycle: environmental concerns regarding nature and amount of resource consumption and waste generation.
• Energy use: energy used in each phase of the life cycle of the product. • Toxic emissions: toxic emissions to water, air, and soil.
The MET matrix can provide Managers and Engineers with data and information about a product’s environmental aspects in a systematic and clearly arranged way. Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997.
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Economical Aspect 1.0 Total Cost Assessment/ Accounting (TCA) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: economical aspect Purpose of the technology: Total cost assessment or accounting focuses on the economic assessment of cleaner production investment. Accomplishment of goals: Development status: mature Description: TCA is a long-term oriented cost accounting method which aims to identify hidden, less tangible and liability costs. The TCA captures a longer time horizon in comparison with the payback time method, using the net present value (NPV) to discount future cash flows. Software: Several Software tools, such as MILA software, are available (see Brezet and van Hemel, 1997 [5]). Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application: 1.0 Life Cycle Costing (LCC) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: economical aspect Purpose of the technology: Life cycle costing or life cycle accounting is a method which addresses all the costs and benefits for which actors have to account for. Accomplishment of goals: Development status: mature Description: Life cycle costing assesses the costs in each stage of the product life cycle whereas the different cost factors are investigated on the basis of current and/ or future costs. Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application:
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Integration of technical and Economical Aspects 1.0 EcoDesign Matrix Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: integration of technical
and economical aspect Purpose of the technology: The Ecodesign Matrix compares different alternatives and eliminates unsatisfactory solutions by combining ecological, economic, customer-related and social improvement potential with technical and financial feasibility. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The assessment is conducted in a simple matrix whereas columns refer to the advantages and improvement potentials for the environment, for the company, for the customer and the society, and the technical and financial feasibility. The rows refer to solutions. The matrix can be completed for several solutions. If a solution does not perform well on even one point, it should either be eliminated or improved accordingly. Sources for further information: Stevels, A.: Eco-efficient design, the Philips experience. In: Center for Sustainable Design (Ed.): Towards Sustainable product design – 3rd International Conference, London, 26 – 27 October 1998. Experience of previous application: 1.0 EcoDesign Portfolio Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: integration of technical
and economical aspect Purpose of the technology: The EcoDesign portfolio compares different alternatives with the objective of eliminating unsatisfactory alternatives and identifying the best solution. It combines ecological, economic aspects with technical feasibility. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The assessment is conducted in a portfolio with four fields. The co-ordinate refers to the ecological improvement potential and the abscissa (x co-ordinate) to the technical and ecological feasibility and/or the market potential. Solutions in the top right hand box lead to an economic/ ecological win-win situation and should be selected for development. Solutions in the bottom right hand box promise quick wins, with an emphasis on the technical and economic side. Those in the top left hand box are interesting from an ecological point of view. And those in the bottom left hand box should be removed as they offer neither economic nor ecological advantages. This type of diagram could be used in different versions for different problems. For example, in the case of material selection, the axes might stand for “environmental impact of the material” and “material cost”. Sources for further information: Brezet, H.; van Hemel, C.: EcoDesign, a Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption. Paris: United Nations Publication, 1997. Experience of previous application:
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1.0 QFDE Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: all Category: assessment technology Sub-Category: integration of technical
