INTRODUCTION Mine workings and their artificial spoil heaps can support spe-cialised plants and vegetation communities that are tolerant ofhigh levels of toxic metals, notably copper [Cu], lead [Pb] andzinc [Zn]. Such vegetation can be ascribed to the CalaminarianGrasslands of the Violetalia calaminariae, a habitat listed onAnnex I of the EU Habitats Directive (hereafter referred to asCalaminarian Grassland). There are currently three candidateSpecial Areas of Conservation (SACs) in Ireland selected toprotect stands of Calaminarian Grassland: Moneen Mountain,Co. Galway (cSAC code 000054); Killarney National Park,Macgillycuddy's Reeks and Caragh River Catchment, Co.Kerry (cSAC code 000365) and Kenmare River, Co. Cork(cSAC code 002158). Some stands of Calaminarian Grasslandare notable for the presence of rare bryophytes (mosses and liv-erworts) such as Cephaloziella integerrima, C. massalongi, C.nicholsonii, Ditrichum cornubicum, Scopelophila cataractaeand Pohlia andalusica, amongst others. Until recently, howev-er, there were relatively few records from Ireland of these socalled 'copper mosses' or metallophytes. None of the speciesinvolved were recorded in the classical compilations byMcArdle (1904) and Lett (1915), the first records being of theliverwort Cephaloziella massalongi found at Allihies in Co.Cork by H. Milne-Redhead in 1955 (Castell 1957) and east ofBunmahon in Co. Waterford by R.D. Fitzgerald and D.M.Synnott in 1966 (Paton 1967). Subsequent visitors have addedthe moss Pohlia andalusica from both of the same two sites(Holyoak 2003).

During 1999-2005 a programme of research on Irishbryophytes was undertaken by National Parks and WildlifeService (NPWS), resulting in many new records, although fewinvolved 'copper mosses' (Holyoak 2006). Continuation of this

work into Co. Cork in 2006 and Co. Waterford in 2007 result-ed, however, in the first Irish records of the liverwortCephaloziella nicholsonii and the mosses Ditrichum cornu-bicum and Scopelophila cataractae, among other finds, at oldcopper mine sites. This led to suspicion that other populationsof metallophyte bryophytes may hitherto have been overlookedelsewhere in Ireland. A wide-ranging survey of bryophytes atIrish metalliferous mine sites was therefore undertaken byNPWS during 2008, which produced numerous new finds(Holyoak and Lockhart 2009), including the lead-tolerant mossDitrichum plumbicola new to Ireland. The present paper givesa fuller account of this survey, its results and the implicationsfor conservation of metallophyte vegetation in Ireland. Thelikely role of accidental transport by man in facilitating disper-sal of metallophyte bryophytes is also briefly discussed.Taxonomy and nomenclature follow Hill et al. (2008) forbryophytes and Stace (2010) for phanerogams.

METHODSA field survey was carried out by DTH on behalf of NPWSfrom April to June 2008 in order to provide fuller informationon bryophyte species and communities on metalliferous minespoil in Ireland. The detailed objectives of this survey were asfollows:

1. To establish the distribution and extent of metallo-phyte bryophyte communities of mine spoil in Ireland;

2. To relate the distribution and extent of metallophyte bryophyte communities to that of the total Calaminarian Grassland resource in Ireland;

3. To classify and describe the range of variation of metalliferous mine-spoil vegetation;

3

A SURVEY OF BRYOPHYTES AND METALLOPHYTE VEGETATION OF

METALLIFEROUS MINE SPOILIN IRELAND

by David T. Holyoak and Neil Lockhart

David Holyoak, Quinta da Cachopa, Barcoila, 6100-014 Cabeçudo, Portugal. Email: holyoak9187@hotmail.comNeil Lockhart, National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, 7Ely Place, Dublin 2, Ireland. Email: neil.lockhart@ahg.gov.ie

Abstract: A wide-ranging survey of bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) at Irish metalliferous minesites was undertaken by National Parks and Wildlife Service in 2008. It established that althoughmost of the so called 'copper mosses' or metallophytes are rare plants in Ireland, they occur at addi-tional localities, where they have been overlooked until recently. Vegetation of mine spoil with theserare bryophytes is ascribable to 'Calaminarian grasslands of the Violetalia calaminariae', a habitatlisted on Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive. The extent of this protected vegetation type inIreland is reassessed (total area of ca 15.6 ha) and suggestions are made for conservation of someof the best examples. The likely role of accidental transport by man in facilitating dispersal of met-allophyte bryophytes is also briefly discussed. Journal of the Mining Heritage Trust of Ireland, 11,2011 3-16.

4. To identify, list and rank metalliferous mine-spoil sitesof conservation interest;

5. To determine the condition and future prospects of metalliferous mine-spoil sites of conservation interest;

6. To propose management recommendations to ensure favourable conservation status is achieved;

7. To propose a monitoring prescription for this habitat type.

Initial selection of the sites to be visited posed a challenge at thestart of the survey. The Geological Survey of Ireland databaseof 'Mine Site Workings' lists ca 280 sites. It would have beenimpossible to visit all of these in the time available and proba-bly pointless to do so, as many would by now have little or nobotanical interest. It was therefore necessary to select a muchsmaller number of sites to visit (ca 40), that neverthelessincluded as many as possible of those with the greatest interestfor metallophyte bryophytes. Based on experience in Cornwalland elsewhere, it appeared that the best sites were likely to be:

(a) those already known to have rare metallophyte bryophytes;