and economical aspect Purpose of the technology: Quality Function Deployment for Environment has been developed by incorporating environmental aspects into QFD to handle the environmental and traditional product quality requirements simultaneously. Design engineers can find out which parts are the most important parts to enhance environmental consciousness of their products. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: QFDE exist of two phases. In the first phase, the voice of a customer for a product are deployed to more detailed Engineering Metrics (EM) to clarify their positions. In the second phase, the relationship between the above EM items and components of the product are clarified. Through these steps, the design engineer can identify functions and components on which to focus in order to satisfy the customer requirements. An important tool in QFDE is the House of Environmental Quality which facilitates an all-inclusive co-ordination of ecological and other criteria before and during the Ecodesign process, revealing influences and relationships between different aspects. This tool sets user, environmental and a company’s internal requirements in relation to ecological solutions and design strategies, thus, permitting an assessment of the quality of solutions in all these areas. Sources for further information: Masui, K.; Sakao, T.; Inaba, A.: Quality Function Deployment for Environment: QFDE (1st report) – A Methodology in Early Stage of DfE. In: Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2001. Proceedings EcoDesign 2001: Second International Symposium on 11-15 Dec. 2001, pp. 852 –857. Experience of previous application: Product Life Cycle Stage – Production Technical Aspect 1.2 SWAMI - Strategic Waste Minimisation Initiative (Software) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Assessment tools Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: SWAMI is a software tool using process analysis for identifying waste minimisation and pollution prevention opportunities within an industrial setting. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: Description: The software requires user-supplied information for a process definition, as well as material inputs and products for each operation unit and outputs associated with waste streams. The software is able to perform mass balances, drawing process diagrams and directing towards possible waste minimisation audits. Sources for further information: Centre for Environmental Research Information. US EPA: SWAMI Distribution Centre, Tel. +1 – 513 – 569-7562 (United States). Experience of previous application:
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Product Life Cycle Stage – Distribution Technical Aspect 1.3 PEMS (LCA software for Packaging) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Distribution Category: Assessment tools Sub-Category: technical aspect Purpose of the technology: PEMS is a LCA software that focuses on packaging. The inventory includes materials, energy, transportation and waste management information. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: PEMS provides Life Cycle Assessment software for the packaging, paper, printing and publishing industries. It is a user-friendly program which can be used to assess environmental impacts and to aid decision making. Sources for further information: Pira International: PEMS. http://www.pira.co.uk/pack/environmental.htm (25.08.2003). Experience of previous application:
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Appendix B: Technologies within the Material Substitution Category
Product Life Cycle Stage – Resource Extraction General 2.1 EuroMat – (Design for Environment Tool) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material Substitution Sub-Category: general Purpose of the technology: EuroMat is a software tool which supports design engineers selecting recyclable and environmentally conscious materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: Euromat starts with the specification of the technical requirements for the product or component. Next, technically feasible materials are selected (materials selection module) and the corresponding manufacturing and recycling processes are identified (manufacturing and recycling modules). Finally, the software compares the resulting cradle-to-grave systems from a life-cycle perspective. Therefore, it employs specifically tailored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), work environment and risk assessment methods. As a result, Euromat provides design engineers with an integrative comparison and assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different material options for a product. Sources for further information: euroMat: The Design for Environment Tool. Online in the internet: http://www.euromat-online.de/englisch/Unterseiten-engl/product.html (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application: Together with the four industry partners MAN Technologie AG, Ford Motor Company, Denios AG, and Sachsenring Entwicklungs GmbH the following euroMat applications have been carried out:
• Airbus freshwater tank. • Front subframe system of the new Ford Mondeo. • Door panel for lightweight truck.
2.1 IdeMat Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: general Purpose of the technology: Idemat is a tool for material selections in the design process. It is a material/ processes/ component database that allows comparison of different materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature
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Description: Idemat put emphasis on environmental information, but it also provides technical information about physical properties. This enables users to choose a material most suited and least environmentally damaging. With IDEMAT, user can lookup and compare information about materials, processes or components, and they also can let IDEMAT search for materials that match their criteria. Sources for further information: Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Design, Engineering and Production: IdeMAT online. Online in the Internet: http://www.io.tudelft.nl/research/dfs/idemat/index.htm (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application: 2.1 Materials Checklists Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: general Purpose of the technology: Materials checklists