(b) among those that produced highest tonnages of Cu, Pb or Znhistorically, especially in the relatively recent past;

(c) where extensive spoil tips have not been reclaimed or re-vegetated;

(d) sites of continuing interest to mineral collectors;

(e) sites with spoil in damp, low-lying settings but with largelyunshaded fine-grained clayey spoil, rather than open sunnysites, or tree-shaded sites, or gravelly sites;

An initial list of sites was compiled from several sources.Phytosociological publications (Doyle 1982, Lötschert 1982)described only a few small disused lead mines. Cole (1922)provided an extensive review of mine sites worked up to the1920s. More recent information was obtained from mining,mining company and mining history websites. Personal con-tacts with mineral collectors (particularly John Fisher) addedsome useful pointers to exposed spoil tips rich in copper andlead minerals. Mike Wyse Jackson suggested several significantsites in Co. Cork and Co. Kerry. A visit to the NPWS offices inDublin at the start of the survey was used to assemble and copyrelevant sections of 1:5000 and 1:10,560 maps, aerial pho-tographs and other materials. Scrutiny of these, along withsome notations of 'Shaft', 'Chimney' or 'Disused mine', wereuseful in locating sites.

A short list of sites most likely to be worth surveying was drawnup by applying criteria noted in points (a) to (e) above (Table1). The sites visited were thus mainly those regarded as highranking in Table 1, along with a selection of lower ranked sitesintended to represent different regions of Ireland or differentmine types (particularly small lead mines). Sites described byDoyle (1982) and Lötschert (1982) were also revisited; a dis-used copper mine at Brow Head (Co. Cork) was added on theadvice of Mike Wyse Jackson; a 'new' find near Knockmahonvillage (Co. Waterford) was added when it became clear from afield visit that it was significant. Requests to visit the large

modern mine at Lisheen initially met with bureaucratic delay,but this may have been fortuitous good luck since the proposedvisit was abandoned after it became clear from fieldwork thattailings dams on the similar modern mine nearby at Galmoy hadvery little bryological interest.

In the end, several mine sites were visited that had no (remain-ing) metallophyte bryophyte interest (e.g. Ballycummisk,Ballydehob, Barrystown), even some high ranked sites had verylittle or no interest (notably Connary, Cronebane, Galmoy), buta few of the small sites selected proved to be significant newfinds from a botanical viewpoint (notably Caim andBallyhighland, Glenmalur and Shallee). There are doubtlessother unsurveyed small sites that are of significant interest forbryophytes, but it seems that only chance finds or a reallyexhaustive survey are likely to reveal their whereabouts!

Standard information was recorded at each mine site whereeither significant metallophyte vegetation or rare metallophytebryophytes were found. This information comprised a SiteSurvey Card (Table 2) and, where quadrat data were recorded,a Relevé Card (Table 3). Large numbers of digital photographswere taken using a Nikon Coolpix 4500 to show the generalcharacter of each site, with emphasis on metallophyte vegeta-tion and locations with rare bryophytes. All relevés were alsophotographed. All of the photographs were given serial num-bers prefaced with NPW08 and all are lodged with NPWS.

Following initial widespread searching and inspection of thevegetation at each mine site, relevés were routinely selected forrepresentative samples of the different types of metallophytevegetation encountered. Vegetation types that did not havestrong evidence of metalliferous influence were mainly ignoredduring this sampling and recording process, although some'weakly metalliferous' relevés were recorded. There was somedeliberate bias towards siting relevés in small patches of habi-tat with rare metallophyte bryophytes, but this was to someextent countered by occasional recording of near-monospecificstands of Agrostis grassland on obviously toxic spoil.

Prior to the fieldwork, a decision was required regarding thesize of quadrat to be used in recording relevé data. The 'stan-dard' 2 × 2 m used for grassland surveys was clearly too largefor recording small bryophytes, since accurate recording ofeach quadrat could take several hours. On the other hand, the0.50 × 0.25 m adopted as a standard for bryophyte surveys byBRECOG (the British Bryological Society's 'BryophyteEcology Group') seemed rather small when vascular plantswere also being recorded. Quadrats of 0.5 × 0.5 m were there-fore chosen as a compromise and this size worked well in thefield. A square frame (4 thin tent pegs joined by thin stringstretched taut: Figure 1) was used when recording data.

Voucher specimens for microscopic identification were routine-ly collected from relevés. This sampling and subsequent cura-tion of material was carried out as part of a programme of workrecording threatened bryophytes for a Red Data Book of Irishbryophytes (Lockhart et al., in press). Details of the methodsinvolved and the standard Species-Site data forms are includedin a separate unpublished report to NPWS (Holyoak 2008).

4

5

Table 1. Initial list of mine sites considered for survey in 2008.

Vis

itN N N N N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

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6

Site name: Time spent on site: Date:

Townland name Site Area County Extent of coverage Grid ref. Alt range (m) Discovery Map no. Bedrock type 1:5000 sheet Mineral type (Cu, Pb, Zn, etc.) 6” sheet Soil type Air photo ID & year Soil moisture regime NPWS Region Seasonal flooding (y/n) NHA code HC Habitats (% cover) EU 2 SAC code ED 2 SPA code ED 3 Ownership Other HD Habitats (% cover) Calaminarian Other

Site geography & landscape setting

Site history & management

Significance of site for bryophytes

Development of metallophyte plant communities

Assessment of conservation value

Threats/recommendations for conservation

Species list

Jungermannia gracillima Ceratodon purpureus Grasses indet. Gymnocolea inflata Polytrichum juniperinum Dicot seedlings Cephaloziella stellulifera Dicranella varia Agrostis capillaris Cephaloziella sp. Pohlia annotina Agrostis stolonifera Diplophyllum albicans Ditrichum cornubicum Armeria maritima Scapania compacta Ditrichum lineare Calluna vulgaris Nardia scalaris Pohlia andalusica Erica cinerea Cephaloziella massalongi Scopelophila cataractae Plantago coronopus Cephaloziella nicholsonii Weissia controversa var. densifolia Plantago maritima Cephaloziella integerrima Silene vulgaris Ulex gallii Ulex europaeus Ulex sp.

Liv

erw

orts

Mos

ses

Vas

cula

r pl

ants

Impacting Activities (NATURA list codes)

Table 2. Site survey card for the survey of vegetation on Irish metalliferous mines.

7

Site name: Date: Releve Number Slope Aspect Grid Ref Altitude Substrate type Description

Herb height (cm) Photo ID DOMIN scale

Bare soil Rock Surface water Litter Vegetation Vascular plant Bryophyte Lichen

Gen

eral

Algae Jungermannia gracillima Gymnocolea inflata Cephaloziella stellulifera Cephaloziella sp. Diplophyllum albicans Scapania compacta Nardia scalaris Cephaloziella massalongi Cephaloziella nicholsonii Cephaloziella integerrima

Liv

erw

orts

Ceratodon purpureus Polytrichum juniperinum Dicranella varia Pohlia annotina Ditrichum cornubicum Ditrichum lineare Pohlia andalusica Scopelophila cataractae Weissia controversa var. densifolia

Mos

ses

Grasses indet. Dicot seedlings Agrostis capillaris Agrostis stolonifera Armeria maritima Calluna vulgaris Erica cinerea Plantago coronopus Plantago maritima Silene vulgaris Ulex gallii Ulex europaeus Ulex sp.

Vas

cula

r pl

ants

Table 3. Relevé card for the survey of vegetation on Irish metalliferous mines.

RESULTSAbout 50 mine sites were visited by DTH during the fieldwork.A diary of the work, which took place from 12th April to 5thJune 2008, was appended to the report by Holyoak (2008).Early spring was deliberately chosen as the best seasonal tim-ing for the fieldwork, since many metallophyte bryophytes aretiny plants that make most of their growth during the winter andbecome very difficult to find in summer. Fortunately the weath-er during April and May 2008 was ideal, with frequent rain thatkept bryophytes hydrated, but not so much rain that fieldworkwas hampered.

Site Survey Cards were completed for 35 mine sites that had atleast some slight metallophyte interest, although several ofthese were of little real importance for metallophyte vegetationor metallophyte bryophytes. The bulk of the unpublishedReport held by NPWS consists of these Site Survey Cards,accompanied in most cases by Relevé Cards and marked maps,and often also by marked aerial photographs and other docu-mentation.

A short paper has been published with new distributionalrecords of metallophyte bryophytes from this survey, alongwith the more significant metallophyte records obtained fromother surveys over the past few years (Holyoak and Lockhart2009). In brief, the most notable results of the present surveywere as follows: Ditrichum plumbicola new to Ireland at sitesin Co. Dublin and Co. Galway; Cephaloziella nicholsonii atadditional sites (new to Co. Galway, Co. Waterford, Co.Wicklow, Co. Wexford); Cephaloziella massalongi at addition-al sites (new to Co. Dublin, Co. Wicklow); Cephaloziella inte-gerrima at additional sites (new to Co. Wicklow); Scopelophilacataractae at a third Irish site (new to Co. Wexford).

A draft of a second paper has been prepared and lodged withNPWS, to summarise phytosociological data and observationsfrom this survey. The main conclusion from this is that existingliterature deals very incompletely with metallophyte vegetationin Ireland (and indeed in the British Isles or Europe as a whole).Several vegetation types composed of single bryophyte speciesor very few species occur on copper mine spoil, all of themlacking formal names as syntaxa. Coining new names for such'Associations' consisting of a single species seems illogical, sothe temptation to do so was resisted. On less toxic substratathese monospecific or species-poor stands grade into severalheathland and grassland vegetation types, resulting in complex-ity that existing phytosociological classification as 'Violetaliacalaminariae' does not adequately cover.

Much of the detailed material and discussion from the unpub-lished reports is not repeated here. Hence, the remainder of thepresent paper is mainly devoted to a consideration of the extentand distribution of the Calaminarian Grassland habitat inIreland, discussion of priorities and practicalities for conserva-tion of metallophyte vegetation and rare metallophyte speciesand a discussion of the likely role of man in the accidental dis-persal of metallophyte bryophyte populations.

Extent and distribution of CalaminarianGrassland habitat in IrelandThe presence of indicator species was taken as the strongestevidence of Calaminarian Grassland vegetation. Thus:

(a) Obligate Cu bryophytes are Cephaloziella massalongi, C.nicholsonii, Ditrichum cornubicum, Scopelophila cataractae;the only obligate Pb bryophyte is Ditrichum plumbicola.

8

Figure 1. Relevé 1 atBallycorus, Co. Dublin:lead mine spoil withsparse cover ofDitrichum plumbicolaand Solenostoma gracilli-mum.

(b) All others are facultative metallophytes, those most indica-tive of high [Cu] being Cephaloziella integerrima, C. stellulif-era, Gymnocolea inflata, Solenostoma gracillimum, Pohliaandalusica, Scapania compacta, Weissia controversa var. den-sifolia; some indicative of Pb or Zn are Bryum pallescens andWeissia controversa var. densifolia.