provides information for designers about which materials should not be used to comply with regulations and/ or company policy. Accomplishment of goals: all (depending on checklist) Development status: mature Description: In general, materials checklists are company specific. Based on regulations and the environmental strategy of the company, the checklists include materials and substances which have been identified as hazardous to health or damaging to the environment. The checklists can be sub-divided into two or three categories of materials, depending on the recommendations for use. For example: 1. Banned substances, according to legislation in force, 2. discouraged materials, which are materials that should not be used unless alternatives are not available and 3. materials which the company would prefer not to use although they are not banned. Sources for further information: An example can be found in: Graedel, T.; Allenby, B.: Industrial Ecology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, 1995. Experience of previous application: Product life cycle stage – Production Coatings 2.2 CAGE (Coating Alternatives Guides) Industry Sector: Metal, Plastic Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Material Substitution Sub-Category: Coatings Purpose of the technology: CAGE is a pollution prevention tool for paints and coatings users. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature
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Description: CAGE is a simple software program that contains several tools to help users identify low-volatile, organic compound/hazardous air pollutant coatings that may serve as drop-in replacements for existing coating operations. Furthermore, CAGE proposes alternative coating process techniques. A questionaire will assist in determining the coating alternatives most likely to work in a particular coating process. Sources for further information: Pollution Prevention Program at Research Triangle Institute (in Co-operation with US EPA): Coatings Guide. Online in the Internet: http://cage.rti.org/ (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application:
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Solvents 2.2 PARIS II Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: Solvents Purpose of the technology: PARIS II designs (in the computer)solvent mixtures with reduced environmental impact that match the property profile of the currently used solvent mixture. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: PARIS II generates a ranked list of solvents based on closeness in meeting specified criteria. Users have to insert data about the chemical composition of solvent, operating conditions, and the tolerance ranges for solvent physical parameters including environmental parameters. Sources for further information: US EPA: PARIS II – Computer Aided Solvent Design for Pollution Prevention. Online in the Internet: http://www.epa.gov/ordntrnt/ORD/NRMRL/std/mtb/paris.htm (25.08.2003) Experience of previous application: 2.2 SAGE (Solvents Alternatives Guide) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Material substitution Sub-Category: Solvents Purpose of the technology: SAGE is a comprehensive guide designed to provide information about solvent and process alternatives for parts cleaning and degreasing. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: Sage is a simple software program that compares information about the cleaning and degreasing operations specified by the user with all available alternatives. SAGE will then try to come up with alternatives that perform the same task in a more environmentally friendly way. Sources for further information: Surface Cleaning Program at Research Triangle Institute (in co-operation with the US EPA): SAGE – Solvents Alternatives Guide. Online in the Internet: http://sage.rti.org/ (25.08.2003). Experience of previous application:
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Appendix C: Technologies within the Design Change Category
Product Life Cycle – Resource Extraction 3.1 EuroMat – Design for Environment Tool Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Design Change Sub-Category: General Purpose of the technology: EuroMat is a software tool that supports design engineers selecting recyclable and environmentally conscious materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: Euromat starts with the specification of the technical requirements for the product or component. Next, technically feasible materials are selected (materials selection module) and the corresponding manufacturing and recycling processes are identified (manufacturing and recycling modules). Finally, the software compares the resulting cradle-to-grave systems from a life-cycle perspective. Therefore, it employs specifically tailored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), work environment and risk assessment methods. As a result, Euromat provides design engineers with an integrative comparison and assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different material options for a product. Sources for further information: euroMat http://www.euromat-online.de/englisch/Unterseiten-engl/product.html Experience of previous application: Together with the four industry partners MAN Technologie AG, Ford Motor Company, Denios AG, and Sachsenring Entwicklungs GmbH the following euroMat applications have been carried out:
• Airbus freshwater tank. • Front subframe system of the new Ford Mondeo. • Rotational moulding tool. • Door panel for lightweight truck.
Product life cycle – Production Phase DFA and DFM 3.2 BDI – DFA software (including further modules: DFE, DFM, DFS) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFA Purpose of the technology: The DFA tool is used to simplify products. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The DFA software enables design engineers to estimate the assembly time, and assembly costs. Further it can be integrated with the DFM tool for estimating total product costs. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application:
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3.2 BDI - DFM software (including further modules: DFE, DFA, DFS) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFM Purpose of the technology: The DFM tool allows design engineers to improve the product’s design in its manufacturing life phase. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The DFM software is based on five different modules: Injection moulding, die casting, sheet metal working, machining and powder metal parts. The software contains interactive material and equipment databases (for material and process selection), and provides engineers with component cost information in the early design phase. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application: 3.2 LASeR Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFA Purpose of the technology: LASeR is a software tool that evaluates the serviceability, recyclability and assembly of mechanical designs. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: The user inserts a description of a mechanical system along with cost, labour and material data. Afterwards the user returns to the navigation page and invokes the analysis routine. The user can conduct analysis for assembly or for service. The software determines the labour steps needed to accomplish the repairs and computes associated service costs. Furthermore the program offers analysis for the product retirement. It analyses selected groups of compatible components and determines the disassembly and reprocessing costs. Sources for further information: Ishii, K.: LASeR – Life-Cycle assembly, Service and Recycling – User’s Manual. Life Cycle Engineering Group at Ohio State (LEGOS), The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1994. Experience of previous application:
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3.2 PRICE Systems Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFA, DFM Purpose of the technology: Price systems is a software that can be used for Life Cycle Cost Analysis combined with Design for Assembly and/or Design for Manufacture. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: Modules included in the PRICE Estimating Suite are:
• PRICE H, the Hardware Estimating Model • PRICE HL, the Hardware Life Cycle Estimating Model • PRICE S, the Software Development and Support Cost Estimating Model • PRICE M, the Electronic Module and Microcircuit Estimating Model
Detailed information about each module can be found on the web-site. Sources for further information: Price Systems: Product overview. Online in the Internet: http://www.pricesystems.com/productservice/productoverview.html (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application: Product Life Cycle – Use Phase DFL 3.4 BDI – DFS Software (including further modules: DFE, DFA,DFM) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Use Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFL Purpose of the technology: The DFS software allows designers and engineers to enhance the product’s serviceability during its use phase. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The software evaluates the serviceability of a product in the early design stage, where changes to the product can be made at minimal cost. It generates reports that suggest areas for redesign and areas which should be examined for service improvement. The DFS software uses the same data structure as the original DFA software and adds estimates of servicing time and cost. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html, http://www.dfma.com/publications/manuals.htm (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application:
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3.4 LASeR Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: Use Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFL Purpose of the technology: LASeR is a software tool that evaluates the serviceability, recyclability and assembly of mechanical designs. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: The user inserts a description of a mechanical system along with cost, labour and material data. Afterwards the user returns to the navigation page and invokes the analysis routine. The user can conduct analysis for assembly or for service. The software determines the labour steps needed to accomplish the repairs and computes associated service costs. Furthermore the program offers analysis for the product retirement. It analyses selected groups of compatible components and determines the disassembly and reprocessing costs. Sources for further information: Ishii, K.: LASeR – Life-Cycle assembly, Service and Recycling – User’s Manual. Life Cycle Engineering Group at Ohio State (LEGOS), The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1994. Experience of previous application:
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Product Life Cycle – End of Life 3.5 BDI – DFE software (including further modules: DFA, DFM, DFS) Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design change Sub-Category: DFA Purpose of the technology: The DFE tool is used to optimise decision making at the end of life of products. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: The DFE module includes basic data on materials and recycling and builds on the DFS tool. Sources for further information: Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc.: Software products. Online in the internet: http://www.dfma.com/software/index.html; http://www.dfma.com/publications/manuals.htm (26.08.2003). Experience of previous application: 3.5 EuroMat – Design for Environment Tool Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFD or DFEoL Purpose of the technology: EuroMat is a software tool that supports design engineers selecting recyclable and environmentally conscious materials. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: Euromat starts with the specification of the technical requirements for the product or component. Next, technically feasible materials are selected (materials selection module), and the corresponding manufacturing and recycling processes are identified (manufacturing and recycling modules). Finally, the software compares the resulting cradle-to-grave systems from a life-cycle perspective. Therefore, it employs specifically tailored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), work environment and risk assessment methods. As a result, Euromat provides design engineers with an integrative comparison and assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of different material options for a product. Sources for further information: euroMat http://www.euromat-online.de/englisch/Unterseiten-engl/product.html Experience of previous application: Together with the four industry partners MAN Technologie AG, Ford Motor Company, Denios AG, and Sachsenring Entwicklungs GmbH the following euroMat applications have been carried out:
• Airbus freshwater tank. • Front subframe system of the new Ford Mondeo. • Rotational moulding tool. • Door panel for lightweight truck.