(c) All vascular plants are merely facultative indicators,Minuartia verna (Pb and Zn) being strongest, but inland popu-lations of Armeria (in the lowlands) and Plantago maritima(Cu, Pb and Zn) are also significant. Generally, high Cu con-centrations are characterised by poorly grown, near-monospe-cific stands of Agrostis capillaris and Calluna vulgaris, and arefloristically very dull.

(d) These conclusions about indicator species are supported bya body of analytical data from Cornwall on available heavymetal contents of substrata on which the plants occur (Clements1996, Rouen 2000, Walsh 2001). Such data are important toconfirm that restriction of particular plant species to mine areasis due to the presence there of metal residues and not to otherfactors such as disturbance, minimal soil development or lownutrient levels.

Ground with high levels of heavy metals generally has species-poor vegetation, with only a few of the species from adjoininggrassland or heathland growing well. However, other factorsbeside metal toxicity can produce species-poor communities,particularly recent disturbance, extreme acidity or alkalinity,extreme poverty in nutrients, other toxic substances (e.g.arsenic, certain organic compounds, selective herbicides),

drought, or combinations of these. During this survey extreme-ly species-poor and sparse vegetation at some mines in theAvoca Valley of Co. Wicklow (notably Cronebane andConnary) appeared to result from strongly acidic substrate reac-tions associated with high Sulphur levels in the bedrock, ratherthan from high metal levels. Hence little use was made of lowspecies numbers as indicators of metallophyte vegetation in theabsence of evidence from the indicator species listed above. Itis quite likely therefore that the extent of CalaminarianGrassland habitat has been somewhat underestimated, but cor-respondingly unlikely that much of what has been recognised ismisidentified.

The habitat is widely distributed geographically (Figures 2 and3) and it occurs on a range of bedrock types from strongly basic(Carboniferous Limestone, calcareous shales) to distinctlyacidic (granitic, schist, shale and quartzite) lithologies (Table4). The diversity of plant association types found withinCalaminarian Grassland vegetation in Ireland doubtless relatesat least partly to this variability in bedrock geology, chemistryand hydrology. It is therefore desirable to protect a range of thebetter examples of Calaminarian Grassland vegetation from dif-ferent bedrock and heavy metal types.

In order to estimate the total area of metallophyte vegetation inIreland, many scattered occurrences of the moss community ofWeissia controversa var. densifolia-Bryum pallescens wereignored. This community is evidently widespread in places farremoved from mine sites, such as under the edges of galvanisediron roofs, crash barriers, fences and gates, and is not referableto Calaminarian Grassland, and of no conservation concern.

9

Figure 2. Distribution of Calaminarian Grassland at coppermine sites in Ireland. Large symbols > 1 ha, medium sym-bols 0.1-1.0 ha, small symbols < 0.1 ha; square symbols =vegetation on tailings dams.

Figure 3. Distribution of Calaminarian Grassland at leadand zinc mine sites in Ireland. Symbols as in Figure 2.

Table 5 ranks mine sites according to the extent ofCalaminarian Grassland vegetation recorded. Only four siteshave more than 1.0 ha of Calaminarian Grassland habitat (threeCu mines: Allihies (Mountain) 3.1 ha, Tynagh 2.5, nearConnary Hall 2.2; one Pb mine: Glendasan (old works) 3.6,although two other Pb mines approach this amount, at Vale ofGlendasan 0.97, Shallee 0.9 ha). These few relatively rich sitescontribute a large proportion of the total resource of 16.8 ha ofCalaminarian Grassland accumulated in Table 5.

However, in calculating the total extent of CalaminarianGrassland vegetation in Ireland several other points need to beconsidered. Two modern mines have Calaminarian Grasslandvegetation restricted to damp, flat surfaces on fine silty-claytailings (Galmoy 0.7 ha, Tynagh 2.5 ha); the vegetationinvolved is extraordinarily poor in species, it lacks rarities andit represents only a short-lived stage in vegetation succession onthe sediment infilling lagoons within tailings dams. This vege-tation has no conservation significance and it should thereforebe discounted in arriving at figures for the total resource of thehabitat. Adjustment of the totals is also necessary to takeaccount of additional small lead mine sites that were not sur-

veyed in detail in the Co. Wicklow hills (in Vale of Glendasanand around Van Diemen's Mines), where a total of perhaps 2 hamore of Calaminarian Grassland may exist scattered acrossabout 15 small sites. Bearing in mind these corrections, the totalresource of Calaminarian Grassland habitat in Ireland can beestimated as: 6.8 ha at Cu mine sites; 6.8 ha at Pb (and Zn) minesites which were surveyed; 2.0 ha estimated at Pb mine sites inCo Wicklow hills not surveyed. Hence an overall total of 15.6ha.

Priorities and practicalities in conservation ofmetallophyte vegetation and rare metallophytespecies in IrelandConservation of Calaminarian Grassland vegetation for its ownsake has little appeal, particularly when it consists of purestands of metal tolerant ecotypes of the common grass Agrostiscapillaris with or without such common herbs as Cerastiumfontanum and Rumex acetosa. The artificial nature of thesefloristically dull habitats also discourages their conservation. Itis the presence of rare species in the metallophyte vegetation

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Site County Grid ref. Metal(s) Bedrock Calaminarian Grassland Area (ha)

Rare Bryophytes

Ballyhickey Clare R417768 Pb limestone 0.009 - Sheshodonnell East Clare R268969 Pb limestone 0.014 - Mogouhy Clare R274983 Pb limestone 0 - Allihies (Mountain) Cork V590458 Cu sandstone 3.1 C. int, C. mas, C. nic, D. cor, D. lin,

P. and, S. cat N. of Caminches Cork V594455 Cu sandstone 0.01 P. and NE of Caminches Cork V597455 Cu sandstone 0.006 - Dooneen Cork V577459 Cu sandstone 0.34 C. mas Cappagh Cork V990324 Cu sandstone 0.08 C. nic, P. and, S. cat Brow Head Cork V771235 Cu sandstone 0.07 - Polleenateada Cork V780306 Cu sandstone 0.015 - Keeldrum Donegal B903262 Pb quartzite, etc. 0.0009 - Ballycorus Dublin O225208 Pb mica-schist 0.12 C. mas, D. plu Tynagh Galway M753133 Cu limestone 2.5 - Muckross Lake Kerry V948859 Cu limestone 0.16 C. mas Ross Island Kerry V945880 Cu, Pb limestone 0.15 C. mas Galmoy (trial cells) Kilkenny S274722 Zn, Pb carbonates 0.01 - Galmoy (dam) Kilkenny S271724 Zn, Pb carbonates 0.7 - Tara Meath N858716 Zn, Pb shale/slate 0 - Lackamore Tipperary R788602 Cu shale 0.07 - Shallee Tipperary R806712 Pb shale 0.9 C. nic, D. plu Garryard West Tipperary R826710 Pb, ?Zn calc. shale 0.19 - Bunmahon Waterford X444986 Cu slate 0.02 C. mas, P. and Tankardstown Waterford X451986 Cu slate 0.006 - Knockmahon ‘village’ Waterford X438990 Cu metamorphic 0.28 C. int, C. nic, P. and Caim & Ballyhighland Wexford S885409 Cu metamorphic 0.16 C. nic, S. cat Cronebane Wicklow T208831 Cu, S, etc. shale, schist 0 - nr Connary Hall Wicklow T211838 Cu shale, etc. 2.2 - Glendasan (old works) Wicklow T098981 Pb granite, schist 3.6 C. int, C. mas, C. nic Foxrock Mine Wicklow T104982 Pb granite, schist 0.6 - Ballymurtagh Wicklow T192815 Cu, S, Fe schistose 0.11 - Tigroney West Wicklow T199822 Cu, Fe, S schistose 0.03 C. nic Ballinafunshoge Wicklow T082925 Pb schistose 0.10 - Vale of Glendasan Wicklow T108977 Pb schistose 0.97 - Brockagh Wicklow T093992 Pb schistose 0.20 - E. of L. Nahanagan Wicklow T092988 Pb schistose 0.10 -

C. int = Cephaloziella integerrima; C. mas = Cephaloziella massalongi; C. nic = Cephaloziella nicholsonii; D. cor = Ditrichum cornubicum; D. lin = Ditrichum lineare; D. plu = Ditrichum plumbicola; P. and = Pohlia andalusica; S. cat = Scopelophila cataractae

Table 4. Summary of data on mine sites surveyed

that necessitates conservation concern. Eight bryophytes fromthe Irish Red List are closely associated with metalliferous sites(Cephaloziella integerrima, C. massalongi, C. nicholsonii,Ditrichum cornubicum, D. lineare, D. plumbicola, Pohliaandalusica, Scopelophila cataractae). Five of these are strictmetallophytes (some populations of C. integerrima and P.andalusica and most of those of D. lineare also occur on uncon-

taminated substrata). Among them, D. cornubicum is on theEuropean and British Red Lists (with three extant sites knownglobally) and C. integerrima, C. massalongi, C. nicholsonii, D.plumbicola and S. cataractae are on the British Red List(Hodgetts 2011). The present survey has reinforced the viewthat several other bryophytes found mainly at mine sites havetoo many records to remain on the Irish Red List (Bryum

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Copper mines Rare Bryophytes Allihies (Mountain) C. int, C. mas, C. nic, D. cor, D. lin, P. and, S. cat Knockmahon ‘village’ C. int, C. nic, P. and Cappagh C. nic, P.and, S. cat Bunmahon C. mas, P. and Caim & Ballyhighland C. nic, S. cat Tigroney West C. nic Muckross Lake C. mas Ross Island C. mas N. of Caminches P. and Dooneen C. mas Lead mines Rare Bryophytes Glendasan (Old Works) C. int, C. mas, C. nic Shallee C. nic, D. plu Ballycorus C. mas, D. plu C. int = Cephaloziella integerrima; C. mas = Cephaloziella massalongi; C. nic = Cephaloziella nicholsonii; D. cor = Ditrichum cornubicum; D. lin = Ditrichum lineare; D. plu = Ditrichum plumbicola; P. and = Pohlia andalusica; S. cat = Scopelophila cataractae

Table 6. Analysis of data on mine sites surveyed. Ranking of sites by occurrence of rare bryophytes.

Copper mines Calaminarian

Grassland area (ha)

Lead or Zinc mines Calaminarian Grassland area (ha)

Allihies (Mountain) 3.1 Glendasan (old works) 3.6 Tynagh 2.5* Vale of Glendasan 0.97 near Connary Hall 2.2 Shallee 0.9 Dooneen 0.34 Galmoy (dam) 0.7* Knockmahon ‘village’ 0.28 Foxrock Mine 0.6 Caim & Ballyhighland 0.16 Brockagh 0.2 Muckross Lake 0.16 Garryard West 0.19 Ross Island 0.15 Ballycorus 0.12 Ballymurtagh 0.11 Ballinafunshoge 0.1 Cappagh 0.08 E. of L. Nahanagan 0.1 Brow Head 0.07 Sheshodonnell East 0.014 Lackamore 0.07 Galmoy (trial cells) 0.01* Tigroney West 0.03 Ballyhickey 0.009 Bunmahon 0.02 Keeldrum 0.0009 Polleenateada 0.015 N. of Caminches 0.01 NE of Caminches 0.006 Tankardstown 0.006 TOTAL 9.307 TOTAL 7.5139 * = only on silty-clay tailings at modern mines

Table 5. Analysis of data on mine sites surveyed. Ranking of sites by extent of Calaminarian Grassland vegetation.

pallescens, Cephaloziella stellulifera, Weissia controversa var.densifolia). None of the vascular plants associated with metal-liferous ground in Ireland depends on this habitat alone andnone is really rare, although Minuartia verna is local and ratherscarce.

The eight rare bryophytes closely associated with metalliferoussites in Ireland are more or less closely associated with peculiar,species-poor vegetation types. This vegetation, as well as thepopulations of rare species, merits conservation.

Two mining techniques have been used extensively at modernmetalliferous mines in Ireland. These are extensive quarrying(open cast) operations, or underground mining of ore that ispowdered in a mill and processed before residues (tailings) arepumped into a tailings dam. Study of modern open cast minesites in Ireland (Cronebane and Connary, most of Ballymurtaghand Garryard West) and those with tailings dams (Galmoy,Tara, Tynagh) has failed to disclose any rare bryophytes or anyhabitat suitable for them. In contrast, a wider variety of miningtechniques were used at mines worked during the eighteenth,nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some of which result-ed in spillage of ore or incomplete recovery of low grade ore.The rare metallophytes have persisted at some of those siteswhere metals were left behind.

It is therefore clear that the modern mines are of no interest forconservation of metallophyte bryophytes, the survival of whichwill depend on persistence and suitable management of relictpatches of habitat that resulted from the older mining work, inmany cases from the nineteenth century. These areas are oftenunder pressure as potential development land, as untidy andpotentially dangerous places that need 'landscaping' (and evenattract EU grant aid for it) or they are merely lost under scruband saplings after generations of neglect.

It is therefore important to ensure statutory protection andappropriate management of the most important of the metallif-erous mine sites with rare bryophytes and the distinctive habi-tat types on which they depend. Table 6 ranks the mine sitesaccording to the number of Red List bryophyte species theycontain: ten disused copper mines and three disused lead minesare involved.

The richest site is at Allihies (Mountain Mine) with seven RedList species and this site has now been protected within theKenmare River candidate SAC. Muckross Lake, Ross Islandand Glendasan are also within protected areas and the sites atthe tops of scenic coastal cliffs at Bunmahon and Dooneen alsoappear relatively safe.

Six sites thus lack protection. Two of these are relatively lesssignificant than the others: Tigroney West has little of impor-tance other than a strong patch of Cephaloziella nicholsonii onthe river bank; Cappagh still has good populations of C. nichol-sonii and Pohlia andalusica and a tiny patch of Scopelophilacataractae, but the site is small and already fragmented byhousing and roads and hence difficult to protect effectively.This leaves four sites that may merit protection:

(1) Knockmahon 'village' is a copper mine spoil site, with the

largest populations in Ireland of Cephaloziella integerrima andPohlia andalusica (see Figure 4) and very strong populations ofCephaloziella nicholsonii. Calaminarian Grassland vegetationis well developed (0.28 ha). It is on flat and gently slopingground and highly vulnerable to development, tipping or mere-ly being covered over with soil. During a subsequent visit tothis site in 2009, preliminary work on levelling the land for ahousing development, with planning permission, was alreadyunderway. Its prospects for conservation appear to be bleak.

(2) Caim and Ballyhighland is a copper mine-spoil site with thelargest population of Scopelophila cataractae extant in theBritish Isles (Figure 5), a strong population of Cephaloziellanicholsonii and well developed Calaminarian Grassland vege-tation (0.16 ha). This site should be considered for NaturalHeritage Area (NHA) status.

(3) Shallee is an extensive old and more modern lead mine sitewith much the largest of the two Irish populations of Ditrichumplumbicola (Figure 6) and a tiny amount of Cephaloziellanicholsonii. Calaminarian Grassland vegetation is extensive(0.9 ha) and well developed. Threats are obvious from ongoingrestoration work on an engine house ruin, and existence of largeareas of derelict land with rusting oil drums, cables and dan-gerous open adits and workings. The area of metallophytebryophyte interest lies just outside the boundary of theSilvermines Mountains West candidate SAC, and this boundaryshould be extended to include it.

(4) Ballycorus is a historic lead mine site close to the southernedge of Dublin, with building ruins and structures of great inter-est to the mining historian. It has the second Irish population ofDitrichum plumbicola, a small amount of Cephaloziella massa-longi (which is unusual at lead mines) and CalaminarianGrassland vegetation (0.12 ha). The mine spoil is currently dis-turbed by motorcycling. Although less important than sites (1)-(3) it is worthy of consideration for site protection.

Besides the desirability of obtaining statutory protection ofthese four additional sites, it is important to provide appropriatehabitat management to ensure favourable conservation status isachieved or maintained at these and other localities with raremetallophyte bryophytes. Notes on threats to individual sitesare given in the accounts of sites that form the body of theunpublished report to NPWS (Holyoak 2008). However, sever-al recurrent themes are involved.

Metallophyte bryophytes are small plants that mainly have lit-tle tolerance of shading or competition from other plants. Theirtoxic substrata inhibit growth of competing plants, but the toxicpatches are often small and prone to accumulation of litter fromnearby vegetation. Planted trees, or scrub or saplings growingup in the vicinity may be particularly harmful, causing a rain ofleaf litter in addition to direct shading.

Conservation workers and others (such as well intentionedbuilders) usually seek open patches of ground for fires to burnarisings from scrub clearance, etc. Unfortunately, the obviousopen 'bare' patches are often the habitats of greatest interest formetallophyte bryophytes, because toxicity of the substratakeeps them 'bare'. Careful instruction and supervision of con-

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Figure 4. Copper mine spoil at Knockmahon'village', Co. Waterford: the unprepossessingvegetation in foreground has the largest Irishpopulations of both Cephaloziella integerrimaand Pohlia andalusica.

Figure 5. Bank of highly toxic copper minespoil at Caim and Ballyhighland Mine, Co.Wexford: steep spoil apparently lacks all vege-tation at first sight, but close inspectionreveals large patches of Scopelophila catarac-tae (e.g. by knife), forming its largest popula-tion extant in British Isles.

Figure 6. Relevé 68 at Shallee, Co. Tipperary:lead mine spoil with sparse cover ofDitrichum plumbicola, Solenostoma gracilli-mum and Agrostis capillaris.

servation management workers may therefore be needed.

Competing vegetation on open ground at mine sites is oftenkept trimmed by rabbits. Their needs should be considered iffencing or other obstacles are erected. Housing, public amenityor car park development near a mine site often results in moredogs, leading to fewer rabbits in the open places and inadequategrazing pressure.

Historic mine buildings (mainly ruined engine houses) are pre-sent at several mine sites. One of these was restored in 2002-2003 and another was being restored in May 2008. If morework of this kind is carried out it is important to ensure that itdoes not damage populations of rare bryophytes. Access forbuilders' vehicles may churn track surfaces; storage and mixingof building materials may also damage habitats. The rare met-allophytes are all acidophiles and hence vulnerable to calcare-ous dust from cement or lime mortar, which may therefore needto be mixed off site. Similar considerations may apply to worksto cap open mine shafts or to fence adits. At the most importantbryophyte sites it may be necessary to carry out bryophyte sur-veys and prepare impact assessments prior to works, thenarrange close supervision as work proceeds.

Particular care is needed if public access to mine areas isimproved. At Tankardstown Mine all metallophyte interest inthe vicinity of the restored engine house has been destroyed bylandscaping work, involving covering mine spoil with soil,building steps, erecting seats, signboards and statues and plant-ing saplings. Survey of bryophytes and impact assessmentshould precede consent for any such works at other mine sites.

Off road vehicles (motorcycles, quad bikes, sometimes evenLand Rovers) regularly damage mine-spoil habitats at somesites. Fencing, new ditches or enforcement work by conserva-tion rangers may be needed to exclude such activity. Dumpingof rubbish is also a problem at many sites. Besides coveringmine-spoil habitat, the material involved may be nutrient rich,resulting in damage to surrounding areas as a result of eutroph-ic run off.

Important sites for bryophytes that are protected as SAC orNHA need periodic monitoring. Annual visits (at least) fromconservation rangers should suffice to reveal tipping, usage byoff road vehicles, squatters, serious scrub encroachment andother obvious signs of damage. However, surveys by skilledbryologists are also necessary at longer intervals, to assessbryophyte populations and threats, and where possible todemonstrate the interest to conservation rangers. These surveysneed to be carried out at appropriate times of year (usually win-ter or early spring) in suitably damp conditions, by workerscompetent to find and identify e.g. Cephaloziella andDitrichum spp. Visits to the most important sites for this workshould be at four year intervals, or more often if habitat man-agement or other issues arise.

Research into the conservation biology of some of the metallo-phyte bryophytes (Cephaloziella massalongi, C. nicholsoniiand Ditrichum cornubicum), including in vitro cultivation andcryopreservation techniques, is currently being undertaken atthe National Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin.

DISPERSAL OF METALLOPHYTEBRYOPHYTES BY MANOccurrence of tiny populations of metallophyte bryophytes atso few widely separated localities poses interesting questionsabout the methods by which they could have dispersed to reachthe places in which they grow. Dispersal by wind blown sporescan only be a likely explanation for one of the eight speciesinvolved (Cephaloziella integerrima), since capsules areunknown anywhere in three species (Cephaloziella nicholsonii,Ditrichum cornubicum and D. plumbicola), unknown in Europefor Scopelophila cataractae, unknown in Britain and Ireland forCephaloziella massalongi and very rare in Europe forDitrichum lineare and Pohlia andalusica; however, all of thesehave small bulbils, gemmae or tubers that might allow vegeta-tive dispersal e.g. by animals, flowing water or on footwear(Hill et al. 2007, Lockhart et al. in press.). Human involvementin accidental dispersal of the rare metallophytes seems espe-cially likely, since the history of metalliferous mining containsmany examples of personnel and equipment moving long dis-tances from one mining area to another.

Smith (2004) suggested that Scopelophila cataractae (Figure 7)may have reached a smelting works in south Wales as an acci-dental introduction with ore, but that introduction from smelt-ing works to mines was less likely as ore was not transportedback to mines. However, the nineteenth century sailing vesselsthat carried Cornish copper ore from Portreath to Swanseareturned with coal to power the Cornish mine engines. As dis-cussed by Holyoak and Lockhart (2009), the locations of thethree Irish populations of S. cataractae are at disused mines inrather remote rural locations, like most of those in Cornwall andelsewhere in Britain. Hence the species has evidently been ableto disperse efficiently to these relatively tiny and widely sepa-rated patches of habitat created by copper mining, a process inwhich accidental human involvement seems more likely thannatural spread. However, this dispersal may have been morelikely to have occurred during the nineteenth century when, inaddition to the two way trade in copper ore and coal, personneland equipment were frequently moved between active mines(cf. Cole 1922, Barton 1961). Furthermore, open spoil surfaces

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Figure 7. Scopelophila cataractae (green leaves) withCephaloziella nicholsonii (thin blackish shoots), 2004,Higher Brea, West Cornwall.

were most extensive in the nineteenth century, rather than dur-ing the twentieth century when there was little or no activity atthe old mines and hence a declining extent of open mine spoil.

The Irish record of Ditrichum cornubicum (Figure 8) providesan even more extraordinary example of a disjunct distributionthat is most likely to be explicable through accidental transportby man (Holyoak and Lockhart 2009). Prior to its discovery atAllihies in Co. Cork in 2006, the species had been foundworldwide only at three localities in Cornwall, all on coppermine spoil, and only male plants are known. Holyoak andLockhart (2009) noted that links between nineteenth centurycopper mining activity in Cornwall (the global centre of copperproduction by about 1850) and at Mountain Mine at Allihieshave been well documented: a small number of Cornishmineworkers were present from 1813 to 1884 along withCornish mine captains; they formed a small community livingin their own village and in 1845 a Protestant Chapel was erect-ed in Allihies for their use (Mahoney 1987, Williams 1991,Morris and Brown 2001, Allihies Copper Mine Museum 2006,The Cornish in West Cork 2006). The possibility thereforeexists that D. cornubicum and possibly other metallophytebryophytes were accidentally introduced from Cornwall toAllihies in the nineteenth century, maybe in soil on miners'boots or mining equipment.

However, there may be a greater likelihood that its introductionfrom Cornwall was much more recent. The population of D.cornubicum at Allihies is located on the track giving access tothe man engine house, considered the best preserved exampleof a Cornish design man engine house anywhere in the world(Morris and Brown 2001). Consolidation works on this historicbuilding were carried out in 2002-2003 by specialist buildersand stonemasons from Cornwall: Darrock and Brown Ltd,Building Services, of Bodmin (Morris 2002, 2003). BillGladwell (Managing Director of Darrock and Brown Ltd) con-firmed in 2008 that they repeatedly used the access track atMountain Mine where D. cornubicum now occurs, sometimesunloading their van with equipment brought directly fromCornwall, including shovels and boots, very close to its loca-tion. He thought it quite possible that tubers of the moss might

have been carried there from Cornwall amongst soil attached totheir vehicle or equipment. Immediately before travelling toIreland their van had been used for work at disused coppermines in West Cornwall (where D. cornubicum is unknown).More significantly, before 2002 it had been driven along a trackto Prince of Wales Engine House at Phoenix United Mine inEast Cornwall prior to the company providing a quotation forwork there, around the time when D. cornubicum occurred inthe middle of that short length of track.

As pointed out by Holyoak and Lockhart (2009), it will proba-bly remain impossible to be certain of the means by which D.cornubicum reached Allihies or the timing, but the precise loca-tion of the population points strongly to it being associated withworks at the Cornish design man engine house. Arrival of D.cornubicum at Allihies as recently as 2002 or 2003 would beconsistent with its discovery at a single location there in 2006and restriction to an area ca 20 m across in 2008.

More generally, it appears that the regional metallophytebryophyte floras in different parts of western Europe share thesame small group of characteristic species. Thus, of the eightrare metallophyte species from Ireland listed at the head of thissection (Cephaloziella integerrima, C. massalongi, C. nichol-sonii, Ditrichum cornubicum, D. lineare, D. plumbicola, Pohliaandalusica, Scopelophila cataractae), all eight occur inCornwall, four occur in Devon, five occur in Wales and sevenoccur in Germany. Furthermore, lowland metalliferous sites inthese regions do not have any metallophyte bryophyte speciesadditional to the eight known in Ireland. This regional unifor-mity is remarkable in view of the wide geographical isolation ofthe relatively tiny land areas occupied by each of the species,the wide extent of unsuitable habitat between most of the sitesand the apparently poor potential for dispersal of species which(with the exception of C. integerrima) rarely or never producespores. A history of accidental dispersal involving centuries ofhuman movements between mine sites may offer the simplestexplanation for this.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis survey was funded by National Parks and Wildlife Service.Marie Dromey provided helpful liaison with ongoing grasslandsurveys. Naomi Kingston designed standard recording forms(Tables 2 and 3) and a database for the survey which savedmuch time in data recording. John Fisher and Mike WyseJackson provided details of worthwhile mine sites that mightotherwise have been overlooked. Bill Gladwell (ManagingDirector of Darrock and Brown Ltd) kindly supplied informa-tion on his companies' work on historic mine buildings inCornwall and in Co. Cork. Figures 2 and 3 were prepared usingDMAPW © Dr Alan Morton.

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Figure 8. Ditrichum cornubicum, 2004, Crow's Nest, EastCornwall.

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