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3.5 LASeR Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFR Purpose of the technology: LASeR is a software tool that evaluates the serviceability, recyclability and assembly of mechanical designs. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: emerging Description: The user inserts a description of a mechanical system along with cost, labour and material data. Afterwards the user returns to the navigation page and invokes the analysis routine. The user can conduct analysis for assembly or for service. The software determines the labour steps needed to accomplish the repairs and computes associated service costs. Furthermore the program offers analysis for the product retirement. It analyses selected groups of compatible components and determines the disassembly and reprocessing costs. Sources for further information: Ishii, K.: LASeR – Life-Cycle assembly, Service and Recycling – User’s Manual. Life Cycle Engineering Group at Ohio State (LEGOS), The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1994. Experience of previous application: 3.5 ReStar Industry Sector: all Product Life Cycle: End of Life Category: Design Change Sub-Category: DFD or DFEoL, DFR Purpose of the technology: ReStar is a DFD software that enables the design engineers to calculate and optimise expenses for the disassembly and disposal of a product, in order to find the optimal economical and environmental solution for the disposal/recycling of a product Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: ReStar plots a curve of the required effort for disassembly, testing, repair, remanufacturing and product changes that enable recovery. Furthermore, the software plots a curve showing the revenue form resale and reuse. The tool helps design engineers find the optimal point of the two curves. Sources for further information: Navin-Chandra, D.: ReStar, A Design Tool For Environmental Recovery Analysis. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Engineering Design (ICED '93), The Hague, Netherlands, August 1993, pp. 780 – 787. Experience of previous application:
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Appendix D: Technologies within the Process Change Category
Metal Industry Sector Product Life Cycle Phase – Resource Extraction Ferrous Metals 4.1 Dry Quenching Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Resource Extraction Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Ferrous metals Purpose of the technology: Dry quenching aims to reduce emissions from coking operations. Accomplishment of goals: Waste Development status: mature Description: Dry quenching techniques eliminate the vapour cloud found over typical quench towers. The technique uses inert gases as a medium to transfer heat from red-hot coke to water to make steam for either process or power generation purposes. The heat transfer media (e.g. gases) are completely enclosed and fully recycled. Sources for further information: Labee, C. J.; Samways, N. L.: Developments in the Iron and Steel Industry – U.S. and Canada – 1990. In: Iron and Steel Engineer Vol. 68, No. 2, February 1991, pp. D1 – D38 Experience of previous application: Product Life Cycle Phase – Production Material Removal Processes 4.2 Dry Machining/ Minimal Quantities of Lubricant (MQL) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Material Removal
Processes Purpose of the technology: Dry machining eliminates problems associated with the use of lubricants. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: emerging Description: Dry machining is a technique which does not use lubricants during operations such as milling, drilling, rotating and grinding. – In the context of dry machining, the term minimal quantities of lubricant is used when tiny quantities of a lubricant are fed to the machining point or to the tool. Tiny quantity means that less than 50 ml of the medium is consumed per process hour. In comparison, 6 m3 of lubricant is expelled from a pump casing, which has a total lubricant capacity of 60 m3. Thus, the volume of lubricant used in MQL techniques represents an impressive reduction. By applying MQL techniques correctly, the workpieces and chips remain dry and therefore it is justified to use the term dry. A further prerequisite is the deployment of suitable cutting materials such as high temperature hardness and wear resistance of hard metals, cermets, and CBN or PCD for the realisation of dry machining operations.
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Sources for further information: Eversheim, W.; Klocke, F.; Pfeifer, T.; Weck, M.: Manufacturing Excellence in Global Markets. London: Chapman and Hall, 1997. Experience of previous application:
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Cleaning and Degreasing Processes 4.2 Completely Enclosed Vapour Cleaner (CEVC) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Cleaning and Degreasing Purpose of the technology: The CEVC virtually eliminates air emissions deriving from the cleaning process (tests have shown over 99% reduction in solvent emissions). Accomplishment of goals: Waste Development status: mature Description: The workload is placed in an airtight chamber, into which solvent vapours are introduced. After the cleaning process is finished, the solvent vapours in the chamber are evacuated and captured by chilling and carbon adsorption. Once the solvent in the chamber is evacuated, the door of the chamber is opened and the cleaned workload is withdrawn which is free from any residual solvent. The CEVC has a relatively higher energy requirement and longer cleaning cycles because of the alternating heating and cooling stages. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references. Experience of previous application: 4.2 Vacuum Furnace Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Cleaning and Degreasing Purpose of the technology: The Vacuum Furnace eliminates the solvent use for cleaning. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: emerging Description: The vacuum furnace uses heat and vacuum to vaporise oils from parts (especially metal parts). In a typical system, a load of parts is heated in a vacuum to vaporise all oils present. The vapours are then condensed and collected for later removal to be reprocessed and recycled. Another possibility is a hot wall design that eliminates furnace wall oil deposits caused by the condensation. There is no condensation as the walls are at a temperature above that. The vacuum furnace produces small waste streams consisting of the removed oil from the part. By using proper equipment, the oil can be recycled and reused or sold which would result in no waste streams. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references. Experience of previous application:
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Removal of Paint and Coatings 4.2 Plastic Media Blasting (PMB) Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Removal of Paint and
Coatings Purpose of the technology: PMB eliminates the use of solvent strippers an volatile organic air emissions. The process uses non-toxic plastic media for the coating removal. PMB is a dry stripping process. Thus, wastewater is also eliminated. Accomplishment of goals: all Development status: mature Description: PMB uses low-pressure air or centrifugal wheels to project the plastic media at a surface. The blast particles have sufficient impact energy, coupled with hardness and geometry, to chip away or erode the coating. After the coating has been removed, the part can be prepared for recoating by air pressure and/ or vacuuming to remove plastic dust and coating debris. – The hardness of the plastic particles varies and depends on the coating. Using Thermoplastic media makes recycling possible. The recycled media can be reused or used to produce plastic products. In comparison to solvent stripping operations, PMB requires less electrical energy for heating and electrical equipment operations. The process requires workers to wear respiratory and eye protection equipment. Furthermore, spent plastic media contain paint/ coating chips and thus, it may be a hazardous waste. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references; Higgins, T. E.; Thom, J.: Solvents Used for Cleaning, Refrigeration, Firefighting, and Other Uses. In: Higgins, T. E. (Ed.), Pollution Prevention Handbook, Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1995, pp. 199 – 243. Experience of previous application: 4.2 High Pressure Water Blasting Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Removal of Paint and
Coatings Purpose of the technology: High pressure water blasting eliminates the use of volatile organic compounds. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Waste Development status: mature Description: To remove paint and coatings, high pressure water blasting uses a pulsed or continuous stream of water projected from specially designed nozzles at pressures of 10000 to 35000 psi. High pressure pumps supply water to a system of rotating nozzles that spray the water stream onto the surface. The paint or coating is removed by the kinetic impact of the water stream.
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Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references; Higgins, T. E.; Thom, J.: Solvents Used for Cleaning, Refrigeration, Firefighting, and Other Uses. In: Higgins, T. E. (Ed.), Pollution Prevention Handbook, Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1995, pp. 199 – 243. Experience of previous application:
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Metal Surface Finish 4.2 Blackhole Technology Industry Sector: metal Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Metal Surface Finish Purpose of the technology: Blackhole Technology is an alternative to the electroless copper method used in printed wire board (PWB) manufacturing. It is environmentally attractive because the technology uses fewer process steps, reduces health and safety concerns, requires less water and reduces air pollution. Accomplishment of goals: Material, Energy, Waste Development status: mature Description: The Blackhole Technology uses an aqueous carbon black dispersion (suspension) at room temperature for repairing through-holes in PWBs for subsequent copper electro-plating. The carbon film that is obtained provides the conductivity needed for electroplating copper in the through-holes. Sources for further information: Randall, P. M.: Engineers’ Guide to Cleaner Production Technologies. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., 1996 and listed references. Experience of previous application: Plastic Industry Sector Product Life Cycle – Production 4.2 Air moulding (Gas Injection Moulding) Industry Sector: plastic Product Life Cycle: Production Category: Process Change Sub-Category: Primary Shaping Purpose of the technology: Air moulding is an alternative to the injection moulding process. It is environmentally attractive because products produced by this method a thin walls and range in shape and size from small bottles to automobile fuel tanks. Accomplishment of goals: material, energy Development status: mature Description: Air molding is a fast, efficient method for producing hollow containers of thermoplastic polymers. The moulding process involves blowing a tubular shape (parison) of heated polymer in a cavity of a split mould. Next, air (most of the times nitrogen) is injected through a needle into the parison which expands in a fairly uniform thickness and finally conforms to the shape of the cavity. Sources for further information: Hugo Ackermann GmbH & CO. KG: Aimould Technik. Online: http://www.hugo-ackermann.de/technologie.html (accessed: 31.08.2003). Experience of previous application: