Eastern Illinois UniversityThe Keep

Masters Theses Student Theses & Publications

1983

A Study of Principals' Perceptions of Job Stress inthe Six-County Region 11 Educational ServiceRegion, East Central, IllinoisJohn NeiweemEastern Illinois University

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Recommended CitationNeiweem, John, "A Study of Principals' Perceptions of Job Stress in the Six-County Region 11 Educational Service Region, EastCentral, Illinois" (1983). Masters Theses. 2863.https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/2863

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Date Author

m

A STUDY OF PRINCIPALS' PERCEPTIONS OF JOB

STRESS IN THE SIX-COUNTY REGION 11 EDUCATIONAL

SERVICE REGION, EAST CENTRAL, ILLINOIS (TITLE)

BY

John Neiweem

Field Experience

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

Specialist in Education

IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL, EASTERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY

CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS

1983 YEAR

I HEREBY RECOMMEND THIS THESIS BE ACCEPTED Af:> FULFILLING

THIS PART OF THE GRADUAJE DEGREE CITEDfABQVE

v

I DATE

DATE

S/�/i3 DATE

V ADVISJif{

COMMITTEE �MBER

/l ciiMMITI�E MEMB'Eif. J

DEPARTMENT CHAIRPERSON

A S t u dy of P r i n c i pa l s ' P e r ce p t i o n s o f J o b S t r e s s i n t h e S i x - C ou n ty Reg i o n 11

E d u c a t i o n a l S e rv i ce Reg i o n , E a s t Cent r a l , I l l i no i s

F i e l d E x pe r i e n c e P a p e r

J o h n N e i weem

May , 1 98 3

426743

A B S TRACT

The p u rp o s e of the study was to i nv e sti g ate the d e g ree

o f stre s s p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v e i n the work e n v i ronment .

S p e c i fic a l l y this study compared the a ctua l p e rce i ve d

stre s s e x p e r i e n c e d o n t h e j o b w i th w h a t p r i nc i p a l s deem to

be a r e a s o na b l e a m o u nt of stre s s . T h e study w a s p r e d i c ated

on the r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s that i n d i c ate that the amount o f

stre s s i s r e l ati ve to a g i v en i nd i v i du a l a s o p p o s e d to

b e i n g a n a b s o l ute q u a l i ty .

A re v i ew o f the r e s e a rc h a n d l i te r at u re r e v e a l e d th at

few p u b l i cati o n s h a v e b e e n ta rgeted tow a r d s stress a n d the

e d u c atio n a l a dm i n i strato r . The i mp l i c at i o n s of j o b r e l ated

stre s s , as it i mp a cts on the effecti v e n e s s of the p r i n c i pa l ,

r e q u i r e d a more th o r o u g h i n v e st i g ati o n o f the stress

p h e n o m e n o n .

A P r i n c i p a l J o b Stre s s S u rv ey q u esti o n n a i re w a s d e v e l o p e d

t o g a i n i n f o rm a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g a p r i n c i pa l ' s pe rce i v ed

" a ctu a l s i tuati o n " of str e s s a n d what he b e l i e v e s to be

a " re a s o n a b l e s i tuat i o n" p e rta i n i n g to stre s s re l at i ve to

a g i ve n f a cto r . T h i s i n strument uti l i z e d the d u a l c r i te r i a

of the i nte r a cti o n i st m o d e l i n i denti fy i n g the l e v e l o f

stre s s i n e a c h p r i n c i pa l . I t i s hypoth e s i z e d that

2

t h e a c t u a l a n d p r e c e i ve d v i ew o f t h e p r i n c i p a l i n r e l a t i o n

t o s t r e s s o r s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t p r o v i d e d a n e v a l u a t i v e

re s u l t i de n t i fy i n g a d e f i n i t e l ev e l of s t re s s . T h e q u e s ­

t i onna i re w a s ma i l ed t o s i x ty - o n e p r i n c i p a l s i n e d u c a t i o n a l

s e r v i c e r e g i o n #11 i n I l l i no i s . A r e s p o n s e r a t e o f e i g h t y ­

t h re e pe r c e n t w a s o b t a i n e d .

A d e p e n d e n t! t e s t w a s u t i l i z ed t o c o m p a r e the m e a n

a c t u a l s c ore w i t h t h e m e a n rea s o n a b l e s i tu a t i on s c o r e from

the P r i n c i p a l J o b S t r e s s S u rvey for e a c h r e s p o n d e n t . C h i

s q u a r e w a s u s e d t o c o m p a r e o b s e r v e d freq u e n c i e s by c e rt a i n

c a teg o r i e s o f r e s p o n d e n t s to exp e c t e d fre q u e n c i e s a n d

d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s s u c h a s p e r c e n t a g e s a n d freq u e n cy

c o u n t s were a l s o u t i l i z e d . I t w a s f o u n d t h a t:

l . N e a r l y o n e - h a l f (45%) of t h e p r i n c i p a l s

s u rveyed expe r i e nc e d s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s

i n t h e w o r k e n v i r o n me n t .

2 . A d i a g n o s t i c i n s t r u m e n t s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d

w h i c h s p e c i f i c a l l y d e t e rm i n e s w h e t h e r o r

n o t , o n a n o v e r - a l l b a s i s , p r i n c i p a l s

a re e x p e r i e n c i n g s i gn i f i c a n t s t r e s s a n d

s p e c i f i c a l l y i de n t i f i e s w h i ch v a r i a b l e s

a r e c a u s i n g t h e s t r e s s .

3. T h e p s y c ho l og i c a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l d i s p os i t i o n

o f a p r i n c i pa l ( Ty p e A o f Type B ) i s not

s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a te d to p e rc e i v e d s t re s s .

4. J o b s a t i s f a c t i o n i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y re l at e d

t o s t r e s s , a n d i t wou l d n o t b e benefi c i a l

f o r p r i n c i p a l s t h a t h a v e s t r e s s t o r e d u c e

i t b y foc u s i n g o n v a r i a b l e s re l a t e d to j o b

s a tis fa c t i o n .

5 . C e rt a i n f a c t o r s i n t r i n s i c t o t h e jo b a r e a

s o u r c e o f s t r e s s f o r m o s t p r i nc i pa l s . F a c t o r

a n a l y s e s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l r a t i n g s o f j o b

s t r e s s o r s i de n t i f i ed fou r p r i ma r y c a t e g o r i e s

o f j ob - re l a t e d f a c t o r s t h a t c a u s e s i g n i f i c a n t

s t re s s:

1 . E x c e s s i ve wo r k l o a d 2 . T i me d ema n d s 3. I nt e r p e r s o n a l re l a t i o n s 4. D i s p a r i ty b e t w e e n w h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l

a c comp l i s h e s a n d w h a t h e o r s h e wou l d l i ke to a c h i e v e

3

F i na l l y , i t w a s recommended t h a t t h e g ro u p o f princ i pa l s

e x p e r i e n c i n g h i g h w o r k r e l a t e d s t r e s s , a s we l l a s t h o s e

i n d i v i d u a l s e x p e r i e n c i n g s t r e s s f rom a s e l e c t n u m b e r o f

j o b - rela ted f a c to r s , co n s u l t t h e p o p u l a r l i te r a t u r e c o n -

c e rn i n g s t r e s s p r e ve n t i o n a n d c o p i ng s k i l l s .

TAB L E O F C O N T E N T S

P a g e

L I ST O F T A B L E S I N C H AT P E R I V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i i

L I S T O F F I G U R E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v

CHA PTER

I . OVERV I E W OF T H E P R O B LEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I nt rodu c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 S t a tement o f t h e P ro b l em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 L i m i t a t i o n o f t h e S t u dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9

I I . R EV I EW O F T H E R E L A T E D RES EA R C H A N O L I T E RA T U R E . . . . . 2 2 S t r e s s a n d H e a l t h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 S t r e s s a n d W o r k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3

F a c t o r s I n t r i n s i c t o t h e J o b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 R o l e i n t h e O rg a n i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 _Re l a t i on s h i p w i t h t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Ca r e e r D e v e l o pm e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 O c c u p a t i o n a l S t ru c t u re a n d C l i ma t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 E x t ra - O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S o u r c e s o f S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . 53 I n d i v i d u a l M a n a ge r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4

U n i q u e n e s s of t h e S t u dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

I I I . D E S I GN O F T H E S T U D Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 G e n e r a l D e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1 Sam p l e a n d P o pu l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2 D a t a C o l l e c t i o n a n d I n s t r u me n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2 D a t a Ana l ys i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3

I V . RESULTS, CONCLU S I ON S AND RECOMMENDAT I ONS • • . • • . • • • • 65 R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i on s . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 65 Q u e s t i o n 1 - Do p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v e t h a t t h ey

h a v e s t r e s s i n t he i r w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5

C o n c l u s i on s a n d R e c omme n da t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Ques t i o n 2 - Do Type A p r i nc i p a l s p e r c e i v e

t h a t t h e y ha v e s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t more freq u e n t l y t h a n Type B p r i n c i p a l s ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8

C o n c l u s i on s a n d Recomme n da t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9

i

T A B L E O F CON T E N T S ( Co n t . )

Q u e s t i o n 3 - D o fewer p r i n c i pa l s w i t h h i gh e r s e l f - r a t i ng s o f j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n h a v e s t r e s s t h a n p r i n c i pa l s w i t h l ower s e l f-ra t i ng s o f j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Con c l u s i on s a n d Recomme n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Que s t i on 4 - Wh i c h v a r i a b l e s d o p r i n c i pa l s p e r c e i v e c a u s e s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Co n c l u s i o n s a n d Re c omme n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPEN D I C E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A .

B .

c .

D .

Edu c a t i o n a l Se r v i c e Reg i o n

E d u c a t i o n a l S e r v i c e Reg i on

E d u c a t i o n a l S e r v i c e Reg i o n

E d u c a t i o n a l S e rv i c e Re g i o n

M a p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

C i ty P o pu l a t i o n

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s

Pu b l i c S c h o o l

. . . . . .

. . . . .

E n ro l l me n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

P a g e

7 1 7 2

7 2 7 4

7 9

7 9

8 1

8 3

8 5

E . P r i n c i pa l J o b S t r e s s S u r v ey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7

S E L E C T E D B I BL I OG R A P H Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 0

i i

L I S T O F TAB L E S I N CHAPTE R I V

TABLE Page

l. Numbe r o f P r i nc i pa l s Perce i v i n g S t r e s s . . . . . . . . 66

2 . Comp a r i s o n o f Type A a n d Typ e B P r i n c i p a l s Reg a rd i ng P e rc e i v e d S t re s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8

2 A . C h i S q u a r e Ana l ys i s Comp a r i n g Typ e A a n d T y p e B P r i n c i p a l s R e g a r d i n g P e r c i e ve d S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0

3 . Compa r i s o n o f Job S a t i s fa c t i on w i t h Pri n c i p a l S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1

3A . C h i S q u a r e Ana l y s i s Comp a r i n g J o b Sa t i s f a c t i o n w i t h P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3

4 . Va r i a bl e s Wh i c h P r i n c i pa l s P e r c e i ve C a u s e S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5

i i i

L I S T OF F I GU R E S

F I G URE P a g e

1. T h e G e n e r a l A d a p t a t i o n Syn d rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 . R e s p o n s e - b a s e d M o d e l o f S t r e s s . .. ... . ... . .... 8 3. Stimulus-based - ( E n g i neer i n g ) Model of

of S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 . S t i m u l u s - ba s e d Mod e l o f S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0

5 . T ra n s a c t i o n a l ( I n t e r a c t i o n i s t ) Mode l o f S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

6 . T h e P e r s o n E n v i r o n m e n t Mode l o f S t r e s s . . . . . . . . 1 4

7 . The E f f e c t s a n d C o s t o f S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

8 . S t r e s s - Il l n e s s P a ra d i gm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2

9 . S o u r c e s o f S t r e s s a t W o r k a n d T h e i r C o n s e q u e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5

1 0 . S o u rc e s o f M a n a ge r i a l S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6

1 1 . Pe r s o n a l F a c t o r s i n J o b S t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

i v

C H A P T E R I

O V E RV I EW O F T H E PROBLEM

Introduc t i o n

In r e c e n t y e a r s p ro fe s s i o n a l j o u rn a l s h a v e c a r r i e d

n u me r o u s a rt i c l e s c o n c e r n i n g a p h en o m e n o n t h a t i s g r ow i n g

a m o n g e d u c a t o r s a n d t h o s e e n g a g e d i n t h e h e l p i ng p r o fe s s i o n s

r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e s t re s s / bu r n o u t p h e nomenon . Th i s p h e n o m ­

e n o n i s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o be t h e r e s u l t o f j o b re l a te d

s t r e s s a n d i s e x em p l i f i e d b y p hy s i c a l , emo t i o n a l a n d m e n t al

e x h au s t i on , a s wel l a s j o b d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d e c re a s e d

p e rforma n c e .

T h i s s tu d y a t t e m p t s to i n c r e a s e a n u nd e r s t a n d i n g o f

th i s p h e n o m e n o n a s i t r e l a t e s t o e d u c a t i o n a l a dm i n i s t r a t o r s .

T h o u g h l i t t l e s t r e s s r e l a t e d r e s e a rch h a s b e e n t a r g e t e d

toward e d u c a t i o n a l a dm i n i s t r a to r s , i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e

t h a t pri nc i p a l s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a h i g h n u m b e r o f s t re s s o r s

a n d a r e l i ke l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e i l l e f f e c t s o f j o b

re l a t e d s t re s s .

I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r o l e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l h a s b e c ome

more c o mp l ex, c re a t i ng an i n c r e a s e i n the p r o b a b i l i ty o f

j o b r e l a t e d s t re s s . S a e n z d e t a i l e d t h e i mp o r t a n c e a n d

2

3

r e s po n s i b i l i ty of t h e p r e s e n t d a y a d m i n i s t r a t o r w h e n h e

s t a te d :

Pro b a b l y no o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t a p e r s o n s k i l l fu l l y a s s u me t h e m a n y r o l e s w h i c h a s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l m u s t a s sume d a i l y, o f t e n ­t i me s w i t h i n t h e h o u r . T h e p r i n c i pa l i s a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l l ea d e r, h e mu s t b e a c o u n s e l o r , h e m u s t b e a d i s c i p l i n a r i a n , h e m u s t be a d i p l om a t , he m u s t be a p o l i t i c i a n , h e m u s t be a f i s c a l m a n a ge r , he m u s t be a l e g a l e x pe r t , h e mu s t be a n e n v i r o n me n t a l e n g i n e e r, h e m u s t b e a m e c h a n i c a l , p l u m b i n g a n d e l e c t r i c a l e x pert, h e m u s t b e a h e a l th a n d s a fety e x p e r t, h e m u s t b e a t r a n s po rt a t i on e x p e rt, h e m u s t b e a n e v a l u a to r, h e mu s t b e a p u b l i c r e l a t i on s e x p e rt, e t c . . . 1

T h e i M p l i c a t i on s f o r j o b re l a te d s t r e s s , a s d e ta i l ed

i n t h e pre v i o u s p r i n c i p a l j o b d e s c r i p t i on by S a e n z , h a v e

g e n e r a t ed t h e n e c e s s i ty f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a rc h . H a r t n o t e d

t h a t m a ny e d u c a t i on a l a dm i n i s t r a t o r s l a c k a n a w a r e n e s s

o f s t r e s s l i m i t s a n d t he i r c a u s e s a n d t h a t m a n y p r i nc i pa l s

may n o t be aware t h a t t h ey a re e x p e r i e n c i n g c h ro n i c symptom s

o f d i s t re s s . 2 H art a r t i c u l a te d t h i s a s s um p t i o n a s f o l l ows:

T h i s f a c t i s of m a j o r s i g n i f i c a n c e b e c a u s e it i s c l ear t h a t too m u c h s t r e s s i s n o t o n l y p hy s i c a l l y a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y h a r m f u l , i t i t a l s o c o u n t e r - p r o d u c t i v e red u c i ng j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n a nd p e r f o rm a nc e . B e i n g a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t r e s s a n d b u rnout p h e nom­enom and u l t i m a t e l y to r e d u c e or e l i m i n a t e i t req u i re s o n e t o b e a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e h o w 3 i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n e d u ca t i o n a l orga n i z a t i o ns .

1 R e u b e n J . S a e n z , 11 De f i n i n g t h e P r i nc i p a l s h i p, 11 N a t i o n a l A s s oc i a t i on o f S e c o n d a r S c ho o l P r i n c i a l s , v o l . 3 0, N o . l ,

S e p t . , 1 98 2 , p . 5

2oa v i d E . H a r t , 11 S t r e s s a n d t h e A g e n t o f C h a nge, 11 Forum, ( Fa l l / W i n t er 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 2 1 .

3 Ib i d . , p . 2 2 .

4

S e v e r a l o t h e r s tu d i e s o f w o r k re l a te d s t r e s s h a v e

i de n t i f i e d t h a t i nd i v i d u a l s v a ry i n t h e i r a b i l i ty t o cope

w i th stre s s , t h a t some e n v i r o n m e n t s are more conduc i v e

t h a n o t he r s to s t re s s , a n d t h a t cert a i n t y p e s o f j o b s

a re m o r e s u scep t i b l e t o s t re s s . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e i den­

t i f i e d t h a t m a n a g em e n t p o s i t i o n s , p a r t i cu l a r l y t h o s e

i nv o l v i ng t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of p e o p l e ( e . g . t h e p r i nc i p a l shi p ) ,

h a v e a p r o p e n s i ty f o r w o r k r e l a t e d s t re s s .

T h e p e rce p t i o n e x i s t s o n t h e p a r t o f many p r i n c i p a l s ,

a s n o t e d i n t h e p r o fe s s i o n a l l i te r a t u r e , t h a t s t r e s s p o s e s

a n e v e r i ncre a s i ng t h re a t t o a p r i nc i p a l ' s p r o fe s s i o n a l

career. T h e i m p l i ca t i o n s of j o b r e l a t e d s t r e s s , a s i t

i mp a c t s o n t h e e f fect i ve n e s s o f the p r i nc i p a l , d i ct a t e

t h e n e e d f o r a m o re t h o r o u g h i nv e s t i g a t i o n of t h e s t r e s s

p h e no me n o n . Th i s s tu d y a t t e m p t s t o i nc r e a s e a n u nd e r­

s ta n d i n g o f t h i s s t r e s s p h e n om e n o n a s i t r e l a t e s t o a

p r i nc i p a l .

S t a t em e n t o f t h e P ro b l em

C e n t r a l t o t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u dy i s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e p o t e n t i a l d e g ree o f s t r e s s p r i ncip a l s e x p e r i e nce

o n the i r jo b s . I nh e r e n t i n g a i n i n g a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e d e g ree t o w h i ch p r i nci p a l s a r e e x p e r i e nc i n g s t r e s s i s

a n e e d t o b e cog n i z a n t of t h e phys i o l og i c a l ef fect o f

s t r e s s on man.

5

T h e s t u dy of s t r e s s a n d i fs a ff e c t u p on m a n d a t e s b a c k

a t l ea s t t o t h e f ou rt h c e n t u ry B . C . a n d t h e famous G r e e k

p h i l os op h e r P l a to , w h o v en t u re d t h a t . . . " a l l d i s e a s e s

of t h e body p roceed f r om t h e m i n d or s ou l . 11 1 I t w a s not

u n t i l l 8 3 1 , h owe v e r , t h a t t h e em i n e n t p h y s i c i a n J am e s

J oh n s on a tt e m p t e d t o d e f i ne t h e p h y s i c a l r e a c t i on t o s t re s s .

J oh n s on d e f i n e d s t r e s s a s :

. . . a s ud d e n g u s t of pa s s i on , a t ra n s i e n t s e n s e of fea r , a n u ne x p e c t e d p i c e of i n t e l l i g e n c e - ­i n s h ort , a ny s t rong emot i on of m i n d , w i l l c a u s e t h e h e a r t t o p a l p i t a t e , t h e m u s c l e s t o t r e mb l e , t h e d i g e s t i v e org a n s t o s u s p e n d t he i r f u n c t i on s , a n d t h e b l ood t o. r u s h i n v a g u e a n d i r re g u l a r c u r r e n t s t h rou g h t h e l i v i n g m a c h i n e . 2

D r . Wa l te r C a n n on e x p a nd e d u p on t h e s t r e s s re s �a r c h of

J oh n s on d u r i n g t h e 1 92 0 ' s . H e d e v e l oped t h e " f i g h t or

f l i g h t " p a t t e r n t o d e s c r i be t h e phys i ol og i c a l a ff e c t s

of s t r e s s on m a n . C a n n on demon s t r a te d th rou g h e x pe r i me nt a t i on

t h a t s t re s s fu l s i t u a t i on s c on front i n g m a n t r i g g e re d s e c r e -

t i on s i n t h e b od i e s hypot h a l amu s , a n org a n wh i c h c on t rol s

t h e b odi e s n e r v ou s a n d m u s c l e s y s t em s . A c c ord i n g t o

C a n n on , w h e n c on fronted w i t h a s t r e s s f u l s i tu a t i on , t h e

physiological reaction in man would lead h i m to e i ther

f i g h t t o r e s i s t t h e s t r e s s or or f l ee i n a v o i d a n c e of s t re s s . 3

1 Bry a n J ow l e t t , T h e W or k s of P l a t o : Tra n s la t e d i n to E ngl i s h w i th A n a lyse s a n d In t rod u c t i on (New Y or k : T u d or P u b l i s hi n g C o . , 1 9 36), p . 2 6 7 .

2 J a m e s J oh n s on , Work a n d t h e He a lt h of M a n ( L ondon : A r t h u r H . C l a r k , 1 903), p . 1 81.

3wa l te r B . C a n n on , B od i ly C h a n ge s i n Pa i n , H u nge r , F e a r a n d Age ( N ew Y or k : C h a r l e s t T . B r a n ford P re s s , 1 9 53) p . 1 6 .

6

T h e p hy s i o l o g i cal s t a g e s d e s cr i b e d i n C a n n o n ' s " f i g h t

o r f l i gh t " t h e o ry a r e cl e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d i n t h e fo l l ow i n g

exam p l e by M i l l e r .

P r i m i t i ve m a n i s be i n g a t t acked by a p r e d a t o ry a n i ma l . H e n e e d s a s u r g e o f b o d y r e s o u rce s t o f i g h t o r f l ee t h e d a ng e r o u s s i t u a t i o n . I n to h i s b l o o d fl o w a d r e n a l s ecre t i o n s t h a t m u s t e r s t r e n g t h i n t h e form o f s u g a r a nd s to r e d f a t s and se n d them t o h i s m u scl es a n d b ra i n i n s t a n t l y , t h u s m o b i l i z i n g fu l l e n e rgy a n d s t i mu l a t i ng p u l s e , r e s p i ra t i on , a nd b l o o d p re s s u re . H i s d i g e s t i v e p r oce s s e s t u r n o f f a t o nce s o n o e n ergy i s d i v e rt e d from mee t i n g t h e t h re a t . H i s coa gu l a t i o n chem i s t ry p r e p a r e s t o r e s i s t w o u n d s w i t h q u i ck cl o t t i ng . R e d cel l s p o u r f r om t h e s pe e n i n to t h e s t e p p e d - u p b l ood ci rcu l a t i on t o h e l p t h e r e s p i r a t o ry s y s tem t a k e i n o x y g e n a n d ca s t off ca r bon d i o x i de a s h e f i g h t s t h e bea s t o r r u n s t o h i s ca v e . l

M o d e r n d a y s t r e s s r e s e a rch b e g a n i n 1 9 4 6 w h e n H a n s

S ey l e d e ve l o pe d t h e G � n e r a l A d a p ta t i o n S y n d rome t h e o ry

( G . A . S . ) t o d e f i ne s t r e s s i n m a n . Seyl e , a p i o n e e r i n

r e s e arch r e g a r d i ng s t r e s s r e l a te d i l l n e s s e s , found t h a t

r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s t r e s s p r oduci n g a g e n t , h u m a n b e i n g s

u nd e r g o a t h re e - p a r t re act i o n w h e n e x p o s e d t o a s t r e s s o r .

Seyl e ' s t h e o ry p r o p o s e d t h a t a ny a s s a u l t o n m a n ' s b e i n g - -

f r i g h t, f r u s t r a t i o n , phy s i ca l i nj u ry , o r i n fect i o n - - p r o d uce d

t h e s ame s e q u e nce o f p hy s i olog i cal c h a n g e s w i th i n the

b o dy .

The f i r s t l e v e l of Seyl e ' s G . A . S . co n s i s t s o f t h e " ph a s e

o f a l a r m " d u r i n g wh i ch t h e b o d y i s p u t on a l e r t a n d s ummo n s

1 W i l l i am C . M i l l e r , _D_e _ a_l�i _n�g�w_i_t_ h�S�t�

r� e_ s�s_:

�-A�C_ h_a _l _ l_ e_ n�g'--e

f o r Ed uca t o r s ( B l oom i n g to n , I n d i a n a : P h i Delta K a p p a E d uca t i o n a l F o u nd a t i o n , 1 9 79 ) , p . 14.

i t s d e fe n s i ve fo rce s t o com b a t t h e s t r e s s o r . T h e seco n d

l ev e l i s known a s t h e " s t a g e o f re s i s ta nce " , where t h e

body m a i n t a i n s i t s f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e i rr i t a n t . Leve l

t h ree of t h e s y n d rome i s t h e " s ta g e o f e x h a u s t i o n 11 w h i ch

i s w h e n u n a b l e t o r e s i s t the a t t ack a ny l o n g e r , t h e b o d y

g i v e s i n to v a r i o u s f o r m s o f m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l d i s e a s e . 1

T h e G . A . S . i s s h own d i a g ramma t i ca l l y i n F i gure 1 .

F i g u re 1

T h e G e n e r a l A d a p ta t i o n Synd rome 2

Resi stance to stress

I ___J���-����..._�����·��

P h a s e I P h a s e I I P h a s e I II

Normal level of res i stance to stress

The r e s e a rch by J o h n s o n , C a n no n a n d , m o s t s i g n i f i ca n t l y ,

Sey l e cl e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e p h y s i olog i c a l r e s p o n s e o f m a n

w h e n faced w i t h s t re s s fu l s i tu a t i o n s . Seyl e's G . A . S . t h e o ry

r e f l ec t e d t h e p r e v e l a nt f e e l i n g o f r e s e a rchers d u ring t h e

1 H a n s Seyl e , The S t re s s o f L i fe ( N ew Y o r k : McG r a w - H i l l , 1 9 56) p . 1 0 .

2 I b i d . , p . 1 6 .

8

1 94 0 1 s a n d 1 9 5 0 1 s w h i c h was t h a t s t r e s s c ou l d b e u nd e r s to o d

e xc l u s i v e l y b y a r e s p o n s e - b a s e d m o de l . T h i s i n i t i a l a pp r o a c h

d e a l t with s t r e s s a s a d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , o c c u r r i n g a s t h e

r e s p o n s e to a s t re s s o r . F i g u r e 2 demo n s t r a t e s t h e re l a ­

t i o n s h i p between t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t h e i n d i vi d u a l i n t h e

r e s po n s e - b a s e d t h e o ry .

F i g u re 2

R e s p o n s e - b a s e d Mode l of S t r e s s 1

EN V I RONMENT PERSON

STR E S S O R l ~ S T I M ULUS t> R E S P O N S E

P S Y C H O L O G I CAL S T R ES S

P H Y S I OLOG I C A L S T R ES S

T h o u g h t h e r e s p o n s e - b a s e d a p p r o a c h to s t r e s s w a s a d e q u a t e

i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e p h y s i o l o g i ca l r e s p o n s e t o s t r e s s f u l s i t u -

a t i o n s i n p r i m i t i ve m a n , t h e t h e o ry p r o v e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e

i n e x p l a i n i n g m o d e r n p syc h o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . D i ff i c u l ty

w i t h thi s type o f a p p r o a c h i s e n c o u n t e re d w h e n d e d c i d i ng i f

1 T ho m a s C o x , S t r e s s ( B a l t i mo re , Maryl a n d : U n i v e r s i ty P a r k P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 4 .

9

p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s emo t i o n s a n d f a t i g u e a r e s t re s s o r s

o r a r e t h e r es u l t o f s t re s s .

S o l e r e l i a n c e o n a r e s p o n s e - b a s e d a p p r o a c h d e c l i ne d d u e

t o f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h o n s t r e s s a n d s t r e s s - re l a te d to p i c s .

T h r o u g h the r e s e a r c h o f peo p l e s u c h a s B a s o n w i t z , P e r s k y ,

J u rc h i n a n d G r i n k e r , C o ffer a n d A p p l ey , a n d C a p l a n , a c o m ­

bi n i n g o f r e s p o n s e - b a s e d a p pro a c h a n d s t i mu l u s - b a s e d a p p r o a c h

t o s t r e s s ev o l v e d . 1

T h e s e c o n d a p p r o a c h to c o n c e p t u a l i z i ng t h e s t r e s s

r e a c t i o n d e s c r i b e s s t r e s s a s be i n g a s t i mu l u s c h a ra c t e r i s t i c

o f t h e s u rr o un d i n g s a n d t re a t s t h e to p i c a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t

v a r i a b l e . The ba s i s f o r t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o f t h i s t h e o ry

c o n c e rns t h e d e g ree t o w h i c h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ( s t r e s s )

a f fec t s t h e i nd i v i d u a l . T h e p r em i s e o f t h i s t h e o ry a d v o -

c a tes t h a t a mo re i n t e n s e l o o k be m a d e i n to t h e a c t i on

r a t h e r t h a n t h e re a c t i o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n . F i g u re s 3 a nd 4 s h o w t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d

t h e i n di v i d u a l i n t h e s t i mu l u s - b a s e d t h e o ry .

C e n t r a l t o t h e s t i mu l u s - ba s e d t h e o ry o f s t r e s s i s t h e

be l i ef t h a t a t h o u g h t ( s t i mu l u s ) e v o k e s a fe e l i ng o r a c t i o n

( re s p o n s e ) . W h e n a n i n d i v i du a l pl a c e s h i s h a n d s o n a h o t

1 H . B a s o n w i t z , H . P e r s k y , S . J . Ku rc h i n a n d R . R . G r i n ke r , Anxie ty a n d S t r e s s ( N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1 9 5 5 ) ; C . N . C o f f e r a n d M . H . A pp l ey , Mot i v a t i o n : T�e o ry a n d R e s e a r c h ( N ew Y o r k : W i l ey P r es s , 1 964); a n d G . C a p l a n , P r i n c ipl e s o f P r e v e n t i ve P syc h i a t ry ( Lo nd o n , T a v i s t o c k � 1964 } .

F i g u re 3

S t i m u l u s - ba s e d ( E n g i nee r i n g ) M o d e l o f S t r e s s 1

EN V I R O N M E N T P E RSON

I ST R E S S S T R A I N

ST I M U L U S R E S P O N S E

F i g u re 4

S t i mu l u s - b a s e d M o d e l o f S t r e s s2

F O R C E

""' o v e r l a o d

� re s i s t i n g I N D I V I DUAL

� n o n s p ec i f i c s t a t e

o f s t r e s s

D E F ENSE MECHAN I SM

l ---t> fa i l u r e t o

a d a p t

� R ET U R N TO E QU I L I B R I UM D I STO RTION :

1 0

l o n g term i l l e ffects

1 C o � , S t r e s s , p . 1 2 . 2 G a ry L . C o o pe r , _T�h�e

�S_t�

r_e�s�s�

C_h_ e_ c�

k-'--: �C_o�p_i _n�g.__w�i_ t _h�t_ h�e�S_t_ r

� e�s _s_o_r_ s o f L i fe a n d W o r k (Englewood Cliffs , New Jer s e y : Pre n t ice- Hal l , 1981), p . 7 .

1 1

s t o v e ( s t i mu l i ) h e a u t oma t i c a l l y w i t h d r aw s t h e h a n d

( re s p o n s e) . In s t r i c t l y t e rm s o f p h y s i ca l s t i muli , t h e

s t i m u l u s - b a s e d c o n c e p t o f s t r e s s u s u a l l y a p p l i e s . T h e

d i f f i c u l ty w i t h t h i s a p p r o a c h i s t h e i n a b i l i ty t o d e -

c i de w h a t i s s t re s s fu l i n rea l - l i fe s i t u a t i o n s .

Th i s wea k n e s s i n t h e s t i mu l u s - r e s ponse mode l i s t h a t

i n m o s t o f l i fe ' s s i tu a t i o n s , m a n ' s " f ee l i ng s " o r i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n become a n a dd e d e l ement o f

t h e s t r e s s formu l a . T h i s b r i n g s q u e s t i o n s a s t o t h e d e g ree

to w h i c h s i t u a t i o n s a r e a b l e to b e m e a s u r e d as s t r e s s fu l .

W h a t m i g h t be s t r e s s f u l t o s o m e m i g h t n o t b e s t re s s fu l

t o o t h e r s .

T h e i n a b i l i ty to d e t e rm i ne a l l t h a t i s s t r e s s f u l i n

r e a l - l i fe s i tu a t i o n s e x p o s e d a f l a w i n t h e s t i mu l u s - b a s e d

t h e o ry o f s t re s s a n d l ed t o t h e d e ve l o pm e n t b y L a z a r u s o f

t h e i nt e r a c t i o n i s t t h e o ry . 1 Th i s th i rd a p p r o a c h e x am i n e s

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e i n d i v i du a l a n d h i s e n v i r o n me n t ,

t re a t i n g s t r e s s a s t h e re s u l t o f t h e i n t e ra c t i v e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p b e twee n t h e a r e a s i n q u e s t i o n . T h e i n te r a c t i o n i s t

( o r tras a c t i o n a l ) t h e o ry d e s c r i be s t h e i n d i v i d u a l v i ew i ng

h i s a c t u a l c a p a b i l i ty v e r s u s h i s p e r c e i ve d c a pa b i l i ty

a n d a l s o h i s a c t u a l d e m a n d v e r s u s h i s p e r ce i ved d e ma n d .

1 R . S . L a z a r u s , P ro c e s s ( N ew Y o r k :

S t r e s s a n d t h e C o 9 6 6 , p . 1 8 .

12

The a b i l i ty o r i n a b i l i ty t o b a l a nce t h e s e d i v e r s i t i e s

re s u l t s i n the l e v e l o f s t r e s s occu rr i n g . F i g u r e s 5

a n d 6 s h ow t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d

h i s e n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e i n t e ract i o n i s t m o d e l .

F i gure 5 T r a n s act i on a l ( I n t e ract i o n i s t ) M o d e l o f S t r e s s 2

Ex t e r n a l e n v i r o n me n t a l P e r s o n a l r e s ources s u p p l i e s a n d s u p p o r t s ( ca p a b i l i ty)

� B a l a n c e / �

� i m b a l a n c e

� Ex t e r n a l e n v i r o n me n t a l I n t e r n a l ( j o b ) dema n d s a n d n e e d s a n d v a l ue s co n s t ra i n t s

E n v i r o n m e n t P e r s o n

1 Cox , S t re s s , p . 1 0 2 .

1 3

emphas i z e that i t i s t h e n at u re o f t h e r e l at i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

t h e t w o w h i c h i s c ru c i al . As L a z a r u s s tat e d :

S t r e s s r e f e r s t h e n , t o a v e ry b road c l as s o f p r o b l ems d i ffere n t i a t e d from o t h e r p ro b l em areas becau s e i t deal s w i t h any d e man d s that tax t h e s ys t em , what e v e r i t i s , a phys i o l o g i ca l sys tem , a s o c i al s y s t e m , o r a phych o l o g i cal sys t e m , a n d t h e r e s p o n s e of t hat sys t e m . l

S t re s s i s an i n d i v i dual p h e nomenom ; i t i s t h e r e s u l t o f

a t ran s ac t i o n between t h e p e r s o n a n d h i s s i t uat i o n . T h e

w o r k t ransac t i o n i s u s e d t o e m p has i ze t h e ac t i v e a n d

adap t i v e nat u re o f t h e p r o c e s s . T h e i n t e reac t i o n i s t t h e o ry

demo n s t rates t h e dynam i c p r o c e s s by w h i c h p e op l e e x p e r i e n c e

and r e s p o n d t o p r o b l e m s and d i ff i c u l t i e s w h i c h can l ead

to s t re s s .

I t i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e i nt e rac t i o n i s t t h e o ry o f s t r e s s

t hat e v e n t s are n e u t ral a n d d o n o t , i n t h e m s e l ve s , p r o d u c e

s t r e s s reac t i o n s . C o o p e r s u rm i z e d t hat man's reac t i on to

a s t r e s s o r d e pend s on how the p e r s o n i n t e r p re t s or apprai s e s

( c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u sly ) the s i g n i f i c ance o f a

harmf u l , t h reate n i n g o r chal l e n g i ng e v e n t . 2 T h u s , a

card i nal p r i n c i p l e o f h u man f u n c t i o n i n g develops i n that

i t i s n o t e v e n t s i n t h e ms e l v e s b u t h o w we v i ew t h e m t hat

cau s e s emo t i onal d i s t re s s . As C o x s t at e d :

1 R . S . Lazaru s , " Th e C o n c e p t s o f Stre s s and D i sease , 11 i n L . L e v i e d . Societ S t r e s s a n d D i seas e , ( Lo n do n , O x for0 U n i v e r s i ty P re s s , 1 9 71 , p . 5 6 .

2 Gary L . C o op e r , T h e S t r e s s C h e c k : C o i n w i t h t h e Stre s s e s o f L i fe a n d W o r k E n g l ewood C l i f fs , N e w J e r se y : Pre n t i c e - Hal l , I n c . 1 98 1 ) , p . 1 9 .

1 4

Figure 6

· The Person Environment Model of Stress1

ENVIRONMENT

POTENTIAL STRESSORS

THE INDIVIDUAL

Attitudes and Traits

Past Experience

Needs

l

BACKGROUNO ~ SITUATIONAL

JUDGMENT OF

THREAT

1

FACTORS state of stress

� COPING � i

u n s u c cl s s f u l LONG-TERM

EFFECTS

OVERCAME PROBLEMS

While pointing out that both the environmental stimulus

and the reacting individual are vital elements, interactionists

1cooper, The Stress Check, p.12.

l 5

emphasilze that it is the nature of the relationship between

the two which is crucial. As L azarus stated:

Stress refers then, to a very broad class of problems differentiated from other problem areas because it deals with any demands that tax the system, whatever it is, a physiological system, 1a social system, or a phychological system.

Stress is an individual phenomenom; it is the resul t

of a transaction between the person and his situation. The

word transaction is used to emphasize the active and

adaptive nature of the process. The interactionist theory

demonstrates the dynamic process by which people experience

and respond to problems and difficulties which can lead

to stress.

It is inherent in the interactionist theory of stress

that events are neutral and do not, in themselves produce

stress reactions. Cooper surmized that man's reaction to

a stressor depends on how the person interprets or

appraises ( consciously or unconsciously ) the significance

of a harmful, threatening or chal lenging event.2 Thus,

a cardinal principle of human functioning devel ops in

that it is not events in themselves but how we view them

that causes emotional distress. As Cox stated:

1 R. S. in l. Levi University

Lazarus, "The Concepts of Stress and Disease," ed. Societ Stress and Disease, ( London, Oxford

Press, 1971 , p. 5 6 .

2 Gary L. Cooper, The Stress Check: Co in with the Stresses of Life and Work Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1981), p. 19.

Possibl y the most important question to ask of experiments on stress, which treat it as an independent variabl e, is 1 does stress exist in the eye of the subject or in the eye of the experimenter?1 l

l 6

Primary to an understanding of the stress reaction

becomes the uniqueness of the person interacting with

each stressful situation. Lazarus articulated this when

he stated:

The appraisal of threat is an essentially individual based affair. The appraisal of a stressor is not a simpl e perception of the elements of the situation, but a judgement, an inference in which the data are assembled 2 to a constellation of ideas and expectations.

It is now generally believed that stressful situations

cannot be defined by reference to objective criteria as

was earlier the case in the stimul us-response theories of

stress. Only the individual can define his own stressors

as a result of past experience and apprehensions. For

each individual there is a unique 11perceptual viewpoint 11

through which wil l be filtered the wide range of potential

factors that wil l put him under stress. Change in any one

variable, such as the background a ga i nst which the stimul.us

is perceived, can radicall y alter the perceiver's inter­

pretation. The sources of pressure in life evoke different

reactions from different people.

l Cox, Stress, p. 1 7 .

2R.S. Lazarus, Patterns of Adjustment ( New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 105.

l 7

The interactionist model of stress is articulated in

its entirity by Cox who stated:

Stress, it is argued, can onl y be sensibly defined as a perceptual phenomenon arising from a com­parison between the demand on the person and his ability to cope. An imbal ance in this mechanism, when coping is important, gives rise to the ex perience of stress, and to stress response. The latter re present attempts at coping with the source of stress. Coping is both psychological (involving cognitive and behavioral strategies) and physiol og ical . If normal coping is inefffective, stress is prolonged and abnormal responses may occur. The occurrence of these, and prolonged exposure to stress per se, may give rise to functional and structural damage. The progress of these events is subject to great individual variation. 1

Today the interactionist theory is endorsed almost

universally by stress researchers. The pioneer of stress

research, Seyle, has evolved his earl y thoughts on stress

to concl ude: "It is quite evident that the stressor

effect inherent in man's decision making depends primarily

upon the way he reacts to it. 112 Thus, the key question

in one's ability to handl e stress becomes the capability

to respond to potential stressors.

This study utilizes the dual criteria of the inter­

actionist theory in identifying the level of stress in

princi pals. It is hypothesized that the actual and per-

ceived view of the principal in relation to stressors in

1cox, Stress, �· 25. 2Hans Seyle, Stress in Heal th and Disease (Massachusetts:

Butterworth Press, 1976), p. 3 7 3 .

l 8

the environment will provide an evaluative resul t identifying

a definite level of stress.

This study addresses the problem of the degree of

stress principal s perceive on their jobs. Specif ically,

this study compares the actual perceived stress exper-

ienced on the job with what principals deem to be a

reasonable amount of stress. This study is predicated -.,Y

on the research findings that indicate that the amount

of stress is relative to a g iven individual as opposed to

being an absolute quality. A secondary problem which

this study explores is the job satisfact ion of pr incipal s.

Limitat ions of the Study

The participants responding to the criterion measure

for this study were sixty-one principals from a six county

educational service region in central Ill inois (Appendix A).

The geographical area in question is predominately rural

and small city in composition. The population of the

twenty-six cities w ithin the educ�tional service region

range from 296 to 1 9 , 68 1 inhabitants (Appendix B). Those

surveyed represent �wenty-seven public school districts

(Append ix C ) . The enroll ment of these school d istricts

ranged from 181 to 4 , 1 0 1 students (Appendix D ) . The

principals surveyed were white and generally middle cl ass.

Building princ ipals at the el ementary, junior h ig h and

19

high school levels were surveyed. Ninety-two percent o f

the principals surveyed were male.

Definition of Terms

The development of an operational definition of stress

for this study is significant to an accurate understanding

of the problems addressed. v A cursory survey of the available

scientific and popul ar literature reveals that a multitude

of theoretical definitions of stress have been formul ated.

These definitions are hel pful in providing a foundation

by which an operational definition can be developed for

this study.

Seyl e defined stress . . . "as the salt of l ife . . .

stress wakes up and makes us alive. 111 His research also

demonstrates that stress causes a wide variety of il lnesses

and, in some instances, brings death. More specificall y,

Seyle states that . . . "stress is essentiall y refl ected

by the rate of all the wear and tear caused by life.

Stress most simply defined is the non-specific response

of the body to any demand. 112

Inherent in all theoretical definitions of stress is

the bel ief that no one can live without experiencing some

1Hans Seyle, Stress Without Distress ( Philadelphia, Pa: J.P. Lipponcott/Signet, 1974), p. 3 .

2seyle, Stress of Life, p 1.

20

degree of stress all the time. 11Eustress 11 (from the Greek

eu-good, as in euphoria) is defined as a pleasant or

curative form of stress, while 11distress11 is the unpleasant

or disease producing outgrowth from stressors. 1 Expanding

upon this thought, Gherman points out that . . . "the sum

of stress is defined as the stressor and that whether or

not a stressor actuall y provokes stress depends entirely

on the way a person perceives it. 112

Tanner provided a scientific definition of stress,

defining it as . "any action that places special physical

or psychological demands upon a person - anything that can

unbalance his individual equil ibrium. 113 The social

scientist Bensen defined stress . . . 11as the environmental

demands that require behavioral adjustment, 114 while the

educational researchers Evans and Cody describe stress .

11as a condition that results from a circumstance that

causes a disruption in a person's physical and/or mental

attention to task. 115

1Jere E. Yates, Managing Stress (New York: Amacon, 1979), p. 24.

2E.M. Gherman, Stress and the Bottom Line: A to Personal Being and Corporate Health (New York: Press, 1981), p. 76.

Guide Arna con

30dgen Tanner, Human Behavior: Stress {New York: Time-Life Press, 1976), p. 7.

4Herbert Bensen, The Rel axation Response (New York; Avon Press, 1975), p. 38.

5John R. Evans and John T. Cody, "Principals and Stress", Illinois Principals Association vol. 15, no. 2, (March, 1982), p. 4.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW O F THE RELATED RESEARCH AND LITERATURE

Stress and Health

Research over the l ast fifteen years seems to indicate

that stress is l inked to various physical symptoms and

ail ments. A review of these research findings suggests

not only a rise in the incidence of psychological tension

and anxiety but also a dramatic increase in the incidence

of stress related diseases such as chronic heart disease,

hypertension, cancer, diabetes, ul cers, and a variety of

lesser il lnesses.

Adol ph Meyer was one of the first to recognize and

measure the impact of significant dail y life occurrences

on subsequent illness. 1 Meyer developed a "life chart''

that organized medical, psychol ogical , and sociol ogical

data for each individual, and from those c h a r ts, stress

related health patterns began to emerge.

Since the early work of Meyer many others have in­

vestigated the rel ationship between daily l ife stressors

1 Allen Lief, The Commonsense Psychiatry of Dr. Adolph Meyer, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948), p. 102.

22

2 3

and il lness. The essential point of this research is

that life events are seen as nonphysical stressors and

that the data suggests there is a positive relationship

between those events and the subsequent occurrence of

il lness.

A s tudy by Seyle indicated that excessive or in-

appropriate stress response can produce struc tural or

functional damage in the person.1 Seyle's findings were

mainly concerned with the ability of the physiological

stress response to produce physical disease. Seyle termed

these illnesses diseases of adapta tion, describing them

as the outcome of an essentiall y useful defense mechanism .

Seyle reported that this group of diseases included, among

other disorders, all the psychosomatic d iseases, allergies,

and other immunol ogical responses, as well as excessive

inflammatory reactions.

Brady, in a series of well-de tailed experiments,

produced gastrointestinal lesions in Rhesus monkeys by

subjecting them to the psychological stressor of shock

'd 2 avo1 ance. The essential design of these experiments

was to have two monkeys paired together, with both of

them receiving an electrical shock if a bar was not pressed

at certain interval s. However, only one monkey in the pair

2Jonathan Brady, 11Ulcers in Executive Monkeys 11, Scientific American, vol. 1 9 9 (Sept. , 1 9 5 8 ) : 362-404.

24

was abl e to press the bar; the other monkey was a passive

partner. The monkey responsibl e for pressing the bar

(the executive monkey) devel oped more gastrointestinal

l esions than his passive partner. Brady stated that

these findings indicated the stressor characteristics of

vigil ance and decision making on the part of the executive

monkey, since both monkeys received the same number of

shocks over time.

The direct rel ationship between stress and physical

ailments has been most prominentl y advocated by Sil verman,

an associate professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical

School . After thirty years of stress research, Sil verman

detail ed the rel ationship between stress and il l ness when

he stated:

All il l nesses are probabl y psychosomatic - the resu l t of the interaction between emotions and body. When a person devel ops critical stress and cannot cope, either the mind or the body has to break down. If physical il l ness strikes, it doesn't do so randoml y, 1but at vul nerabl e spots unique to each of us.

The personal warning signs of severe stress have been

identified by Seyl e as the inabil ity to concentrate,

fatigue, feelings of unreality or dizziness, fl oating

anxiety or anger, depression, nervous tics, insomnia,

heart disease, and a l ack of enthusiasm. 2 Figure 7

(New 1samuel Sil verman, Physiol ogical Correl ates of York: Academic Press, 1970) p. 21. 2seyl e, Stress in Heal th and Disease, p. 10.

Emotion,

25

lists some of the many behavioral physiological and

1health 1 effects which have been variously suggested

by researchers to be l inked to stress.

Figure 7

The Effects and Cost of Stress3

1 . Subjective Effects Anxiety, aggression, apa'thy bore­dom, depression, fatigue, frus­tration, guile and shame, irritability and bad temper, moodiness, low sel f-esteem, threat and tension, nervous-ness, and lonel iness.

3. Cognitive Effects Inability to make decisions and concentrate, frequent forgetfulness, hypersensitivity to criticism and mental blocks.

5. Health Effects Asthma, amenorrhea chest and back pains, coronary heart disease, diarrhea faintness and dizziness, dyspepsia, frequent urination, headaches and migraine, neuroses, nightmares, insomnia, psychoses, psychosomatic disorder, diabetes, mettitus, skin rash, ulcers, loss of sexual interest and weakness.

3 Cox, Stress, p. 9 2.

2 . Behavioral Effects Accident proneness, drug taking, emotional outbrusts, excessive eating or loss of appetite, excessive drinking and smoking, excitability, impulsive behavior, impaired speech, nervous laughter, restlessness, and trembling.

4 . Physiological Effects Increased blood and urine cate­cholamines and corticosteroids, increased blood glucose levels, increased heart rate and bl ood pressure, dryness of mouth, sweating, dilation of pupils, difficult breathing, hot and cold spells, "a lump in the throat 11, numbness and tingling in parts of the l imbs.

6 . Organizational Effects Absenteeism, poor individual relations, and poor productivity, high accident and labor turnover rates, poor organizational climate, antagonism at work and job dissatisfaction.

26

The stress-related factors pertaining to physical

il l ness as detailed in the figure above, have been

independently documented by researchers. Locke reported

that persons who cope poorly with stress appear to suffer

deficits in cell- mediated immunity against certain

d . 1 1seases. According to Locke, those who cope well

against stress have active natural cell activity when

the· body is threatened by disease or by abnormal cells.

L e Shan also examined the physiological response of

the body to stress and stated that tumor cells are con­

stantly circulating in the body and that a suppressed

immune system is the major factor in allowing those

neoplastic cells to implant and grow. 2 Le Shan noted

that one's psychological outl ook affects immunity and

he theorized that anxiety and stress have a major impact

on the bodies ability to fight such threats.

Research by Miller demonstrated that there exists

a significant relationship between a feeling of hopeless­

ness and ill ness in those patients studied. 3 Patients

with a positive outlook and good mental health were reported

1steven Locke, 11Somatic Response Patterning and Stress: Some Revisions of Activation Theory11, ed. , M.H. Appley and R. Trumbell, Psychological Stress, (New York: A ppleton­

Century-Crofts, 1967), p. 71 2L. Le Shan, 1 1 Phychological States as Factors in the

Devel o pment of Malignant Disease: A Critical Review ", Journal of National Cancer Institute, Vol. 22 (Fal l , 1959): 1-18.

3N.E. Miller, "Effects of Learning on Physical Symptoms Produced by Psychol ogical Stress 11, ed., Hans Seyle, Seyle's Guide to Stress Research, Vol. 1 (New York: Van Nostrand, 1980): 55-61.

27

to be much less likely to have malignant growths than

those who coped poorly with stress. Miller pointed to

clinical evidence that patients with chronic illness,

such as inoperable cancer, fare worse in the short run

if they give up; that is they "turn their face to the wall

and soon die for no apparent reason.111 Miller summarized

that stressors of varying kinds affect the immune system in

ways that tend to make it less effective, increasing

susceptibility to infections or hastening death from

tumor implantation.

Dohrenwend al so examined the relationship between a

feeling of hopelessness and illness and reached a similar

l . 2 cone us 1on. Dohrenwend reported that researchers are

highl y successful in predicting biopsy outcomes from

psychiatric examinations. She concluded that her findings

indicated that stress producing changes in life are

directly correlated to physical illness.

Russek and Zohman studied the relationship between

stress and physical il lness in their study of one-hundred

young coronary heart disease (CHO) patients.3 The

1Ibid., p. 59. 2Barbara S. Dohrenwend, Stressful Life Events: Their

Nature and Effects, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1 974 ) , p. 7 .

3H.I. Russek and B.L. Zohman, 11The Relative Significance of Hereditary, Diet and Occupational Stress in Chronic H e a r t D i s e a s e o f Y o u n 9 Ad u 1 t s 11 , Ame r i c a n �-o u r n a 1 o f Me d i c a 1 Science, (Sept., 1958): 235-266.

researchers concluded that stress associated with job

responsibility appears f a r more significant in the

aetiology of CHO than hereditary conditions or a pro-

digously high fat diet. The authors also added that

more or less without exception prolonged periods of

stess proceeded the onset of myoc ardial i nf arctions.

In 1962, Russek reported a study that largely

28

t d h. l " 1 . 1 suppor e 1s ear 1 e r cone us1ons. Russek investigated

four professiona l g roups; two prejudged by independent

assessors to be i n high stress areas of medical practice

(general practioners and anaesthetists ) and two in a

lower stress area (pathologists and dermatologists ) .

Quest i onnaires were sent to one-thous and physicians in

each group. From an analysis of the data it was reported

that the high stress g roups were more prone to CHO

(ll.9%) than the low stress g roups (3. 2% ) .

The relationship between stress and CHO a s it relates

to long work hours was examined in a study by Buell and

Breslow. 2 I n an investig ation of the registered morta lity

1H.I. Russek, "Emotional Stress and Coronary Heart Disease in Amer ican Physic i ans, Dentists and Lawyers " , American Journal o f Medical Science, (Oct. 1 962): 243-262.

2 Thomas Buell and L. Bresl ow, "Morta lity From Coronary Heart Di seas e i n Ca 1 i f .o r n i a Men Who Work Long Hours " , Journa l of Chronic Disease, vol . 2 (Fall, 1960 ) : 615-635.

29

rate of men i n California, they reported that workers

under the age of 45 in light industry, who are on their

job more than forty-eight hours per week, had twice the

risk of death from CHO than workers with forty- eight

hours or less.

A study by Wolf reinforced evidence that there exists

a significant relationship between stress and illness. 1

Sixty-five patients who had undergone a wel l-documented

myocardial infarction were studied over a period of seven

years. These findings were compared with those from an

equal number of healthy control subjects matched for

age, sex, race, height, weight, education and occupation .

Many different psychological and physiological measurements

were taken during a period of study. Evidence of dejec-

tion and dissatisfaction with achievements was encountered

in two-thirds of the patient popul ation, but in onl y ten

of the sixty-five controls. Moreover, these depressive

manifestations were found to be associated with marked

fluctuations in the patients' physiological state and

the patients that died of CHO showed even greater

vulnerability.

1stephen Wolf, " Psychosocial Forces in Myocardial I nfarction and Sudden Death" ed., · L . Levi, Soci ety, Stress and Disease, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1 9 7 1 ) : 2 8 -4 1 .

30

Bruhn confirms the suggested relationship between emotional

state, physiological condition and CHO in his study of heart

attack patients. 1 He studied forty-eight patients suffering

myocardial infarctions, who were admitted to a four-bed coronary

care unit over a period of ninety consecutive days. Bruhn

observed the patients reactions to cardiac emergencies, sudden

arrests or death, which involved other patients in the unit.

Of the seventeen patients who were exposed to such an emergency,

thirteen reacted with anxiety or depression, reporting pre-

monitions of death. Also noted in al l thirteen, were one or

more abnormal physiological events, incl uding ventricul ar

tachycardia, elevation of blood pressure, angina, their own

cardiac arrest or death.

Friedman and Rosenman studied the stress- illness rel a-

tionship in regards to the type of personality. Their results

indicate a very strong relationship between one's personality

and the prevalence and incidence of CHo.2 They identified

two general types of personalities which they termed Type A

and Type B. The Type A personality is characterized as

including intense drive and ambition , aggressiveness,

competitiveness, a need to get tasks done to meet dead-

1 J. G. Bruhn, " Patients' Reactions to Death in a Coronary Care Unit, 11 Journal of Psychosomatic Responses vol . 1 4 (Dec. 1970): 65-79.

2M. Friedman and R. H. Rosenman , "Association of specific overt behavior pattern with blood and cardiovascul ar findings - blood chol esterol level, blood cl otting time, incidence o f Arcus Senilis and Coronary Artery Disease, " Journal of the American Medical Association vol. 1 6 9 (Dec. , 1 959): 1 286-1296.

3 1

lines, restlessness and impatience . The Type B pe rson is

chara c t e rized by behavior that includes be i ng easy going

in manner, patience, abil ity to apprecia t e leisure and

beauty, non-cl ock watcher, not pre-occupi ed with social

achie vement , and l ess comp e t itive than Type A. Friedman

and Roseman conclude d that Type A personalities are three

times more like l y to experience CHO than the Type B

individual.

A review of the research on stress and its r e l a t ionship

to lesser illnesses s e ems to indica t e that to various degrees

headaches, ul cers, high blood pressure, bronchial asthma

and dia b e t e s are also caused by or aggravat e d through stress.

Research by Groen, 1 Wolf and Goodell , 2 Williams, 3 and Marx, 4

to name a few, de mons trates a direct relationship b e t w e e n

t h e frequency o f psychosomatic complaints, actual il lness,

me dical contacts and s tress.

1 J . J . Groen, " Psychosocial Infl u ences in Bronchial Asthma11, e d . , L. Levi, Society Stress and Disease vol . 1 (London: Oxford University Press, 1 9 68).

2 Stephen W o l f and H. Goodell , S t re s s a n d Dise a s e , (Springfield, Illinois: Charl es C. Thomas Press, 1 96 8 ) .

3R. B. Williams, 11H eadache 11, e d . , A. B . Will iams and W. D. Gent ry, Behavioral Approaches to Medical Treatment (Cambridge, Mass: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1 9 7 7) .

4J ean L. Marx, "Stress: Role in Hypertension Deba t ed 11 Science (December, 1 9 7 7 ) : 9 0 5 - 90 7 .

3 2

Though t h e i mp o r t a n c e of s t r e s s i n p s y c h o p hy s i o l o g i c a l

i l l ne s s h a s b e e n s u p p o r t e d by e v i d e n c e o n b o t h a t h e o re t i c a l

a n d t a n g i b l e b a s i s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s t r e s s a n d

s u b s eq u e n t i l l n e s s i s h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t o n a v a r i ety o f s i t u a -

t i o na l , i n d i v i d u a l , a n d co n s t i t u t i on a l d i f f e r e n c e s . I n g e n e r a l ,

c u rr e n t r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t r e s s r e s p o n s e i s n o t a

s i m p l e b i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e to n o n s p e c i f i c s t r e s s o r s , b u t

r a t h e r a comp l e x , i n te r re l a t e d p r o c e s s i nc l u d i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e

o f a s t re s s o r , h o w i t i s s e e n p s y c ho l o g i c a l l y b y t h e p e rs o n ,

u nd e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e s t r e s s o r o c c u r s , how t h e i nd i v i d u a l

c h a ra c t er i s t i c a l l y r e a c t s a n d w h a t t h e r e s o u r c e s a r e t h a t the

i nd i v i d u a l h a s a v a i l a b l e for d e a l i ng w i t h the s t re s s o r . The

comp l e x i ty o f t h e s t r e s s - i l l ne s s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s s h own

d i a g ramma t i c a l l y i n F i g u re 8 .

F i gu r e 8

S t r e s s - I l l ne s s P a ra d i gm1

S T R E S S O R � M E D I A T I N G --t> S T R E S S --t> C O P I N G F A C T O R S

A p p r a i s a l U n s u c c e s s f u l ----t> I L L N E S S I n d i v i d u a l S u c c e s s f u l

R e s o u r c e s

S o c i a l S u p p o r t

1 V i c t o r B i e l i a u s k a s , S t r e s s a n d H e a l t h , ( N e w Y o r k : McGraw H i l l P r e s s , 1 98 1 ) , p . 9 1 .

33

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h f i nd i n g s c o n c e r n i n g

t h e e f f e c t s o f s t r e s s o n p h y s i c a l h e a l t h i n d i c a t e t h a t . s t r e s s

p l ays a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e a e t i o l ogy a n d p r o g n o s i s o f

m a n y p hy s i c a l d i s o rde r s . T h o u g h a l l c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c to r s ,

v a r i a b l e s , a n d t h e i r i n te r re l a t i o n s h i p s a re u n i q u e t o e a c h

i n d i v i d u a l , i t m u s t b e a c c e p ted t h a t p o o r p h y s i c a l h ea l th may

re s u l t from s t re s s .

S t r e s s a nd W o r k

D u r i n g t h e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s n um e r o u s s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n

c o n d u c ted c o n c e r n i n g work r e l a t ed s t r e s s o r s a n d t h e r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p t o e m p l oyee p r o d u c t i v i ty a n d h e a l t h . I t i s a l mo s t

u n i v e r s a l l y a c k n owl e d g e d i n t h e l i te r a t u r e a n d r e s e a r c h t h a t

f o r m o s t pe o p l e a t s ome t i me d u r i n g th e i r l i v e s t h e work t h ey

d o a c t s a s a s o u r c e of s t r e s s . O f t e n t h e e x p e r i e n c e of work

s t r e s s i s s h o r t l i v ed , and i s s u c c e s s fu l l y d e a l t w i t h w i t h o u t

l o n g l a s t i n g p h y s i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l effec t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,

howeve r , r e s e a r c h a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t s t r e s s i n t h e work

p l ace c a n r e p r e s e n t a c o n t i n u o u s b u r d e n and a s e r i o u s h a z a rd

to p r o d u c t i v i ty a n d h e a l t h .

R e s e a r c h by B r umme t , Py l e a n d F l amho l t z s u g g e s ted t h a t

m a n a g e r s a r e s u ffe r i n g ex t reme p h y s i o l o g i c a l symptoms from

s t r e s s a t wo r k , s u c h a s d i s a b l i n g u l c e r s a n d C H O , wh i c h f o r c e s

t h em t o ret i re p r e m a t u re l y f r o m a c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i fe

34

b e f o re they h a v e h a d a n o p p o rt u n i ty to f u l l y r e a c h t h e i r

p o t e n t i a l . 1 C o o p e r a n d M a r s h a l l s u pp o r t t h e s e f i n d i n g s

o n w o r k r e l a t e d s t r e s s w h e n they s t a te d :

T h e m e n t a l a n d phys i c a l h e a l t h e f fects of j o b s t re s s a re n o t o n l y d i s ru p t i v e i n f l u e n c e s on the i n d i v i du a l m a n a g e r , b u t a l s o a r e a l c o s t t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , o n whom m a n y i n d i v i d ua l s d e p e n d : a c o s t wh i c h i s r a re l y , i f e ve r , s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d e i t h e r i n h u m a n o r f i n a nc i a l t e rms by o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b u t o n e w h i c h t h ey i n c u r i n t h e i r d a y t o d a y o p e r a t i o n s . 2

A s t u d y o f t h e l i t e r a t u re a n d r e s e a r c h r e v e a l s t h a t a

l i s t o f o v e r fo rty i n t e ra c t i n g f a c t o r s h a v e b e e n i de n t i f i ed

a s p o s s i b l e s ou r c e s o f w o r k r e l a te d m a n a ge r i a l s t r e s s .

R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e p l a c e d t h e s e forty s t r e s s p r o d u c i n g v a r i a b l e s

i n to s e ve n m a j o r c a te g o r i e s o f s t r e s s . F i g u r e 8 l i s t s t h e

fo rty s o u r c e s o f s t r e s s a t w o r k a n d t h e i r p o s s i b l e c o n s e ­

q u e n c e s f o r t h e i nd i v i d u a l . F i g u r e 9 d i a g r amma t i c a l l y

r e p re s e n t s t h e s e v e n ma j o r c a t eg o r i e s o f s t r e s s .

F a c t o r s I n t r i n s i c t o t h e J o b

F ac t o r s i nt r i n s i c t o t h e j o b w e r e a f i r s t a n d v i t a l

f o c u s o f s tu d y f o r e a r l y r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h e f i e l d o f w o r k

s t re s s . S o f e r r e p o rt e d t h a t s t r e s s c a n be c a u s e d b y too

m u c h or too l i t t l e wo r k , t i me p r e s s u r e s and dea d l i n e s , a n d

1 R . L . B r u mme t , W . C . Py l e a n d E . G . F ramho l t z , " A c c o u n t i n g f o r h u m a n r e s o u r ce s , " M i c h igan B u s i ne s s Rev i ew v o l . 20 ( Fe b . 1 9 68 ) : 2 0 - 2 5 .

2 c a ry L . C o o p e r a n d J u d i M a r s h a l l , " So u r c e s o f M a n a g e r i a l a n d Wh i te Co l l a r S t re s s , " e d . , C a ry L . C o o p e r a nd Roy Payne , S t r e s s a t Wo rk , ( New Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey a n d S o n s , 1 97 8 ) p . 8 1 .

SOURCES OF STRESS AT WORK . -

INTRINSIC TO JOB Bore cf om Phys i cal working condi tions Time pressures and deadl i nes Exorbitant work demands I nformation overl oad

ROLE IN ORGANIZATION Ro 1 e confl ict Rol e ambiguity Responsi bi l ity for peopl e Territorial boundaries

CAREER DEVELOPMENT Underpromotion Overpromotion Lack of job secur ity Success

RELATIONSHIPS AT WORK Poor rel ationships with

peer , subordinates and bos s .

Threats from below

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE �ND CLIMATE

Lack of part i c i pation Bureaucratic pattiness Pressures toward conformity I � r k nf rP,nnn,i vPnP''

F igure 9

Sources of Stress at Work and Their Consequences 1

For the I n d i v i dual

--p ' v

�

v

PERSONAL STRESSORS

EXTRAORGAN IZATIONAL SOURCES OF STRESS

cr i s i s robl ems

Midl i fe Fami ly p Commut i n g F i nancia 1 d i fficul t ies

THE INDIVI Lack of

job Frustrat Excess i v

work Level of Level of Toleranc Level of Type A b

DUAL meaning on the

ed amit i on e concern for

anxiety emot ional i ty

e for ambiguity stress tolerance

ehavior

1

SYMPTOMS OF EXCESSIVE STRESS

Hypertension Depression Heavy dr ink ing l--1> Heavy smoking Drug addiction High chol esterol

DISEASE

Coronary artery d i sease

Psychosomatic i 1 1 ness

Mental health problems

Numerous other d i seases

� I I

I

w U1

3 6

F i g u re 1 0

S o u r c e s o f M a n a g e r i a l S t r e s s 1

INTRINSIC TO JOB Too much/too l i ttl e work Poor phys ical work i ng

cond it ions Time pressures Dec i s ion mak i n g , etc .

ROLE IN ORGAN IZATION Role confl ict/ambiguity Responsi bi l i ty for

peopl e No part i c ipation i n

dec i s i o n mak i n g , etc .

CAREER DEVELOPMENT Over-promoti on/under promotion Lack of job security Thwarted ami t i o n , etc . /

ORGAN IZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND CLIMATE Lack of effective

consul tation Restrictions on behavior Office pol i t i c s , etc .

RELATIONS WITH I N ORGAN IZATION Poor rel at ions with boss

f

I

\

Poor rel ations with col l eagues and subordi nates

D iffi cul t i es i n delegat i ng respons ib i l i t ies , etc .

IND IV I DUAL MANAGER Personal i ty Tol erance for

ambiguity Abi l i ty to cope

with change Motivation Behavioral pattern

ORGAN IZATIONAL INTERFACE W I TH OUTS IDE Company versus fam i l y

demands ·

Company versus own i nterests

1 cooper and Marsha'l l , "Sources of Managerial and !•lh i te Col l a r Stress , 11 p . 83 .

h . k d . . 1 a v 1 ng to m a e too m a ny e c 1 s 1 o n s .

3 7

A s tu d y by K e a r n s a l s o

e x am i n e d i n t r i n s i c , j o b r e l a t ed s t r e s s f a c t o r s a n d i t w a s

c o n c l u d e d t h a t f a t i q u e f rom t h e p h y s i c a l s t ra i n s o f t h e

work e n v i ronmen t , e x c e s s i v e t r a v e l , l o n g h o u r s , h a v i n g to

c o pe w i t h c h a n g e s at work a n d t h e e x p e n s e s of m a k i n g m i s t a k e s

were t h e dom i n a t e s t r e s s o r s i n t h e work e n v i r o n m e n t . 2

T h e e a r l y r e s e a r c h e ff o r t s by S o f e r a n d K e a r n s l e d to

t h e i de n t i f i c a t i on of two p r i mary c a t e g o r i e s i n w h i c h

s u c c e e d i n g r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s o n s t re s s f a c t o r s i n t r i n s i c t o

t h e j o b h a v e c e n te r e d . T h e s e two a r e a s a r e w o r k i ng c o nd i t i o n s

a n d w o r k o v e r l o a d .

I n t h e a r e a of w o r k i n g c o n d i t i on s s t u d i e s h a v e d e mo n -

s t r a t e d a po s s i b l e c o r re l a t i o n between work i ng c on d i t i o n s

a n d t h e p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h of t h e emp l oyee . Korn-

h a u s e r fou n d , for e x a mp l e , t h a t poor m e n t a l h e a l t h w a s

d i re c t l y r e l a t e d t o u n p l e a s a n t work c o n d i t i o n s a n d to

e x c e s s i v e a n d i n c o n v e n i e n t h o u r s . 3 I n d e p e n d e n t stu d i e s

4 5 by M a r e s o n , a n d S h e p a r d a l s o e x a m i ned t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between t h e work i n g c o nd i t i o n s of a p a rt i c u l a r j o b a n d

1 c h a r l e s S o fe r , M e n i n M i d - C a r e e r , ( Ma s s a c h u s e t t s : C a mb r i d g e U n i v e r s i ty P re s s , 1 9 7 0) p . 1 7 .

2J . L . Kea r n s , S t r e s s i n I n d u s t ry , ( Lo n d o n : P r i o ry

P re s s , 1 9 7 3 ) p . 1 0 1 . 3 A l l en Ko r n h a u s e r , M e n t a l H ea l t h a n d t h e I n d u s t r i a l

W o r k e r ( N ew Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey P re s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 7 3 .

4 s t e p h e n M a r e s o n , Automa t i o n , A l i e n a t i o n a n d A n om i e ( New Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d Row P r e s s , 1 9 7 0) , p . 2 1 0 .

5 J . M . S h e p a r d , A u t oma t i o n a n d A l i e n a t i o n , ( C amb r i d g e , Ma s s . : T h e M I T Pre s s , 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 1 98 .

38

phys i c a l a n d m e n t a l h e a l th . T h e s e s t u d i e s b o t h c o n c l u d e d

t h a t r e s u l ts i nd i c a t e t h a t phys i c a l h e a l t h i s a d v e r s e l y

a ff e c t e d by r e pe t i t i ve a n d d e h u ma n i z i ng e n v i r o n m e n t s .

R e s e a r c h i n d i c a te s t h a t wo r k o v e r l o a d i s a mo re d om i n a n t

s t re s s o r t h a n w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r m a n a ge r s .

T h e e a r l i e s t wo r k o v e r l o a d r e s e a r c h e r w a s M i l l e r who

the o r i z e d t h a t " o v e r l o a d i n most systems l e a d s t o b r e a k down ,

w h e t h e r we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h s i n g l e b i o l o g i c a l c e l l s o r

m a n a g e r s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . 11 1 K a h n r e i n fo rc e d the i n i t i a l

r e s e a r c h by M i l l e r i n a s tu d y o f o v e r l o a d . H e d e f i n e d l o a d

a s 11 t h e e n v i r on m e n ta 1 dema n d e x p e r i e n c ed by t h e i n d i v i d u a l . 11 2

H e s umma r i z e d t h a t a n o v e r l o a d o r u n de r l o a d o f t h e o r g a n i sm ' s

c a p a b i l i t i e s c ou l d p o t e n t i a l l y c a u s e d i s t r e s s .

F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n h a v e d i f f e r e n t i a te d o v e r l o a d i n t e rm s

of q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d q ua l i t a t i v e o v e r l o a d . 3 Q u a n t i ta t i v e

r e fe r s to h a v i n g too m u c h t o d o , wh i l e q u a l i ta t i v e m e a n s

w o r k t h a t i s t o o d i ff i c u l t . T h e i r r e s e a r c h i n d i c a te d a l i n k

between q u a n t i t a t i v e o v e r l o a d a n d s m o k i n g , w h i c h i s a n

i m p o r t a n t r i s k f a c t o r i n C H O . They summa r i z e d t h a t p e 1 s o n s

w i t h m o r e p h o n e c a l l s , o f f i c e v i s i t s , a n d mee t i n g s p e r g i v e n

1 J . G . M i 1 1 e r , 11 I n f o r rn a t i o n i n p u t o v e r 1 o a d a n d p s y c ho -p a t h o l o g y 11 Ame r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P syc h i a t ry v o l . 8 ( N o v em b e r 1 96 0 ) , p . 1 1 6 .

2 R . L . Ka h n , " C o n f l i c t , amb i g u i ty a n d o v e r l o a d : T h r e e e l eme n t s i n j o b s t re s s , 11 O c � a t i o n a l Menta l Hea l t h v o l . 3 ( Se p t . 1 9 73 ) , p . 1 .

- -

3 J . R . P . F re n c h a n d R . O . C a p l a n , 11 0 rg a n i z a t i o n a l s t r e s s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s t ra i n " e d . , A . J . M a r rown , IJl0_!j_��!:e o f S u c c e s s ( N ew Y o r k : Amacom P re s s , 1 9 7 3 ) : 3 0 - 6 6 .

40

p o t e n t i a l s o u rc e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r e s s t h a t a d v e r s e l y

a ff e c t s b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l w e l l - be i n g .

T h e r e s e a r c h o n q u a l i ta t i v e o v e r l o a d i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t

i s a l s o a s o u rc e o f s t r e s s f o r t h o s e i n m a n a g em e n t p o s i t i o n s .

F r e n c h e t . a l . i n v e s t i g a t e d q u a l i ta t i v e w o r k o v e r l o a d a m o n g

p r o fe s s o r s a n d u n i v e r s i ty a dm i n i s t r a to r s . 1 T h e r e s e a r c h e r s

u s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , i n t e r v i ews a n d med i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s

t o o b ta i n d a t a o n r i sk f a c t o r s a s s o c i a te d w i t h C H O f o r 1 2 2

u n i v e r s i ty a dm i n i s t r a t o r s a n d p r o f e s s o r s . Re s u l t s i n d i c a ted

that o n e symptom o f s t re s s , l ow s e l f - e s t e e m , w a s re l a t e d t o

w o r k o v e r l o a d b u t t h a t t h i s w a s d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e two

o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p i n g s . Qu a l i t a t i v e o v e r l o a d w a s n o t

s i g n i f i c a n t l y l i n k e d to l ow s e l f - e s t e e m a m o n g t h e a dm i n ­

i s t ra t o r s b u t w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r re l a t e d f o r t h e p r o fe s s o r s .

T h e g r e a t e r t h e q u a l i ty o f work e x p e c t e d o f t h e p ro fe s s o r

t h e l ow e r t h e s e l f - e s t e e m .

T h e r e � e a r c h o n q u a n t i ta t i ve a n d q u a l i ta t i v e o v e r l o a d

h a s b e e n s umma r i z e d b y F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n , who h a v e i de n t i f i e d

n i n e d i f f e r e n t symptoms o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p hy s i c a l s t ra i n

w h i c h r e s u l t f r o m o v e r l o a d . 2 T h e s e s y m p t o m s a r e j o b d i s -

s a t i s f a c t i o n , j o b te n s i o n , l ow e r s e l f - e s t e e m , t h r e a t ,

l J . R . P . F r e n c h , C . J . T u p p e r a n d E . I . M i l l e r , 11 W o rk l o a d o f U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r s , 11 H u m a n R e l a t i o n s v o l . l 3 ( J a n . 1 9 6 5 ) : 3 - 2 0 .

2 F r e n c h a n d C ap l a n , " O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S t re s s a n d I n d i v i d u a l S t ra i n , 11 p . 66 .

4 1

e m b a r r a s sme n t , h i g h c h o l e s te r o l l e v e l s , i n c re a s e d h e a r t

r a t e , s k i n r e s i s t a n c e , a n d m o r e s m o k i n g . They c o n c l u d e

t h a t f a c t o r s i n t r i n s i c to t h e j o b a r e a s i g n i f i c a n t s o u rc e

o f s t re s s a n d t h a t t h e s e s t r e s s o rs s h o u l d n o t b e v i ewed

i n i s o l a t i o n but r e l a t i v e to the i n d i v i du a l ' s c a p a c i t i e s

a n d p e r s o na l i ty .

R o l e i n t h e O rga n i z a t i o n

A n o t h e r p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f m a n a ge r i a l s t r e s s t h a t

h a s b e e n i de n t i f i e d b y r e s e a r c h e r s i s a s s o c i a te d w i t h

t h e r o l e a p e r s o n a s s u m e s a t wo r k . Th i s r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s

t h a t c o n f l i c t a n d amb i g u i ty a b o u t on e ' s r o l e c a n t a k e

i t s t o l l i n i n c r e a s e d a n x i ety a n d d e c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i ty .

I t h a s b e e n t h eo r i z e d t h a t t h e a m o u n t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i ty

t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s f o r o t h e r peo p l e a n d t e r r i t o r i a l

b o u n d a r i e s i n h e r e n t i n m a n a ge r i a l p o s i t i o n s a re a l s o key

s t r e s s o rs .

R o l e c o n f l i c t a s a s o u r c e o f s t r e s s h a s b e e n s t u d i e d

more t h a t any o t h e r s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i on a l s t res s o r . T h e

m o s t f re q u e n t ma n i fe s t a t i o n o f t h i s p h en o m e n o n o c c u r s

w h e n a p e r s o n i s c a u g h t b e t w e e n two g r o u p s o f p e o p l e who

demand d i f f e r e n t k i nd s o f b e h a v i o r , or that e x p e c t t h a t

t h e j o b s h o u l d e nt a i l d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s .

A c c o r d i n g to C o o p e r a n d M a r s h a l l :

Ro l e c o n f l i c t e x i s t s w h e n a n i n d i v i d u a l i n a p a rt i cu l a r w o r k r o l e i s t o r n by c o n f l i c t i n g j o b dema n d s o r d o i n g t h i n g s h e r e a l l y d o e s n o t w a n t to d o o r d o e s

1n o t t h i n k a r e a p a r t o f t h e

j o b s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

42

K a h n e t . a l . found that m e n w h o s u ff e r e d more r o l e

c o n f l i c t h a d l ower j o b s a t i s f a c t i on a n d h i g h e r j o b r e l a te d

t . 2 e n s 1 on . I t w a s a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e g re a t e r the p o w e r

o r a u t h o r i ty o f t h e p e o p l e s e n d i n g t h e c o n f l i c t i n g r o l e

m e s s a ge s , t h e m o r e ro l e c o n f l i c t p r o d u c e d j o b d i s s a t i s fa c t i o n .

Ka t z a n d K a h n d e f i n e d r o l e c o n f l i c t a s " t h e s t i mu l t a n e o u s

o c c u r r e n c e o f two o r m o r e s e t s o f p r e s s u re s u c h t h a t c o mp l i -

a n c e w i t h o n e wo u l d m a k e m o r e d i f f i c u l t comp l i a n c e w i t h

t h e o t he r . 11 3 T h e y i de n t i f i e d f o u r k i n d s o f r o l e c o n f l i c t

wh i c h w e r e t e rm e d i n t ra s e n d e r c o n f l i c t , i n t e r s e n d e r c o n f l i c t ,

i nt e r ro l e c o n f l i c t , a n d p e r s o n ro l e c o n f l i c t .

A s tu d y by F r e n c h a nd C a p l a n l i n k e d r o l e c o n f l i c t t o

phys i o l og i c a l s t ra i n . 4 T h e r e s e a r c h e r s t e l e m e t e r e d a n d

r e c o r d e d t h e h e a r t r a t e o f twenty- two m e n f o r a two h o u r

1 c o o p e r a n d M a r s h a l l , " So u r c e s o f m a n a g e r i a l a n d w h i te c o l l a r s t re s s , " p . 86 .

2 R . L . Ka h n , D . M . Qu i n n , R . P . S n o o k a n d R . A . R o s e n t h a l , O rga n i z a t i o n a l S t r e s s ( Ne w Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey P r e s s , 1 96 4 ) , p . 60 .

3 o a n ·i e l K a t z a n d R o b e r t L . Ka h n , T h e S o c i a l P sych o l ogy o f Orga n i z a t i on s ( N ew Y o rk , J o h n W i l ey P r e s s , 1 966) , p . 73 .

4 J . R . P . F r e n c h a n d R . D . C a p l a n " P sy c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n c o ro n a ry h e a r t d i s ea s e , 11 J o u r n a l o f I nd u s t r i a l M e d i c i n e v o l . 3 9 ( De c . 1 97 0 ) : 3 8 3 -39 7 .

4 3

p e r i o d w h i l e t h ey w e r e a t w o r k i n t h e i r o f f i c e s . R e s u l t s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m e a n h e a r t r a t e f o r a n i nd i v i d u a l w a s

s t ro n g l y r e l a t e d t o s e l f - r e p o r t e d r o l e c o n f l i c t .

S h i ro m , E d e n , S i l be rwa s e r a n d Ke l l e rm a n f o u n d s i m i l a r

r e s u l t s i n t h e i r s tu d y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s t re s s o r s . 1 They

r e p o r t e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s e n g a g e d i n c l e r i c a l , m a n a g e r i a l

a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n s a r e m o r e l i ke l y t o s u f f e r s t re s s

f r o m i d e n t i ty a n d o t h e r i n t r a p e r s o n a l p r o b l ems . T h ey s t udy

i d e n t i f i e d a s i g n i f i ca n t i nc r e a s e i n C H O among t h o s e

s u ffe r i n g f r o m o c c u pa t i o n a l s t r e s s .

S t u d i e s o r. p o t e n t i a l s t r e s s o r s a s s oc i a te d w i t h o n e ' s

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d r o l e amb i g u i ty a s a n o t h e r

s o u r ce o f m a n a g e r i a l s t re s s r e l a t e d t o a p e r s o n ' s r o l e a t

wo r k . R o l e amb i g u i ty i s s a i d t o e x i s t w h e n a n i n d i v i d u a l

h a s i n a d e q u a t e i n fo rma t i o n a b o u t h i s wo r k , t h e s c o p e a n d

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e j o b a n d t h e w o r k o b j e c t i v e s a s s oc i -

a t e d w i t h t h e r o l e .

K a h n e t . a l . f o u n d i n t h e i r s t u dy t h a t men w h o s u f fe r e d

f r om ro l e a mb i g u i ty e x p e r i e n c e d l ow e r j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n , h i g h

j ob - r e l a t e d t e n s i o n , g r e a t e r f u t i l i ty , a n d l ow e r s e l f - c o n f i de n c e . 2

1A. S h i ro m , 0 . E d e n , S . S i l b e r wa s e r a n d J . J . Ke l l e rma n , " J o b S t re s s e s a n d r i s k f a c t o r s i n CH 0 , 11 S o c i a l S c i e n c e a n d Me d i c i ne v o l . 17 ( Oc t . 197 3 ) : 875-89 2.

2 Ka h n , Qu i n n , S n o o k a n d R o s e n t h a l , O rga n i z a t i o n a l S t re s s , p . 71 .

4 4

F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n f o u n d i n a s a mp l e o f 2 0 5 v o l u n t e e r

e n g i n e e r s , s c i e n t i s t s , a n d a dm i n i s t r a t o r s t h a t ro l e a mb i -

g u i ty w a s s i g n i f i ca n t l y r e l a t e d t o l ow j o b s a t i s f ac t i o n

a n d to f e e l i n g s o f j o b r e l a t e d t h r e a t to o n e ' s m e n t a l

a n d phys i c a l w e l l - b e i n g . 1 T h i s a l s o r e l a te d t o i n d i c a t o r s

o f p h y s i o l og i c a l s t ra i n s u c h a s i n c re a s e d b l o o d p re s s u re

a n d p u l s e r at e . T h e r e s e a r c h e r s i de n t i f i ed t h e s t r e s s

i n d i c a t o r s r e l a t e d t o ro l e amb i g u i ty a s b e i n g d e p r e s s e d

moo d , l ow e r e d s e l f - e s t e e m , l i fe d i s s a t i s fa c t i on , j o b

d i s s a t i s f ac t i o n , l ow mot i v a t i o n t o wo r k , a n d i n t e n t i o n

t o l e a v e t h e j o b .

A n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l o rg a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e s t r e s s o r t h a t

r e s e a r c h i nd i c a t e s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t r e s s i s t h e m a n a g e r ' s

r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r p e o p l e a n d t h i n g s ( i . e . e q u i p m e n t ,

b u d g e t , e t c . ) W a rdwe l l e t . a l . f o u n d t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i ty

f o r p e o p l e w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e l i k e l y t o l e a d to C H O

t h a n r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r t h i n g s . 2 A c c o rd i n g t o W a rd w e l l ,

i n c r e a s e d r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r p eo p l e freq u e n t l y m e a n s t h a t

o n e h a s t o s p e n d m o r e t i me i n t e r a c t i n g w i th o t h e r s , a t t e n d i ng

mee t i n g s , a n d o p e r a t i n g u n d e r m o r e d e a d l i ne p r e s s u r e s a n d

s c h e d u l e s .

1 F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n , " P s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n c o r o na r y h e a r t d i s e a s e , " J o u r n a l o f I nd u s t r i a l M e d i c i n e : 3 8 3 - 3 9 7 .

2 G e o r g e P i n c h e r l e , " F i t n e s s f o r W o r k " J o u r n a l o f C h ro n i c D i s e a s e v o l . 2 2 ( A u g u s t , 1 9 7 2 ) : 3 2 1 - 3 2 4 .

4 5

P r i n c he r l e a l s o i de n t i f i e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i on s h i p

betwe e n s t r e s s a n d t h e l e v e l o f r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r p e o p l e

i n h i s s t u dy o f 2 , 00 0 e x e cu t i v e s a t t e n d i n g a med i c a l c e n t e r

f o r med i c a l c h e c k - u p s . 1 Of t h e 1 , 2 00 m a n a g e r s s e n t by

t he i r c om pa n i e s f o r t he i r a n n u a l e x am i n a t i on t h e r e w a s

e v i d e n c e o f p h y s i c a l s t r e s s b e i ng l i n k e d t o t h e a g e a n d

l e v e l o f r e s p o n s i b i l i ty ; t h e o l d e r a n d m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e t h e

e x e c u t i v e , t h e g re a t e r t h e p r o b a b i l i ty o f t h e p re s e n c e o f

C H O r i s k f a c t o r s o r symptom s .

F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n a l s o i nv e s t i g a ted t h e i mp a c t o f r e s ­

p o n s i b i l i ty o n m a n a ge r i a l h e a l t h . 2 They f o u n d t h a t t h e more

r e s p o n s i b i l i ty a m a n a g e r h a d for p e o p l e ( a s o p p o s e d t o t h i n g s ) t h e m o r e l i k e l y h e w a s t o e n c o u n t e r d i s t r e s s . T h e y r e p o r t e d

t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r peo p l e w a s s i g n i f i ca n t l y r e l a te d

to h e a v y s m o k i n g , d i a s t o l i c b l o o d p r e s s u re , a n d s e rum

c h o l e s te r o l l e v e l s . The more t h e i n d i v i d u a l m a n a g e r h a d

r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r t h i ng s a s o p po s e d to peo p l e t h e l ow e r

e a c h o f t h e C H O r i s k fa c t o r s . T h i s w a s r e p o r t e d to b e

p a rt i c u l a r l y t rue f o r c l e r i c a l , m a n a g e r i a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l

w o r k e rs .

1 G e o r g e P i n c h e r l e , 11 F i t n e s s f o r Wo r k : J o u r n a l o f C h ro n i c D i se a s e v o l . 2 2 ( A u gu s t , 1 9 7 2 ) : 3 2 1 - 3 2 4 .

2 F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n , 11 P s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n c o ro n a ry h e a r t d i s e a s e , 11 p . 38 3 .

4 6

R e l a t i o n s h ips W i t h i n t h e Orga n i z a t i on

A t h i rd ma j o r s o u rc e o f s t r e s s a t w o r k t h a t h a s b e e n

e x am i n e d i n r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s h a s t o d o w i t h t h e n a t u re o f

r e l a t i o n s h i ps b e tween o ne ' s b o s s , s u bo rd i n a te s a n d c o l l eg u e s .

B e h a v i o ra l s c i e n t i s t s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s

between m e m b e r s o f a w o r k g ro u p a re a c e n t r a l f a c t o r i n

i nd i v i d u a l a n d o rg a n i z a t i on a l h e a l t h .

F r e n c h a n d C a p l a n h a v e d e f i n e d p o o r r e l a t i on s h i p s a s

11 t h o s e wh i c h i n c l u d e l ow t ru s t , l ow s u p p o rt i v e ne s s , a n d l ow

i n t e re s t i n l i s t e n i n g t o a n d t ry i ng t o d e a l w i t h p r o b l ems

t h a t c o n f r o n t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membe r . 11 1 They r e p o rted

t h a t o n c e e s t a b l i s h e d , p o o r r e l a t i o n s t e n d t o p r o d u c e p o o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r e s s i n t h e forms o f l ow j ob s a t i s f a c t i on

a nd b e l i e f i n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f j o b - re l a t e d t h r e a t s to a

p e r s o n ' s w e l l - be i n g .

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between w o r k e r s a n d m a n a g e r s t o t h e i r

i mme d i a t e b o s s w a s e x a m i n e d by B u c k who u s ed a l ea d e rs h i p

q u e s t i o n n a i r e to mea s u re t h e i mp o r t a n c e o f c o n s i de r a t i o n a n d

i n i t i a t i n g s t r u c t u re i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h on e ' s s u p e r i o r . 2

R es u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e c o n s i de r a t i o n f a c t o r w a s a s s o c i a t ed

w i t h b e h a v i o r i n d i c a t i ve o f f r i e n d s h i p , m u t u a l t ru s t ,

1 I b i d . , p . 384 .

2 V i c t o r B u c k , W o rk i ng U n d e r P r e s s u r e ( L o n d o n : S ta p l e s P r e s s , 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4 1 .

4 7

r e s p e c t a n d a c e rt a i n w a r m t h between b o s s a n d s u b o rd i n a t e .

H e f o u n d t h a t t h o s e w o r k e r s w h o f e l t t h a t t h e i r b o s s wa s

l ow o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e p o r t e d fee l i n g more j o b pre s s u re s .

W o r k e r s w h o were u n d e r p r e s s u r e r e p o r t e d t h a t t he i r b o s s

d i d n o t g i v e t h e m c r i t i c i sm i n a h e l p f u l way , p l ayed f a v o r i t e s

w i t h s u bo r d i n a t e s , a n d t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e m w h e n e v e r t h e y

g o t a c h a n c e . B u c k s u mma r i z e d t h a t " c o n s i d e r a t e b e h a v i o r

o f s u p e r v i s o r s a p p e a r s to h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y 1 i n v e r s e l y t o fee l i ng s o f j o b p r e s s u re . "

R e l a t i on s h i p s w i t h o n e ' s s u bo r d i n a te s h a s a l s o been

s t u d i e d and i de n t i f i e d by some r e s e a r c h e r s as a p o t e n t i a l

w o r k r e l a t e d s t r e s s o r f o r many m a n a g e r s . T h o u g h i t h a s b e e n

g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d b y b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n t i s t s t h a t a n i n a b i l i ty

t o d e l e g a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty i s a s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s o r f o r

m a n y m a n a g er s , t h e n e c e s s i ty t o m a n a g e b y p a rt i c i pa t i o n ,

h a s b e e n i de n t i f i ed a s t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s o r i n

m a n a g e r - s u bo r d i n a t e re l a t i o n s h i p s .

Don a l d s o n a n d Gow l e r h a v e r e p o r t e d f o u r g e n e r a l f a c t o r s

w h i c h t h ey c l a i m may m a k e t o d a y ' s z ea l o u s emph a s i s o n p a r t i -

c i p a t i on a c a u s e o f r e s e n tme n t , a n x i e ty a n d s t r e s s f o r t h e

m a n a g e r c o n c e rn e d . 2 T h e s e f a c t o r s a r e a m i s m a t c h o f f o r m a l

1 I b i d . , p . 4 3 .

2 J . Do n a l d s o n a n d 0 . Gowl e r , " Pe r o g a t i v e s , P a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d M a n a g er i a l S t re s s , " ed . , D . Gowl e r a n d K . L e gg e , M a n age r i a l S t r e s s ( New Y o r k : E pp i n g Gower P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 6 3 .

48

a n d a c t u a l p o we r , t h e e r o s i o n of h i s formal r o l e a n d

a u t h o r i ty , i rr e c o n c i l a b l e p r e s s u r e s t o b e b o t h p a rt i c i pa t i v e

a n d t o a c h i e v e h i g h p rod u c t i o n a n d h i s s u b o rd i n a t e s

o c c a s i o n a l r e fu s a l t o p a rt i c i pa t e .

l t i s t h e o r i z e d t h a t m a n a g e r s w i t h t e c h n i c a l a n d

s c i e n t i f i c b a c k g ro u n d ( a t h i n g s o r i e n t a t i o n ) p l ace a l ower

p r i o r i ty on p e r s o n a l re l a t i o n s h i p s b e c a u s e t h ey are perce i v ed

to be t i me c o n s um i n g a n d an i m pe d i me n t to d o i n g t h e j o b

w e l l . T h e i n t e ra c t i o n s w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e s for t h e s e m a n a g e r s

i s r e p o r t e d t o b e m o r e a s ou rce o f s t r e s s t h a n t h o s e m a n a g e r s \ w h o a r e p eo p l e o r i e n t e d .

C a r e e r D e ve l opme n t

R e s e a r c h s t u d i e s o n t h e re l a t i o n s h i p between c a r e e r

de v e l o pment a n d s t r e s s h a v e i de nt i f i ed two m a j o r c l u s t e r s

of p o te n t i a l s t r e s s o r s . C o o p e r a n d M a r s h a l l r e p o r t e d t h a t

t h e s e two ma j o r c l u s te r s o f p o ten t i a l s t r e s s o r s a r e " l a c k

o f j o b s e c u r i ty , f e a r o f r e d u n d a n c y , o b s o l e s c e nce o r

e a r l y r e t i rement , a n d � t a t u s i nc o n g ru i ty , u n d e r - o r o v e r -

p r o mo t i o n , a n d f r u s t ra t i on a t h a v i n g r e a c h e d o ne ' s c a r e e r

c e i l i n g . 11 1

1 c o o p e r a n d M a r s h a l l , " So u rc e s o f M a n a g e r i a l a n d W h i t e C o l l a r S t re s s , 11 S t r e s s a t W o r k , p . 9 1 .

S o f e r h a s t h eo r i z e d t h a t f o r m a n y m a n a g e r s , t h e i r c a r e e r

p r o g r e s s i o n i s o f o v e rr i d i n g i mp o r t a n c e . 1 He s t a t e d t h a t

p r o mo t i o n s b r i n g n o t o n l y more m o n e y , b u t a l s o s t a t u s a n d

a n e w mot i v a t i o n a l c ha l l e n g e . B y m i dd l e a g e many m a n a g e r s

f i nd t h e i r p r o g r e s s s l owed i f n o t a c t u a l l y s to p p e d . J o b

o p p o rt u n i t i e s b e c o m e f e we r , t h o s e j o b s a v a i l a b l e t a k e l o n g e r

t o m a s t e r , d e c i s i o n s c a n n o t be r e v o k e d , o l d k n o w l e d g e a n d

m e t h o d s b e c o m e o b s o l e t e , a n d e n e r g i e s may b e l ow e r d u e t o

i nc r e a s e d f am i l y dema n d s .

A s t udy by C o n s t a n d s e r e f e r s to t h i s p h a s e a s t h e ma l e

m e n o pa u s e a n d h e d e p i c t s t h e m a n a g e r a s s u f f e r i n g f e a r s a n d

d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s i n s i l e n t i s o l a t i o n f r o m h i s f a m i l y a n d

wo r k c o l l ea g u e s . 2 I t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e fea r o f demo t i o n

o r ob s o l e s c e n c e c a n b e s t ro n g fo r t h o s e who k n o w t h e y h a v e

r e a c h e d t h e i r c a r e e r c e i l i n g - a n d m o s t w i l l i ne v i t a b l y

s u f f e r s o m e e ro s i o n o f s t a t u s a n d p ro d u c t i v i ty b e f o r e r e t i re -

men t . C o n s t a n d s e s umma r i z e d t h a t u n l e s s m a n a g e r s a d a p t

t he i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o s u i t n e w c i rc ums t a n c e s , c a r e e r

d e v e l o p m e n t s t r e s s , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e r l i fe , i s l i k e l y

t o b e c o me a n i nc r ea s i ng l y common e x p e r i e n c e .

1 so f e r , M e n i n M i d - C a r e e r , p . 1 1 0 .

2 w . J . C o n s t a n d s e , 11 A N e g l e c t e d P e r s o n n e l P ro b l em , 11 P e r s o n n e l J o u r n a l , v o l . 5 1 ( J a n . 1 9 7 2 ) : 1 2 7 - 1 33 .

E r i c k s o n a n d G u n d e r s o n h a v e d e v e l ped t h e t e r m s t a t u s

c o n g r u e n c e t o d e f i n e t h e s t r e s s b r o u g h t o n w h e n c a re e r

d e v e l o pm e n t i s d e l aye d . 1 T h ey d e f i n e s t a t u s c o n g r u e n c e

a s t h e m a t c h i n g of on e ' s i n d i v i d u a l a d v a n c em e n t w i t h h i s

e x pe r i e n c e a b i l i ty . T h e i r f i n d i n g s i nd i c a t e t h a t promo-

t i o n a l l a g i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to psy c h i a t r i c i l l ne s s .

I n a s t u dy o f N a v y p e r s o n n e l t h ey f o u n d t h a t j o b s a t i s -

f a c t i o n w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r when t h e r a t e o f a d v a n cement

e x c ee d e d e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d d i s s a t i s fa c t i on w i t h the j o b

i n c r e a s e d a s a d v a n c em e n t r a t e s were r e t a r de d . T h o s e w h o

w e r e l e a s t s u c c e s s fu l w i t h r e g a r d to a d v a n ceme n t t e n d e d

t o p e r c e i ve t h e g re a t e s t a m o u n t o f s t r e s s i n t h e i r l i v e s .

Org a n i z a t i o n a l S t r u c t u re a n d C l i ma t e

T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u re a n d c l i m a t e i s a f i f th

p o t e n t i a l s o u rc e o f m a n a ge r i a l s t res s . St u d i e s i n d i c a t e

t h a t be i n g i n a n o r g a n i z a t i o n p o s e s c e r t a i n t h re a t s t o a n

i n d i v i d u a l ' s f r e e d o m , a u tonomy , a n d i nd i v i du a l i ty . I n

a d d i t i o n to t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l i fe ,

l a c k o f r e s p o n s i v e n e s s by t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n h a v e a l s o b e e n

i de nt i f i e d a s pote n t i a l r e l a t ed s t r e s s o r s .

1 J . E r i k s on a n d E . K . G u n d e r s o n , 11 St a t u s Con g ru e n cy a n d M e n t a l H e a l t h , 11 P syc ho l ogi c a l Repo r t s v o l . 3 3 ( J u l y , 1 9 73 ) : 3 9 5 - 4 0 1 .

5 1

C o c h a n d F re n c h were t h e f i r s t to s t udy w o r k e r p a rt i -

c i p a t i o n i n t he i r s t udy o f t h e d e g r e e s o f p a rt i c i pa t i o n i n

l a s e w i n g f a c t o ry . They found t h e g re a t e r t h e p a rt i c i p a t i o n

t h e h i g h e r t h e p r o du c t i v i ty , t h e g re a t e r t h e j o b s a t i s f a c t i on ,

t h e l ow e r t h e t u r n o v e r a n d t h e b e t t e r t h e r e l a t i o ns h i p

between bo s s a n d s ub o rd i n a t e . T h e s e r e s u l t s were l a t e r

s u p p o r t e d i n a s t u dy b y F re n c h e t . a l . w h e r e i t w a s repo rted

g re at e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n l e d to s i g n i f i c a n t l y more f a v o ra b l e

a t t i t u d e s by w o r k e r s towa r d s m a n a g eme n t . 2

R e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n l ac k o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d s t r e s s

r e l a t e d d i s e a s e t e n d s t o s u p p o r t t h e s e e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s .

F re n c h a nd C a p l a n , f o r e x am p l e , f o u n d t h a t p eo p l e who

reported g r e a t e r o p p o r tu n i t i e s for p a rt i c i p a t i on i n d e c i s i o n

m a k i n g r e p o r t e d s i gn i f i c a n t l y g re a t e r j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n , l ow

j o b re l a ted f e e l i n g s o f t h r e a t , a n d h i g h e r fee l i ng s o f

s e l f - e s teem . 3

1L. C o c h a n d J . R . P . F r e n c h , " Ov e r c om i n g R e s i s t a n c e t o C h a ng e , 11 H u m a n R e l a t i o n s v o l . 1 1 ( Au g . 1 948 ) : 5 1 2 - 5 3 2 .

2 J . R . P . F r e n c h J . I s r a e l a n d D . A s , 11 An E x p e r i me n t i n P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a N o rwe g i a n F a c t o ry , 11 H u m a n R e l a t i o n s v o l . 1 3 ( J a n . 1 9 60 ) : 3 - 2 0 .

3 F re n c h a n d C a p l a n , 11 P sy c h o s o c i a l F a c t o r s i n C o r o n a ry H e a r t D i s e a s e 11 p . 3 8 4 .

52

M a r go l i s et . a l . found that n o n - p a rt i c i p a t i o n at work ,

a m o n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e o f o v e r 1 , 4 0 0 work e r s , w a s

t h e mo s t c o n s i s te n t a n d s i g n i f i c a n t p re d i c a t o r o f s t ra i n

a n d j o b r e l a te d s t r e s s . 1 They f o u n d t h a t n o n - p a rt i c i pa t i o n

wa s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a te d to s e v e r a l h e a l t h r i s k f a c t o r s .

T h e s e i nc l u d e d o v e r a l l p o o r phy s i c a l he a l t h , e s c a p i s t

d r i n k i n g , d e p re s s e d moo d , l ow s e l f - e s t e e m , l ow l i fe

s a t i s fa c t i o n , l ow j o b s a t i s fa c t i o n , i n t e n t i o n t o l ea v e

t h e j o b , a n d a l i n k between p o o r m e n t a l h e a l t h a n d l i t t l e

o r n o a u to n omy a t wo r k .

I n h i s s tu d y o f m e n t a l h e a l th a n d t h e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t

Ka s l a l s o f o u n d t h a t l ow j o b s a t i s fa c t i on w a s re l a t e d t o

n o n - p a rt i c i pa t i on i n d ec i s i o n ma k i ng , i n a b i l i ty t o p r o v i d e

fee d b a c k t o s u pe r v i s o r s , a n d a l a c k o f reco g n i t i o n f o r

g o o d p e r forma n c e . 2 Ka s l s umma r i z e d t h a t p o o r men t a l h ea l t h

w a s l i n k e d to c l o s e s up e r v i s i on a n d n o a u to n omy a t work

when h e s t a te d t h a t " m e n t a l h ea l t h at work i s to a l a rge

e x t e n t a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e g r e e to w h i ch o u t p u t i s u n d e r

the c o n t ro l o f t h e i nd i v i d u a l worker . 11 3

1 M a r g o l i s e t . a l . , " J o b S t re s s : An U n l i s t e d O c c u p a t i o n a l H a z a r d , " p . 6 5 5 .

2s .v . K a s l , " Me n t a l H ea l t h a n d t h e W o r k E n v i r o n m e n t , " J o u r n a l o f O c c upa t i o n a l Me d i c i n e , v o l . 1 5 ( J u n e , 1 9 7 3 ) : 5 0 9 - 518 .

3 r b i d . , p . 5 1 8 .

5 3

E x t r a - O rg a n i z a t i o n a l S o u r c e s o f S t r e s s

T h e s i x t h a n d f i na l s ou r c e o f e x t e r n a l j ob s t re s s i s

a c a t c h - a l l f o r t h o s e i n t e r f a c e s between l i fe outs i de a n d

l i fe i n s i d e t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n t h a t may p u t p r e s s u re o n t h e

ma n a g e r . T h e s e p r e s s u r e s a r e s a i d t o i n c l u d e fam i l y pro b l e m s ,

l i fe c r i s e s , f i na n c i a l d i ff i c u l t i e s , c o n f l i c t o f p e r s o n a l

b e l i e f s w i t h t h o s e o f t h e c o m p a ny , c o n s t a n t mo v i n g , a n d the

c o n f l i c t of c om p a n y w i t h fam i l y d e ma n d s .

D e s p i te t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e wo r k , home i n t e r f a c e a n d

t h e rea l p r o b l ems t h a t i t may p o s e f o r m a n a ge r s , t h e r e i s

a l a c k o f c o n t ro l l e d r e s e a r c h w o r k t o s u g g e s t h o w t h e s e

p o t e n t i a l s t re s s o r s e f f e c t p e r fo rma n c e o r h e a l t h . S t u d i e s

t h a t h a v e b e e n com p l e t e d i n t h i s a r e a h a v e re l i ed s t r i c t l y

o n c o r re l a t i on a l a n a l y s i s f o r t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s a n d t h e

i n fe r e n c e s t o c a s u a l i ty t h a t c a n b e d r a w n a re l i m i t ed .

I n a r e v i ew of t h e l i te ra t u r e a n d r e s e a r c h on t h e t o p i c o r

e x t r a - o rg a n i z a t i on a l s o u r c e s o f s t r e s s H a n dy r e po rt e d :

P r o b a b l y t h e a n s w e r s w i l l a l ways be u n i q u e t o e a c h of u s e , d e p e n d i n g on o u r v a l u e s a n d a t t i t u d e s , t h e s o c i e ty i n wh i c h we l i v e , t h e s t a g e o f l i fe , t h e j o b we d o o r w a n t t o d o , t h e n u m b e r o f 1 c h i l d ren , a n d t h e s i z e of o u r b a n k b a l a n c e .

1 c h a r l e s H a n dy , 11 T h e F a m i l y : H e l p o r H i n d r a n ce ? 11 e d . , C a ry L . C o o p e r a n d Roy Pyn e , S t r e s s a t W o r k ( New Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey a n d S o n s , 1 9 78 ) , p . 1 08 .

5 4

T h o u g h m a n y r e s e a rc h e r s t h eo r i z e t h a t e x t r a - o rg a n i z a t i o n a l

s o u r c e s o f s t r e s s a r e a p o t en t i a l p ro b l em for m a n a g e r s ,

more r e s e a r c h i s i n d i c a t e d i f a po s i t i v e c o r re l a t i o n i s t o

be e s t a b l i s h e d .

I n d i v i du a l M a n ager

T h e s e v e n t h c a t e g o ry o f s t r e s s t h a t r e s e a rc h e r s h a v e

i de n t i f i e d d e a l s w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l i ty o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

m a n a g e r . I n g e n e r a l s t ud i e s of i nd i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i ty a n d

i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s t r e s s , r e p o r t t h a t p e r s o n a l i ty s i g n i -

f i c a n t l y d e t e r m i n e s a n i nd i v i d u a l s r e a c t i o n s t o v a r i o u s

s t re s s o r s . A s a n i nd i v i d u a l i n t e r a c t s w i t h a w i d e r a n g e

of s t r e s s o r s h i s r e a c t i o n s a r e s a i d t o be l a r g e l y d e t e rm i n e d

by h i s fee l i n g s , v a l u e s , a n d u n i q u e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c te r i s t i c s .

S y s tema t i c r e s e a r c h o n p e r s o n a l i ty a n d i n d i v i d u a l s t r e s s

re a c t i o n s b e g a n w i th t h e w o r k o f F r i e d m a n a n d R o s e m a n who

i de n t i f i ed a re l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b e h a v i o r a l p a t te r n s ,

1 w o r k s t r e s so r s , a n d t h e p r ev e l a n ce o f C H O . T h ey r e p o r t e d

t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s ma n i fe s t i n g c e r t a i n b e h a v i o r a l t r a i t s were

s i g n i f i c a n t l y more at r i s k t o C H O . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were

r e f e r r e d t o as t h e c o r o n a ry - p r o n e b e h a v i o r Type A a s d i s t i n c t

f rom Type B ( l ow r i s k CH O ) .

1 F r i e d m a n a n d R o s ema n , " A s s oc i a t i on o f s p e c i f i c o v e r t b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n a n d c o ro n a ry a r t e ry d i s e a s e " p . 1 2 86 - 1 2 9 6 .

5 5

T y p e A i nd i v i du a l s w e r e f o u n d to e x h i b i t t h e o v e r t

b e h a v i o ra l s y n d r o m e o r s ty l e o f l i v i n g c h a r a c te r i z e d by

e x t re m e s of c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s , s t r i v i n g f o r a c h i e v eme n t ,

a g g re s s i v e ne s s , h a s te , i m p a t i e n c e , r e s t l e s s n e s s , h y p e ra l e r t -

ne s s , e x p l o s i v e n e s s o f s p e e c h , t e n s e n e s s o f f a c i a l m u s c u l a tu re

a n d fe e l i n g s o f b e i n g u n d e r p r e s s u re o f t i me a n d u n d e r

c h a l l en g e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i ty . T h e r e s e a r c h e r s s u g g e s t ed

t h a t p e o p l e h a v i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n w e r e

so d e e p l y i n v o l v e d a n d c o mm i t t e d t o t h e i r w o r k t h a t o t h e r

a s p e c t s o f t h e i r l i v e s w e r e r e l a t i v e l y n eg l e c t e d .

T h e s e f i n d i n g s w e r e s u p po rt e d i n a s tudy by R o s e n m a n

e t . a l . , e n t i t l ed t h e W e s t e r n C o l l a b o r a t i v e G r o u p S t u dy . 1

T h e s u r vey w a s a p r o s pe c t i v e n a t i o n a l s am p l e o f o v e r 3 , 4 0 0

m e n f r e e o f C H O . A l l t h o s e s t u d i e d were r a t e d T y p e A o r

T y p e B b y p sy c h i a t r i s t s a f t e r i n te n s i ve i n t e r v i ews , w i t h o u t

know l e d g e o f a ny b i o l o g i c a l d a t a a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t s a n d

w i t h o u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s b e i n g s e e n by a h e a r t s p e c i a l i s t .

D i a g no s i s w a s m a d e by a n e l e c t ro c a r d i o g r a p h e r a n d a n

i nd e p e n d e n t me d i c a l p r a c t i o n e r , w h o w e r e n o t i n formed a b o u t

t h e s u bj ec t s b e h a v i o r a l o r w o r k p a t t e rn s .

I t w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t a f t e r two a n d o n e - h a l f y e a r s from

t h e s t a rt of t h e s t u d y , Ty p e A m e n b e t w e e n the a g e s o f

1 R . H . R o s e n ma n , M . F r i e d m a n a n d R . S t r a u s s , 11 C H O i n t h e We s t e rn Co l l a bo r a t i v e G r o u p S t u dy , 11 J o u r n a l o f t h e Ame r i c a n Me d i ca l A s s oc i a t i o n v o l . 195 ( Ma r c h , 1 966): 86-9 2.

5 6

t h i r t y - n i n e t o f o r ty - n i n e a n d f i fty to f i ft y - n i ne h a d 6 . 5

a n d 1 . 9 t i m e s r e s p e ct i ve l y t h e i n c i d e n c e of C H O t h a n Type

B men . T h e y a l s o h a d t h e fol l ow i n g r i s k f a c t o r s of h i g h

s e r um c h o l e s t e ro l , e l e v a t e d b l o o d p r e s s u re a n d d e c r e a s e d

b l ood c l o t t i n g t i me .

A f t e r e i g h t a n d o n e - h a l f y e a r s o f t h e f o l l o w - u p o b s e r -

v a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d i n t h e i n i t i a l p h a s e o f t h e

W e s t e r n Co l l a b o ra t i v e G r o u p S tu d y , t h e s ame r e l a t i o n s h i p

between b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n a n d t h e i n c i de n c e w a s r e p o r te d . 1

I n t e rm s o f t h e c l i n i ca l m a n i fe s t a t i o n s of C H O i t w a s

c o n c l u d e d t h a t i nd i v i d u a l s h a d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i nc i de n c e

o f a c u t e myo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n a n d a n g i n a p e c to r i s .

M c l e a n h a s r e v i ewed t h e r e s e a r c h a n d l i te ra t u r e c o n -

c e rn i ng t h e re l a t i on s h i p between p e r s on a l i ty a n d t h e r e ac t i o n . t 2 to v a r i o u s s r e s s o r s .

s h o u l d be v i ewe d :

T h e r e s e a r c h e r repo r t s t h a t s t r e s s

. . a s a g e ne r a l r u br i c f o r a l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n · o f r e l a te d p r o b l ems . . • I t i s more comfo r t a b l e to t h i n k i n t e rm s o f s p e c i f i c s t r e s s o rs , b u t we do s o o n l y i f we t a k e i n to a c c o u n t t h e e n v i r o n ­m e n t o r e x t r i n s i c wo r l d i n w h i c h a n i n d i v i du a l f u n c t i o n s a n d h i s c o ns t a n t l y v a ry i n g i nd i v i d u a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y . 3

1 R . H . R o s e n ma n , R . J . B ra n k , D . J e n k i n s , M . F r i edma n , a n d W . W u rm , " Co r o n a ry h e a r t d i s e a s e i n t h e W e s t e r n C o l l a b o ra t i v e G r o u p S t u d y : F i n a l f o l l ow - u p e x p e r i e n c e o f 8t y e a r s , " J o u rn a l o f t h e Ame r i c a n Me d i c a l A s so c i a t i o n v o l . 2 3 3 ( Fe b . 1 9 7 5 ) : 8 7 2 -8 7 7 .

2 A l a n M c l ea n , " J o b s t r e s s a n d t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s o f c h a n g e , " P e r s o n n e l v o l . 1 6 ( J a nu a ry , 1 9 7 6 ) : 4 0 - 4 9 .

3 r b i d . p . 4 2 .

5 7

M c l e a n r e p o r t s t h a t t h e s o u r c e s of p r e s s u re a t w o r k

e v o k e d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n s from d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e . Some

p e op l e a r e b e t t e r a b l e to c o p e w i t h s p e c i f i c s t r e s s o r s t h a n

o t h e r s ; t h e y a d a p t t he i r b e h a v i o r i n a w a y t h a t m e e t s t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a l l e n g e . T h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t a re more

c h a r a c t e ro l o g i c a l l y p r e d i s po s e d to c o pe o r a d a p t t o s t r e s s

p r o v o k i n g s i t u a t i o n s . M c l e a n i de n t i f i ed a v a r i ety o f j ob

s t r e s s f a c to r s , from t h ree g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s , t h a t c o n ­

t r i b u t e t o d i ffe r e n c e s i n t h e i nd i v i d u a l s a b i l i ty to r e a c t

t o s t r e s s o r s . F i g u re 1 0 d i a g ramma t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e

p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s i n t h e j o b s t r e s s i d e n t i f i e d by Mcle a n .

T h e f i r s t c i rc l e i n t h e m o d e l i s s a i d to r e p r e s e n t t h e

c o n t e x t i n w h i c h s o c i a l a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n s

o c c u r . C o n t e x t p e r ta i n s t o e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s o rg a n ­

i z a t i o n a l c l i ma t e ( c ompet i t i v e o r co l l a b o r a t i v e ) , t h e type

of m a n a g e m e n t ( a u t h o r i ta r i a n or p a r t i c i p a t o ry ) , m o ra l e

{ h i g h o r l ow ) , p h y s i c a l e n v i ro n m e n t ( n o i sy o r q u i e t ) , t h e

e c o n omy { p r o s pe r i ty o r r e c e s s i o n ) , f a m i l y l i fe ( l o v i n g

o r h o s t i l e ) , a n d s o f o rt h .

T h e s e c o n d c i r c l e r e p re s e n t s the i nd i v i du a l ' s v u l n e r ­

a b i l i t y , w h i c h i s d e t e rm i n e d b y i n te r n a l a t t r i b u t e s . T h e s e

a t t r i b u t e s a r e r e p o r t e d to i n c l u d e a g e , o c c u p a t i o n a n d

o c c u p a t i o n a l l ev e l , e d u c a t i o n , i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e v e l o p m e n t a l

i n f l u e n c e s , p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d o t h e r p e r s o n a l i ty

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

58

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M c l e a n s umma r i z e d t h a t a n y s t r e s s o r p e r s e i s n e u t ra l :

i t i s t h e emo t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s i tu a t i o n by t h e

i nd i v i d u a l t h a t d e t e rm i n e s w h e t h e r i t w i l l c r e a t e d i s t re s s .

1 Mcl e a n , " J o b s t r e s s a n d t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l p re s s u re s o f c h a n g e , " p . 4 8 .

5 9

I n d i v i du a l s a re s a i d to v a ry i n t h e i r emo t i o n a l r e a c t i on s

a c c o r d i n g t o p e r s o n a l i ty a n d temperme n t . Accord i n g t o

M c l e a n 11 • o n e p e r s o n m a y f u n c t i o n we l l on a j o b w h i l e

a no t h e r , w i th more o r l es s t h e s a m e s k i l l s b u t a d i f f e r e n t

p e r s o n a l i ty , w i l l fa i l to t h r i v e . 11 1

T h e t h i rd c i rc l e r e p r e s e n t s s t r e s s o r s , t h o s e psycho l og i c a l

a n d s oc i a l f a c t o r s o n o r o f f o f t h e j o b t h a t a r o u s e emo t i on a l

a n d p hy s i c a l re a c t i o n i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l . E x a m p l e s o f the

c a t e g o r i e s of s t r e s s o r s a re r e p o r t e d t o b e c h a n g e , u nc e r -

t a i n ty , c o n f l i c t a n d p re s s u r e . K i ev a n d K o h n d e f i n e d the

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween p o t e n t i a l l y d a m a g i ng s t re s s o r s a n d

p e r s o n a l i ty , a s demo n s t ra te d i n the m o d e l , w h e n they s t a ted :

W h e r e a s a l l c a u s e s a re s p e c i f i c ( fo r e x a m p l e , a r e p r i m a n d from t h e s u p e r i o r , m a r i t i a l d i s a g re e ­m e n t , f i n a n c i a l wo r r i e s ) a n d a l l r e s u l t s a r e s p e c i f i c ( fo r e x a mp l e , u l c e r s , m i g ra i n e h e a d a c h e , h e a r t a t t a c k ) , n o s p e c i f i c c a u s e p r o d u c e s a s p e c i f i c e f f e c t . I n o t h e r word s , t h e r e i s no d i re c t c o n ne c t i o n between a g i ve n s t r e s s f a c t o r a n d a g i v e n bo d i l y m a l f u n c t i o n . W h e t h e r a p e r s o n ' s h e a r t , k f d n ey , o r p s y c ho l o g i c a l wel l ­b e i n g w i l l s u f fe r m o s t d e p e n d s o n s u c h f a c t o r s a s g e ne t i c p r e d i s po s i t i o n , a g e , d e v e l o p m e n t a l i n f l u e nc e s , e f f e c t s o n t h e f a m i l y c o n s te l l a t i o n a n d t h e s o c i oc u l t u ra l e n v i r o n me n t , e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g h a b i t s , a n d s o f o rt h . T h e we a k e s t l i n k i n t h e c h a i n b r e a k s down u n d e r s t re s s e v e n t h o u g h a l l p a r t s a r e e q u a l l y e x p o s e d t o i t . 2

l I b i d . , p . 4 8 .

2A r i K i e v a n d V e r a Koh n , E x e c u t i ve S t re s s : A n AMA S u r v ey Repo rt ( New Y o r k : Amacom P r e s s , 1 9 7 9) p . 6 .

6 0

T h e p r e v a i l i n g t h eo r i e s o f j ob s t r e s s , a s i nd i c a te d

i n a r e v i e w o f t h e r e s e a r c h , v i ew t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

p e r s o n a l i ty a n d s t re s s as a s u b j e c t i v e r e s p o n s e wh i c h re s u l t s

f rom a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r o bj e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s o f

work a n d p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I f a p e r s o n

p e rc e i v e s s t r e s s i n a s i t u a t i o n , i t i s s t re s s fu l ; i f a

p e r s o n p e rc e i v e s no s t r e s s i n a s i t u a t i o n , i t i s n o t s t r e s s fu l .

I n e s s e nc e , a n i n d i v i du a l p e r c e i ve s a n d i n t e r p re t s h i s

e n v i r o n m e n t o n h i s own t e rm s . L i k e b e a u ty , r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s

t h a t s t re s s l i e s i n t h e eye o f t h e b e ho l d e r .

U n i qu e n e s s o f t h e S t u dy

T h i s s t u dy i s u n i q u e i n t h a t i t c o n c e n t r a t e s i t s i n ve s t i ­

g a t i o n of s t r e s s o n a p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n i n e d u c a t i o n a l

a dm i n i s t ra t i o n , t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p . I t u t i l i z e s t h e p r i n c i ­

p a l s ' s e l f - p e rce p t i o n o f a c t u a l s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e d o n t h e

j o b w i t h wh a t p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t to be a rea s o n a b l e a m o u n t

o f j o b s t re s s . T h e s t u dy a l s o e x p l o re s t h e s e l f - p e rc e i v e d

j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l s .

C H A P T E R I I I

D E S I G N O F T H E STUDY

G e n e r a l D e s ign

B e c a u s e t h i s s t udy wa s c o n d u c t e d i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n

w h i ch t h e s u b j e c t s w o r k , i t i s c o n s i d e r e d a f i e l d s tu d y .

T h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w e re n o t ma n i p u l a t ed . T h e m a j o r

i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l es s t u d i ed were : d i sp o s i t i o n of t h e

p r i n c i p a l ( Ty p e A o r Type B ) , a n d j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h e

d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e w a s p e r c e i v ed s t re s s .

Qu e s t i o n s

T h i s s tu d y w i l l a n swer t h e fo l l ow i n g q u e s t i o n s :

l . Do p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v e t h a t they h a v e s t re s s i n t h e i r w o r k e n v i ronme n t s ?

2 . D o Type A p r i n c i p a l s p e r ce i v e t h a t they h a v e s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t more fre q u e n t l y t h a n Type B p r i n c i p a l s ?

3 . Do fewer p r i n c i pa l s w i t h h i g h e r s e l f - r a t i n g s of j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n h a v e s t r e s s t h a n p r i n c i p a l s w i t h l ow e r s e l f - ra t i ng s o f j o b s a t i s fa c t i o n ?

4 . Wh i c h v a r i a b l e s d o p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v e c a u s e s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t ?

6 1

6 2

S a mpl e a n d Popu l a t i o n

T h e p o p u l a t i o n s t u d i e d wa s s i x ty - o n e p r i n c i p a l s

( e l emen t a ry , j u n i o r h i g h a n d h i g h s c h o o l ) i n t h e s i x - c o u n ty

e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e re g i o n i n e a s t - ce n t r a l I l l i n o i s ( Re g i o n

1 1 ) . T h e s a mp l e f o r t h i s s t u dy i s t h e f i fty- o n e o f t h e

s i x ty - o ne p r i n c i p a l s w h o comp l e t e d t h e P r i n c ipa l J o b S t r e s s

S u r v ey ( s ee A p pe n d i x E f o r a copy o f t h i s i n s t rume n t ) .

T h e f i f ty - o n e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p re s e n t a n e i g h ty- t h ree p e r c e n t

r e s p o n s e r a t e . W h i l e t h e r e s e a r c h e r c a n n o t b e c e r t a i n

t h a t t h e few p r i n c i p a l s who c h o s e n o t to r e s p o n d wou l d

n o t h a v e d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f s t r e s s t h a n t h o s e who

d i d r e s po n d , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i ev e t h e re wa s a n y

systema t i c t r e n d f o r t h o s e who d i d n o t r e s po n d . I n t h a t

t h e t o t a l p o pu l a t i o n t h a t w a s s a m p l e d , t h e i s s u e o f t h e

r a n domn e s s o f t h e s am p l e w a s n o t r e l e v a n t . I nf e r e n c e s

m a d e f r o m t h e s a m p l e a n d p o pu l a t i on o f t h i s s tu d y t o o t h e r

s amp l e s a n d p o p u l a t i o ns s h o u l d c o n s i de r t h e r e l a t i on s h i p

between t h e c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s s am p l e a n d p o pu l a t i o n

i n a c o m p a r a t i ve s a m p l e t o a ny o t h e r s a mp l e a n d p o p u l a t i o n .

D a t a Co l l ec t i o n a n d I n s t rume n t a t i o n

T h e d a t a were c o l l e c t e d by s e nd i n g t h e P r i n c ipal J o b

S t r e s s S u rvey t h ro u g h t h e m a i l t o e a c h p r i n c i p a l . A

p re - a d d re s se d , p o s t a g e p a i d e nv e l o p e w a s i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e

s u r vey .

6 3

T h e i n s t ru m e n t o r c r i t e r i o n mea s u re w a s t h e P r i n c ipal

J o b S t r e s s S u rv ey . T h i s i ns t ru m e n t w a s c o n s t ru c t e d b a s e d

o n a r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u re a n d r e s e a r c h wh i c h i d en t i f i e d

r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s re l a te d to s t re s s w h i c h p r i n c i p a l s m i g h t

e n c o u n t e r o n t h e j o b . A m a j o r s o u r c e f o r t h e de v e l o pm e n t

of the i n s t rument w a s Adm i n i s t r a t o r We l l - B e i ng , p u b l i s he d

by t h e Ame r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l Adm i n i s t ra t o r s .

I n t h a t a n u m b e r o f cre d i b l e s o u rc e s were r e v i ewed

t o compo s e the c o n t e n t of the c r i te r i o n mea s u r e , f a c e

v a l i d i ty i s a s s u re d . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l i a b i l i ty o f

the i n s t rument , i t w a s f i e l d t e s t e d o n n o n - s u b j e c t e d u c a t o r s

t o e n h a n c e t h e c l a r i ty of i tems . I n t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t

w a s c o n s t r u c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h i s s tu d y , ex i s t i n g

d a t a were n o t a v a i l a b l e . R e s u l t s o f r e l i a b i l i ty s t u d i e s

u t i l i z i n g some f o rm o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e nt were n o t

a v a i l a b l e . T h e P r i n c ipa l J o b S t r e s s S u r v ey i s p r e s e n t e d

i n Appe n d i x E .

D a t a A n a lys i s

T h e p r i ma r y s ta t i s t i c a l m o d e l u s e d f o r t h e g r o u p m e a n s

a n a l ys e s w a s t h e t t e s t . A d e p e n d e n t ! t e s t w a s u s e d

b e c a u s e t h e re were r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s on t h e s ame s u b j e c t s .

C h i s q u a re w a s u s e d to c o m p a r e o b s e r v e d freq u e n c i e s by

c e r t a i n c a t e go r i e s o f r e s p o n d e n t s to e x p e c t e d f r e q u en c i es ,

6 4

a s s um i n g a 5 0 / 5 0 d i s t r i bu t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s .

De s c r i p t i ve s t a t i s t i c s s u c h a s p e r c e n t a g e s a nd f r e q u e n cy

c o u n t s w e r e a l s o u t i l i z e d .

T h e d a ta were a n a l yz e d a t t h e C o m p t e r C e n t e r a t

E a s t e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e rs i ty u t i l i z i ng t h e S t a t i s t i ca l

P a c k age for S oc i a l S c i e n c e s P r ograms . T h e d a t a were i n p u t e d

by t h e u s e o f p u n c h e d c a r d s , c ommo n l y r e f e r r e d t o a s " I B M

c a r d s . 11 T r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l a t t h e comput e r c e n t e r i n p u t e d

a n d r a n t h e c o m p u t e r a n a l ys e s .

C H A P T E R I V

R E S U L T S , C O N C L U S I ON S , ANO RECOMMENDAT I O N S

R e s e a r c h Q u e st i o n s

T h e format f o r t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l be to p r e s e n t r e s u l t s

for e a c h o f t h e f o u r r e s e a rc h q u e s t i o n s p o s e d for s tu d y a l o n g

w i t h a d i s c u s s i on o f t h e r e s u l t s . T h e f o u r r e s e a r c h

q u e s t i o n s a re :

1 . Do p r i nc i pa l s p e r ce i ve t h a t t h ey h a v e s t r e s s i n t he i r work e n v i ronme n t s ?

2 . Do Type A p r i nc i pa l s p e r ce i v e t h a t they h a v e s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i ronment more freq u e n t l y t h a n Type B p r i n c i p a l s ?

3 . Do fewer p r i n c i p a l s w i t h h i g h e r s e l f - r a t i n g s o f j o b s a t i s fa c t i o n h a v e s t r e s s t h a n p r i n c i p a l s w i th l ower s e l f - r a t i n g s of j o b s a t i s fa c t i o n ?

4 . W h i c h v a r i a b l e s do p r i nc i pa l s p e r c e i v e c a u se s t r e s s i n t h e work e n v i ronme n t ?

Qu e s t i o n 1

Do p r i n c i pa l s p e r c e i v e t h a t they h a v e s t r e s s i n t he i r work e n v i ronm e n t s ?

T a b l e l p r e s e n t s t h e re s u l ts f o r Que s t i o n 1 . T h i s

a n a l y s i s e x a m i n e s e a c h r e s p o n d e n t a s a s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l

6 5

66

and ma k e s a n o v e r a l l , a s o p p o s e d t o an i t em by i t e m , d e t e r ­

m i n a t i o n o f whe t h e r o r n o t s i g n i f i c a n t s t re s s w a s p e r c e i ve d .

Q u e s t i o n 4 w i l l t r e a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s a s a n a g g re g a t e by

a n a l y z i n g on a n i t em by i t em b a s i s . T h e d a t a i nd i c a te t h a t

2 3 ( 4 5 % ) o f t h e 5 1 p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i ve d t h a t t h ey h a d s t r e s s

o n t h e j o b , w i t h 2 8 ( 5 5 % ) i nd i c a t i n g t h a t t h ey d i d n o t h a v e

s i g n i f i ca n t s t re s s . T h e d a t a i n T a b l e l a r e b a s e d o n

u t i l i z i n g a d e p e n d e n t ! t e s t ( . 0 1 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a nc e )

to c o m p a re t h e m e a n a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n s c o r e w i t h t h e m e a n

r e a s o n a b l e s i t u a t i o n s c o re from t h e P r i n c ipa l J o b S t r e s s

S u rv ey f o r e a c h r e s p o n de n t . T h e 11 N 11 w a s 2 0 ( n u m b e r o f i tems )

a n d t h e d e g re e s o f f r e e dom w a s 1 9 ( N - 1 ) .

T a b l e 1

N u m b e r o f P r i nc i pa l s P e r ce i v i n g S t r e s s

S t r e s s N o S t re s s T o t a l

2 3 ( 45 % ) 2 8 ( 55 % ) 5 1 ( 1 00X )

C o n c l u s i on a n d Recomme n d a t i o n s f o r Qu e s t i o n 1

T h e d a t a i n T a b l e 1 i n d i c a t e t h a t n e a r l y o n e - h a l f ( 4 5 % )

o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s s u r v eyed p e rc e i v e d t h a t t h ey e x p e r i e n c e d

6 7

s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i ronmen t . I n a p r a c t i c a l

s e n s e , t h e f a c t t h a t n e a r l y o n e - h a l f o f the p r i nc i p a l s

pe rce i v e d t h e work e n v i r o n m e n t t o g e n e ra l l y b e s t r e s s f u l

i s o f p ra c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n t o e x p l o re

i s t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h m a n a g e m e n t t y p e p e r s o n n e l i n o t h e r

f i e l d s , i . e . b u s i n e s s a n d p u b l i c s e rv i ce i n s t i t u t i o ns ,

p e r c e i ve s i gn i f i c a n t s t r e s s o n a per s o n - t o -pe r s o n b a s i s

a s o p p o s e d to a n aggrega t e o f i t ems o r v a r i a b l e s w h i c h

g r o u p s a l l o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s t o g e t h e r . A f t e r a t h o r o u g h

r e v i ew o f t h e r e s e a rc h , h o we ve r , no s u c h d a t a b a s e d s t u d i e s

co u l d b e fo u n d .

A s s u m i n g t h a t s t r e s s c a n be a n i mp e d i ng f a c t o r w i t h

r e s p e c t t o a p r i n c i p a l max i m i z i n g h i s / h e r p e r f o rma n c e , a

remedy o r t r e a tment wh i c h wou l d i n t e r v e ne t o r e d u c e s t r e s s

i s n e e d e d . Howe ve r , b e f o re s u c h a n i nt e r ve n t i o n c o u l d h a v e

t h e s pe c i f i c i ty t o ma x i m i z e i t s a f fe c t s , t h e p r i nc i pa l s

p e r ce i v i n g s t r e s s wou l d n e e d t o t a k e some type o f d i a g n o s t i c

i n s t r u m e n t wh i c h s p e c i f i ca l l y d e t e rm i ne d w h e t h e r o r n o t ,

o n a n o v e ra l l b a s i s , t h e y w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g s i g n i f i c a n t

s t r e s s a nd s p ec i f i c a l l y i de n t i f i e d wh i c h v a r i a b l e s were

c a u s i n g the s t re s s .

I n c o nc l u s i o n , a p r o c e s s for s t r e s s i d e nt i f i c a t i o n a n d

a n i n t e r v e n i ng t r e a t me n t , b a s e d o n t h i s i de n t i f i c a t i o n

p r o c e s s , n e e d s to be d e v e l o p e d . E x t ra p o l at i n g t h e i n forma t i o n

g a i ne d from t h i s s t u dy c o u l d l ea d to t h e d e ve l o pm e n t o f t h e

i n s t rument a fo reme n t i o n e d .

68

Qu e s t i o n 2

Do Type A p r i n c i pa l s p e r c e i ve t h a t they h a v e s t r e s s i n the w o r k e n v i ronment m o re freq u e n t l y t h a n Type B p r i n c i p a l s ?

T a b l e 2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l ts f o r Q u e s t i o n 2 . T h e d a t a

i nd i c a t e t h a t 2 3 ( 4 5 % ) p r i n c i p a l s i d e n t i f i ed t h em s e l ve s a s

Type A a n d 2 8 ( 5 5 % ) i d e nt i f i ed t h e m s e l v e s a s Type B .

O f t h e 2 3 p r i n c i p a l s who were d e t e rm i n e d i n Q u e s t i on to

p e r ce i v e s t r e s s ( re g a r d l e s s of 11 Type 11 ) , a b o u t o n e - h a l f

( 1 2 ) we r e Type A . ( I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s

p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 a r e b a s e d o n rea d i ng t h e t a b l e v e rt i ­

c a l l y a s o p p o s e d t o h o r i z o n t a l l y . )

T a b l e 2

Comp a r i s o n o f Type A a n d Type B P r i n c i p a l s R e g a rd i n g P e rc e i v e d S t r e s s

B e h a v i o r a l S t r e s s N o S t r e s s

A

B

T o t a l

1 2 ( 2 3 % )

1 1 ( 2 2 % )

2 3 ( 45 % )

1 1 ( 2 2 % )

1 7 ( 3 3 % )

2 8 ( 5 5 % )

T o t a l

2 3 ( 45 % )

2 8 ( 5 5 % )

5 1 ( 1 00 % )

6 9

Wh i l e i t w a s n o t a n o b j ec t i v e o f t h i s s t u dy t o compare

the p r o p o r t i o n s o f Type A and Type B p r i n c i p a l s w i t h t h e

g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n o f s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s o r o t h e r m a n a g e me n t ­

type p o p u l a t i o n s , a b r i e f r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u re w a s

c o n d u c t e d re l a t i ve a s t o t h i s i s s u e . T h e r e v i e w d i d n o t

p r o d u c e a n a n s we r to t h i s i s s u e .

T a b l e 2 - A p re s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f a c h i s q u a r e a na l y s i s

to d e t e rm i ne i f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f Type A p r i n c i p a l s p e r ­

c e i v i ng s t r e s s d i ffered s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e numbe r o f

Type B p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v i n g s t re s s . A s t h e c h i s q u a r e

v a l u e o f 1 . 3 3 i n d i c a t e s ( t h ree d e g r e e s o f freedom ) , n o

s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e o c c u r r e d . T h i s w a s

a c t u a l l y a s c e r t a i n a b l e w i t h o u t c o n d u c t i n g t h e c h i s q u a r e

i n t h a t n e a r l y a 5 0 / 5 0 d i s t r i bu t i o n ( 1 2 / 1 1 ) e x i s t e d b a s e d

o n t h e r a w d a t a .

C o n c l u s i o n s a n d Recommenda t i on s f o r Que s t i o n 2

B a s e d o n the re s u l t s p r e v i o u s l y p r e s e n t e d , i t i s

c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l d i s p o s i t i o n

o f a p r i n c i p a l ( Ty p e A o r Type B ) i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y

r e l a ted t o p e r c e i v ed s t r e s s . T h e re f o r e , i t wou l d s e em

to be o f l i t t l e u s e f o r p r i n c i p a l s to a t tempt t o r e d u c e

s t r e s s by t ry i ng to c h a n g e v a r i a b l e s w h i c h c o m p o s e o r

r e p r e s e n t T y p e A o r T y p e B .

/ U

Tabl e 2-A

Chi Square Analysis Comparing Type A and Type B

Principal s Regardi ng Perceived Stress

Stress No Stress

1 1 . 5 1 1 . 5 Type A

1 2 1 1

1 4 1 4

Type B 1 7 1 7

2 ( 0 - E )2 x = E

2 ( 1 2 - 1 1 . 5 ) 2 2 ( 1 1 - 1 4 )2 ( 1 7 - 1 4)2 + ( 1 1 - 1 1 . 5) + + x =

1 1 . 5 1 1 . 5 1 4 1 4

2 .25 + . 2 5 + 9 + 9 x = 1 1 . 5 1 1 . 5 1 1 . 5 1 1 . 5

x 2 = .022 + .022 + . 6.43 + .643 = 1 . 33

Degrees of Freedom = K - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3

x2 of l . 33 i s not s i gn i f i cant at the . 01 1 eve1 .

7 1

Th i s i s n o t t o a d v o c a t e t h a t Type A a n d B a r e n o t r e l a ted t o

o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n a p e r s o n ' s l i f e . F o r

e x a mp l e , a s F r i e d m a n a n d R o s e n m a n i nd i c a t e , Type A p e o p l e h a v e

s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o re h ea l t h p r o b l ems t h a n Type B p e o p l e . 1

Que s t i o n 3

Do fewe r p r i n c i pa l s w i t h h i g h e r s e l f - r a t i ng s o f j o b s a t i s ­f a c t i o n h a v e s t r e s s t h a n p r i n c i pa l s w i t h l ower s e l f - r a t i n g s of j o b s a t i s fa ct i o n ?

T a b l e 3 p r e s e n t s t h e re s u l t s f o r Q u es t i o n 3 . T h e P r i n c ipa l

J o b S t r e s s S u r v ey a l l owed r e s p o n d e n t s t o r a t e t he i r p e rc e i v e d

j o b s a t i s fa c t i o n u s i n g t h e f o l l ow i n g s c a l e : n o n e , l i t t l e , mode r a te ,

m u c h o r e x t reme . W h e n t h e i n i t i a l re s u l t s were r e v i ewed , i t was

a p p a r e n t t h a t c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s h a d a l ow f r e q u e ncy .

F o r e x a mp l e , no o n e s e l e c t e d 11 n o n e 11 a s a r e s po n s e . To m a k e the

d a t a more me a n i n g fu l , r e s p o n s e c a t eg o r i e s were c o l l a p s e d s o t h a t

two c a t e g o r i e s re s u l t e d - - n o n e / l i t t l e / m o d e r a t e a n d m u c h / e x t reme .

T a b l e 3

C o mp a r i s o n o f J o b S a t i s fa c t i o n W i th P r i n c i pa l S t r e s s

J o b S a t i s f a c t i o n S t r e s s N o S t r e s s T o t a l C a t e g o ry

N o n e / L i t t l e / M o d e r a t e 1 0 ( 62 % ) 6 ( 38 % ) 1 6 ( 3 1 % )

M u c h / E x t reme 1 3 ( 3 7 % ) 2 2 ( 6 3 % ) 3 5 ( 6 9 % )

T o t a 1 2 3 ( 45 % ) 2 8 ( 5 5 % ) 5 1 ( 1 0 0 % )

1 F r i e d m a n a n d R o s e n ma n , " A s s o c i a t i o n o f s p ec i f i c o v e r t b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n , II p . 1 28 6 - 1 2 9 6 .

7 2

S i x te e n ( 3 1 % ) p r i n c i p a l s ' r e s p o n s e s were i n t h e n o n e/ l i t t l e /

mode r a t e c a t e g o ry a n d 3 5 ( 6 9 % ) were i n the m u c h / e x t reme c a t e g o ry .

O f t h e 2 3 p r i n c i p a l s d e t e r m i n e d a s h a v i n g s t r e s s i n Que s t i o n 1

1 0 ( 6 2 % ) w e r e i n t h e n o n e / l � t t l e / m o d e r a t e c a t e g o ry a n d 1 3 ( 3 7 % )

w e re i n t h e m u c h / ex t reme c a t e g o ry .

The p u r p o s e o f T a b l e 3 - A w a s t o u s e a c h i s q u a r e a n a l ys i s

t o d e t e rm i n e i f j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n c a t e g o ry w a s s i g n i f i ca n t l y

r e l a t e d t o s t re s s . T h e c h i s q u a r e v a l u e o f 4 . 5 8 ( t h ree d e g re e s

o f f r e e d o m ) i s n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t .

C o n c l u s i o n s a n d R e c omme n d a t i o n s for Qu e s t i o n 3

B a s e d o n t h e r e s u l ts o f T a b l e 3 a n d T a b l e 3 -A , i t c a n be

c o n c l u d e d t h a t j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n i s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a te d

t o s tre s s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t i t p r o b a b l y wo u l d n o t b e b e n e f i c i a l

f o r p r i n c i pa l s w h o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s t o a t t empt to

r e d u c e s t re s s by f o cu s i n g on v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to j o b s a t i s -

f a c t i o n . Howe v e r , t h i s s h o u l d n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o c o n c l u d e

t h a t j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n i s n o t r e l a t ed t o o t h e r r e l e v a n t d e -

p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s s u c h a s o ne ' s a b i l i ty t o c o p e w i t h work i n g

i n a n u n d e s i r a b l e s i t u a t i o n .

gu e s t i o n 4

W h i c h v a r i a b l e s d o pr i n c i pa l s p e r c e i v e c a u s e s t r e s s i n t h e w o r k e n v i ronmen t ?

T a b l e 4 p r e s e n t s t h e re s u l ts f o r Q u e s t i o n 4 . The d a t a

i n d i c a t e t h a t o f t h e 20 p o t en t i a l l y s t r e s s c a u s i n g j o b f a c t o r s

7 4

1 2 w e r e r e p o r t e d to c a u s e s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s . T h e d a t a

i n T a b l e 4 a r e b a s e d o n u t i l i z i ng a d e p e n d e n t l t e s t ( . 0 1

l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h a o n e - ta i l t e s t ) t o comp a re t h e

m e a n a c t u a l s i t u a t i on s c o re w i t h t h e m e a n r e as o n a b l e

s i t u a t i o n s co re from t h e P r i n c ipa l J o b S t r e s s S u rvey f o r

e a c h r e s p o n de n t . T h e 11 N 11 w a s 2 0 ( n u m b e r o f i tems ) a n d t h e

d e g ree o f freedom w a s 1 9 ( N - l )

C o nc l u s i on s a n d Rec ommen d a t i o n s f o r Qu e s t i o n 4

Q u e s t i o n 4 t re a t e d the p r i n c i p a l s 1 r e s p o n s e s o n a n

a g g re g a te i tem b y i te m b a s i s . A s w a s pre v i ou s l y n o t e d ,

Que s t i o n 1 a n a l y z e d t h e d a t a o n a p e r s o n by p e r s o n b a s i s .

B a s e d o n t h e r e s u l t s pre v i o u s l y p re s e n t ed , i t i s c o n ­

c l u d e d t h a t 1 2 ( 60 % ) of t h e 2 0 j o b - re l a t e d s t r e s s f a c t o r s

f rom t h e P r i n c ipal J o b S t r e s s S u r v ey c a u s e d s i g n i f i c a n t

s t re s s . T h o u g h t h e n u m b e r o f p r i nc i pa l s p e rc e i v i ng the i r

o v e ra l l j o b a s b e i n g s t r e s s f u l w a s l e s s t h a n o n e - h a l f of

t h o s e s u rveyed , the d a t a i nd i c a t e s that c e r t a i n factors

i n t r i n s i c to t h e j ob a r e a s o u rce of s t r e s s for m o s t

p r i n c i pa l s . T h e s e twe l ve j o b r e l a t ed f a c t o r s a r e ( t he

i tem n um b e r from t h e P r i n c ipa l J o b S t r e s s S u r v ey are i n

p a r e n t h e s e s ) :

( 3 ) A f t e r s c h o o l a n d n i g h t mee t i n g s . ( 5 ) D o i n g s e v e r a l p r o j e c t s a t t h e same t i m e . ( 4 ) H e a vy w o r k l o a d . ( 8 ) C o n f l i c t s a m o n g comm u n i ty , s t a f f a n d s c h o o l

b o a r d e x p e c t a t i o n s .

Tabl e 4

Var i ables Which Princi pal s Perceive Cause Stress

Mean For Mean For

Item Actual Reasonable t Value S i gn i ficant* Si tuation Si tuation

1 . New l aws and regul ations requ i r ing frequent change. 2 . 96 2 .84 1 . 03 No

2. Completi ng reports on time . 3 . 1 2 2 . 90 l . 03

3 . After school and n i ght meetings . 4 . 23 3 . 22 4 .49 Yes

4 . Heavy work l oad . 4 .04 3 . 31 5 . 1 7 Yes

5 . Do i ng several projects at the same t ime . 4 . 20 3 . 41 4 . 36 Yes

6 . Feel i ng of compet it ion rather than cooperat ion . 3 . 02 2 . 5 1 3 . 02 Yes

7 . Pushed by deadl i nes . 3 . 22 3 .02 l . 65 No

8 . Confl i cts among commun ity , staff, and school 3 .86 3 . l 0 4 . 1 4 Yes board expectat ions .

9 . Enjoyment of compet i t i on . 3 . 04 3 . 02 . 1 5 No

1 0 . Lack o f authority bu i l t into the pos it ion . 3 . 1 2 2 . 51 3 . 52 Yes

1 1 . Eval uat ion of staff performance . 3 . 75 3 . 27 3 . 55 Yes

1 2 . Telephone i nterrupti ons . 3 . 20 2 . 67 3 . 43 Yes

1 3 . Job of di scipl i nari a n . 3 . 90 3 . 41 2 . 66 No

1 4 . Neglect o f fami ly l i fe due to school pos i t i o n . 3 .82 3 .08 3 . 59 Yes

1 5 . Achieving sel f- imposed h igh expecti ons . 3 . 67 3 . 25 3 . 20 Yes

1 6 . Deal ing w ith parents . 3 . 73 3 . 25 3 . 48 Yes

1 7 . Concern about your office ' s appearance. 2 . 65 2 . 47 1 . 24 No

1 8 . Level o f pol i cy mak i ng impact among col l eagues . 3 . 26 3 . 02 1 .85 No ...._, (J'1

1 9 . Resol ving parent/school confl i cts . 3 . 94 3 . 39 4 .06 Yes

20. Lack of school mora l e among the various groups-- 3 . 35 2 . 92 2 . 09 No parents , facu lty , student s , adm i n i strative personnel .

* ()1 l o\tol 1.1i + h ::> f\nt>_+ ,. ; 1 +".-+

7 6

( 19 ) R e s o l v i n g p a r e nt / s c ho o l c o n f l i c t s . ( 1 4 ) N e g l e c t o f fam i l y l i fe d u e t o s c h o o l p o s i t i o n . ( l l ) E v a l u a t i o n o f s t a f f p e r fo rm a n c e . ( 1 0 ) L a c k o f a u t h o r i ty b u i l t i n to t h e p o s i t i o n . ( 1 6 ) De a l i n g w i t h p a re n t s . ( 1 2 ) T e l e p h o n e i n t e r r u p t i o n s . ( 1 5 ) A c h i e v i ng s e l f - i m p o s e d e x p e c t a t i o n s .

( 6 ) F�e l i n g o f c o m pe t i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n c o o p e r a t i o n .

An e x am i n a t i o n o f t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 4 i n d i c a te s t h a t

t h e m o s t s t r e s s f u l j o b - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s a re t h o s e i n v o l v i n g

e x c e s s i v e w o r k l oa d ( i tems 5 a n d 4 ) , t i me dema n d s ( i t ems

3 , 1 4 , a n d 1 2 ) , i n t e r p e r s o n a l re l a t i on s ( i t ems 8 , 1 9 , 1 1 ,

1 6 a n d 8 ) , a n d d i s p a r i ty between w h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l a c c o m ­

p l i s h e s a n d w h a t h e o r s h e wo u l d l i k e to a c h i e v e ( i tems

15 and 6 ) . The ma j o r p a t t e rn of t h e s e 1 2 j o b - r e l a t e d

f a c t o r s a p p e a r t o be a fee l i n g t h a t t h e t i me a n d wo r k l o a d

d e m a n d s of t h e j o b o f p r i n c i p a l a re m o r e t h a n c a n rea s o n a b l y

b e a c c ommo d a te d a n d s t i l l meet t h e h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s for

p e r fo rm a n c e and a c h i e v eme n t s e t by the i n d i v i d u a l .

A r e l a t e d r e s u l t o f the a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t s t re s s

i s c a u s e d by b o t h i n t e r n a l l y a n d e x t e r n a l l y g e n e r a ted

p re s s u r e s . F o r e x a mp l e 11 a c h i e v i n g s e l f - i m p o s e d h i g h e x ­

p e c t a t i o n s " ( i tem 1 5 ) i s a n i n t e r n a l l y g e n e r a t e d s t r e s s

w h i l e " h e a vy w o r k l oa d " ( i tem 4 ) i s a r e s p o n s e t o e x t e r n a l

p r e s s u r e s . S t r e s s from " n e g l e c t o f fam i l y l i fe d u e to

s c ho o l p o s i t i o n " ( i tem 1 4 ) may be a comb i n a t i o n of i n t e r n a l

a n d e x t e r n a l p r e s s u re s . R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e l o n g r e c o g n i z e d

7 7

t h a t t o some e x t e n t ( a n d f o r some peo p l e t o a l a r g e d e g ree )

i nd i v i d u a l s o ft e n g e n e r a t e t he i r own s t r e s s o v e r t h a t wh i c h

t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t may c a u s e .

A l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f fe r e d h e r e a r e s o m e w h a t

l i m i te d b y t h e s c o p e o f the s a m p l e , i t wou l d a p p e a r t h a t

the g r o u p of pri n c i pals t hat expe r i enced h i g h work - re l ated

s t r e s s , a s we l l a s t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s e x p e r i e n c i n g s t r e s s

from a s e l e c t n um b e r of j o b - re l a te d f a c t o r s , n e e d a s s i s t a n c e

i f a dm i n i s t r a t i ve p e r f o rma n c e i s t o b e ma x i m i z e d . D u e t o

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a u s e s o f s t re s s , a n d a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s

r e a c t i o n t o s t re s s o r s , v a ry from p e r s o n t o p e r s o n , r e c o m ­

m e n d e d tec h n i q u e s for r e d u c i n g o r c op i n g w i t h s t r e s s m u s t

b e i n d i v i du a l i z e d . T h e i n d i v i d u a l i z e d a p p r o a c h m u s t

i n c l u d e c a r e f u l d i a g n o s i s of t h e c a u s e s a n d re a l i s t i c

p re s c r i pt i o n s f o r r e du c i ng s t res s .

P r i o r to t h e d e ve l o pm e n t o f a d i a g n o s t i c i n s t ru m e n t

w h i c h s p e c i f i c a l l y d e t e rm i ne s t h e v a r i a b l e s wh i c h a r e

c a u s i n g i nd i v i du a l s t re s s , a re v i ew o f the p o p u l a r l i t e r ­

a tu r e c o n c e r n i ng p r e v e n t i o n a n d c o p i n g i s recomme n d e d for

t h o s e p r i n c i p a l s e x p e r i e n c i n g s t re s s . F a c t o r s c a u s i n g

s t r e s s i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t w i l l a l ways be w i t h

u s a n d t h e e f fe c t i v e a d m i n i s t ra t o r m u s t l e a r n h o w to h a nd l e

d i s t r e s s a n d p re v e n t e x c e s s s t r e s s . F a i l u r e to meet t h i s

c h a l l e n g e c a n h a v e a d e t r i me n t a l e f f e c t o n a p r i n c i p a l ' s

7 8

h e a l th a n d w i l l r e d u c e h i s / h e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n p r o v i d i n g

l ea d e r s h i p .

A P P E N D I X A

E d u c a t i o n a l S e rv i ce R e g i on

S e rv i ng t h e C o u nt i e s of

C l a rk , C o l e s , Cumbe r l a n d , E d g a r , M o u l t r i e , S h e l by

7 9

r.:-:::-N.J..;!.' .).�Ut! --,.,.--.-! I

B o b l'l 1 1 1 e r , K e g 1 o n a 1 ;) U t.J c •

,. "') LOVINGro"!__ MOU L1ll( 1£

$tJ:.J..IV1ir1 ; \ J "'

:F1NIJ'-l!Y ·�\ f I l! I S H E \ BY 12� I r r "'"''�os"P.

--Q 1'0-...·�·R r v -5��1uk(

J H•ll

. . I

C O U t!T l E S O F

C L 1\ R K , C O L. E S , C U M B E R L A tl D , E D G A R ,

• 1 1 '- C t l U C l l \. V t .J \,,o. l t V V" 1 ..,,

S H E L B Y '

i •

()>!� I !°>i'T)t1 I ---1_./---·-· J I

I ! £ 0G r I

i . ' :> r1A.�rs � -�/\ l

. "' n . . I �;.�;;,,D . ! I , � I I r':J.RSli�Ll.. I

( I

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00 0

APPENDIX B

E d u c a t i o n a l S e r v i c e Reg i o n

C i ty Populations

8 1

*

City

Casey Marshall Martinsvill e Westfield

Charl eston Mattoon Oakland

Greenup Neoga Toledo

Chrisman Hume Kansas Paris

Bethany Findlay Lovington Moweaqua Sul livan

Cowden Herrick Shelbyville Stewardson Strasburg Tower Hill Windsor

City Populations*

Population

2 , 994 3 ,468 1 , 374

678

1 8 , 1 62 1 9 , 681

1 , 012

1 , 646 1 , 597 1 , 068

1 , 285 476 779

9 , 971

1 , 305 809

1 , 303 1 , 687 4 , ll 2

537 537

4 , 887 729 456 683

1 , 126

8 2

County

Clark

Coles

Cumberland

Edgar

Moultrie

Shelby

Population figures were taken from the 1981-82 Illinois Highway Transporta­tion map published by the Ill inois Department of Transportation.

A P P E N D I X C

E d u c a t i o n a l S e rv i c e Reg i o n

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s

8 3

SCHOOL DISTRICTS IN OUR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE REGION

CLARK COUNTY

IJC- 1 , Casey IJC-2 , Mn rs ha 11 # C - 3 , Martinsville fllOS and #201 , \Jestfield

COLES COUNTY

0 1 , Charleston 1/ 2 , Mattoon 11 5 , Oakland

CUMBERLAND COUNTY

11 3 , Neoga 11 7 7 ,. Cumberland

EDGAR COUNTY

1 12 , Shiloh f/ 3 , Kansas 1/ 4 , Cres twood f/ 6 , Chrisman f/95 , Paris

MOULTRIE COUNTY

11300 , Sullivan 11 3 0 1 , Bethany 11303 , Lovington

SHELBY COUNTY

Il l , Windsor f/ 2 , Findlay 114 , Shelbyv i l l e I/SA, Stewardson-Strasburg If 6A., Moweaqua f/10 and 0185 , Tower Hill 011 and 0185, Cowden-He rrick

8 4

S i ze i n Square M i l e�

1 54 2 1 6 1 4 7

4 2

2 3 1 . 6 1 1 60

88 . 3 5

1 1 0 1 8 5

1 50 98

2 34 1 30

9

1 29 8 1 69

96 8 1

1 42 1 1 2 fl7 55

1 0 8

A P P E N D I X 0

E d u ca t i o n a l S e r v i ce Re g i o n

P u b l i c S c h o o l E n ro l l me n t s

8 5

PUBLIC SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS

District

Clark County

Casey Ma rs hall Ma r t i n s v i l le We s t f ie l d 11105 & C201

· Coles County

Cha rleston Mattoon Oakland

Cumb e r l and County

Neoga Cumhcrlancl

Edgar County

Sh i l oh Kans.is Cres twood Chrisraan Paris

Moul t r ie County

S u l l ivan Beth;:iny Lovington

Shelby County

Windsor Findlay Shelbyv i l le St ewardson-Strasburg Moweaqua Tower H i l l 0 1 0 & # 1 8 5 Cowden-Herrick iJ l l & //18e

197e-79

3 , 422

1 , 077 1 , 556

5 7 1 2 1 8

8 , 259

3 , 1 7 1 4 , 567

5 2 1

2 , 290

1 , 031 1 , 259

4 , 1 7 2

4 4 7 353 756 sos

2 , 1 1 1

2 , 260

1 , 24 7 559 454

4 , 7 1 9

492 347

1 , 64 5 5 1 3 7 1 7 369 636

19 79-80

3 . 371,

1 . us:! 1 , 558

5 4 1 2 2 3

7 , 809

3 , 102 4 , 204

503

2 . 2 7 2

1 , 0 1 7 1 , 255

4 , 079

432 355 739 500

2 , 053

2 , 224

1 , 245 557 422

4 , 6 1 2

474 3 1 3

1 , 656 495 6 9 7 350 6 2 7

1980-81

3 , 240

976 1 , 5 3 3

530 201

7 , 740

3 , 1 1 8 4 , 1 2 1

501

2 , 163

975 1 , 188

4 , 0 1 3

4 2 2 340 756 475

2 , 020

2 , 162

l , 2 1 2 526 l124

4 ,451

462 303

1 , 5 7 9 455 707 320 625

8 6

1 98 1-82

3 . 1 8 5

9 7 2 I , 5 1 8

5 1 4 1 8 1

7 , 6 6 1

3 , 070 4 , 1 0 1

490

2 , 093

92 1 I , 1 72

3 , 967

442 3 1 1 749 490

I , 975

2 , I 07

I , 1 8 7 526 394

4 , 3 5 1

423 3 1 2

I , 576 445 689 320 586

The above f igures come from the I l l inois S t �l t e lloard o f Education F.:ill Enrol lment nnd !lousing Repo r t .

A P P E N D I X E

P r i n c i p a l J o b S t r e s s S u rvey

8 7

8 8

P R I N C I PAL JOB STRESS SURVEY

P u rpose : The purpose of t h i s survey i s to f i n d out how much s t re s s p r i nc i pa l s encounter on t he i r job s .

Background I nforma t i on : Pl ease a n swer t h e fol l ow i n g s ta temen ts :

l . Your sex :

') ... . Your age :

Ma l e Fe111i1 l e

20-29 30-39

3 . Your 1 eve 1 of f o rma l educ a t i on :

40-49 50-59 60-69

Bachel o r ' s + 1 5 M a s te r ' s Ma s te r ' s + 1 5 Spe c i a l i � t

Doctorate

4 . Years of admi n i stra t i ve expe r i ence ( i n c l ude th i s yea r ) :

0- l 2-3 4-5 6 - 1 0 l l - 1 5

5 . Level of bu i l d i ng you admi n i s te r :

9-i2 7 - 1 2

Other ( l i s t )

K-6 K-8 6 ' 7 ' 8

·----- ---·---------·

1 6 p l u s

6 . Years of tea c h i ng expe r i e nce p r i o r t o f i r s t admi n i s t r a t i v e pos i t i on :

2 3-4 5-6 7-8

7 . Enrol l ment of bu i l d i ng you adrn i n i s le r :

l e s s than 200 200 -399

800-999 1 000 p l u s

8 . Type A o r Type B Person (check o n l y one ) :

9 - 1 0 1 1 p l u s

400-599 600-799

Descript ·i on of Tyµe �erso�: Characte r i s t i c s of Type A person ·i n c l u d e i n ten s i ve d r i v e a n d amb i t i on , aggres s i vene s s , compet i t i veness , a need to get t a s k s done ei nd meet deadl i ne s , r e � t l e s s n e s s , tind i mpa t i ence .

Df.>�-�Li£.�_i o�_s>.f. _ _ Tyy_�--�- -��_rs_o�'1. : Cha rar. teri s t i c s of Type n person i nr. l 11dr easyg o i n g manner, pa t i ence , a b i l i ty to a ppre c i a te l e i sure a n d beauty , non- c l oc k \'lu tche r , not preoc c u p i ed w i ti1 soc i a l cJC h i evemrn t , a n d l es '.� compet i t i ve than Type A .

a m a lype A person . I u111 <l Type 15 per·su11 .

9 . P l ea s e rate the degree of s a t i s fa c t i o n w i th your j ob :

None L i t t l e Modet·o te Much Ex tremL·

STHESS FACTORS 8 9

Di rec ti ons : L i sted b e l ow are factors whi \..:11 have been found to ciluse stress for prfr\CTpals on the job . F i rs t i nd i cate the dc�ree to w h i c h you th i nk a fac to1· .?S.t.':!_�J_ly_si!�� ��_y_o_u __ �_!_r_�-�� on the job an d then i n d i c a te -��_e_ Tf.il ?.'?.�1-�i.l r: ___ a111o_u_n_ t . . -2.f -�tL�� wh i c h you t h i n k shou l d cx i s L on yuur job .

·

Sca l e : l = Never 2 = L i t tl e 3 == Son1e 4 = Moderate 5 = Much

Stress Fac to rs

* Samp�: Atte n c i n g soc i a l fu n c t i ons hosted by the super i n tende n t .

1 . New l aw s and regu l a t i ons req u i r i n�J fri;quent change .

2 . Compl e t i ng reports o n t i me .

3 . After school a n d n i g h t mee t i n g s .

4 . Heavy work l oa d .

5 . Doi ng several projects a t the same t i me .

6 . F�e l i ng of compe t i t i on ra ther than coopera t i o n .

7 . Pushed by dead I i n e s .

U . Con f l i c ts among commu n i ty , staff , a n d school board e x pec t a t i ons .

9 . Enj oymen t of competi t i on .

l 0 . 1 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 . r n . 1 9 . 20 .

Lack of a u thori ty bu i l t i n t o the pos i t i o n .

Eva l u a t i on o f s t a f f performa nce .

Tel ephone i n terrupt i on s .

Job cf d i s c i 1 o l i na r i a n .

N e g l e c t of fami l y l i fe due to school pos i t i on .

Ach i ev i ng s e l f - i mposed h i g h expect.a t i on s .

Dea l i ng w i tll paren t s .

Concern about your off i ce ' s appearance .

Level of pol i cy ma k i ng impact among col l ea g ue s .

Reso l v i ng parent/school conf l i c t s .

Lack of s choo·i mo ra l e among the vari ous groups - ­paren t s , facul ty, stude n t s , adm i n i s t ra t i ve personnel .

Ac tua l S i tua t i on

6 = A h1ays

f�ea son a IJ 1 e S i tu a t i o n

3

* I n th i s examp l e , the respondent fe 1 t tha t "1noderate" stress was experienced i n the a c tu a l s i t u a t i on wh i l e "some" stress shou l d reasonably be expec ted rega r d i n g th i s factor.

S E L E CT E D B I B L I OG R A P H Y

B a s o n w i t z , H . ; P e r s ky , H . ; K u r c h i n , S . J . ; a n d G r i n ke r , R . R . A n x i e ty a n d S t r e s s . N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w H i l l , 1 9 5 5 .

B e n s e n , H e rbe r t . The Re l ax a t i o n R e spo n s e . New Y o rk : A v o n P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 .

B i e l i a u s k a s , V i c t o r . S t r e s s a n d H ea l t h . New Y o r k : M c G raw­H i l l , 1 98 1 .

B ra d y , J o n a t h a n . " U l c e r s i n E x e c u t i v e M o n k ey s " . S c i e n t i f i c Ame r i c a n 1 99 ( Se p tembe r , 1 95 8 ) : 3 6 2 - 4 0 4 .

B ru h n , J . G . U n i t . " 1 9 70 ) :

" P a t i e n t s ' Rea c t i on s t o D e a t h i n a C o r o n a ry C a re J o u r n a l o f Psyc h o s o ma t i c R e spo n s e s 1 4 ( Decembe r , 6 5 - 79 .

Brumme t , R . L . ; Pyl e , W . C . ; a n d F a m h o l t z , E . G . " A c co u n t i ng for Human R e s o u r c e s . " 2 0 ( Fe b r u a ry , 1 96 8 ) : 2 0 - 2 5 .

B u c k , V i c t o r . W o r k i ng U n d e r P re s s u re . L o n d o n : S t a p l e s P r e s s , 1 9 7 2 .

B u e l l , T h o m a s , a n d B re s l o n , L . " Mo r t a l i ty F rom C o r o n a ry H e a r t D i s e a s e i n C a l i fo r n i a M e n W h o W o r k L o n g H o u r s . " J o u r n a l o f C h ro n i c D i s e a s e 2 ( Fa l l , 1 960 ) : 6 1 5 - 6 3 5 .

C a n n o n , W a l t e r B . Bod i ly C h a nges i n P a i n , H u nge r , F e a r a n d � - New Y o r k : C h a r l e s T . B ra n f o r d P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 .

C a p l a n , G . P r i n c ip l e s o f P r e v e n t i v e P syc h i a t ry . L o nd o n : T a v i s t o c k , 1 9 6 4 .

Co c h , L . , a n d F re nc h , J . R . P . " O v e rcomi n g R e s i s t a n c e t o C h a n g e . " H u m a n R e l a t i on s 1 1 ( A u gu s t , 1 9 4 8 ) : 5 1 2 - 5 3 2 .

C o f fe r , C . N . a n d A p p l ey , M . H . Mo t i v a t i o n : T h e o ry a n d R e s e a rc h . New Yo r k : W i l ey P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 .

C o n s t a n d s e , W . J . "A N e g l e c t e d P e r s o n n e l P r o b l e m . " P e r s o n n e l J o u r n a l 5 1 ( Ja n u a ry , 1 9 7 2 ) : 1 2 7 - 1 3 3 .

90

9 1

C o o pe r , C a ry l . , a n d M a r s h a l l , J ud i . " So u rc e s o f M a n a g e r i a l a n d Wh i te C o l l a r S t re s s . 11 S t r e s s a t W o r k , p p . 8 1 - 1 0 6 . E d i t e d by C a ry L . C o o p e r a n d Roy Payne . New Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey a n d S o n s , 1 9 7 8 .

C o o p e r , G a ry L . T h e S t r e s s C h ec k : C opi ng w i th t h e S t r e s s e s 2f L i fe a n d Wo rk . E n g l ewood C l i f fs , N e w J e r s ey : P r e n t i c e- H all , 1 98 1 .

C o x , Thoma s . S t r e s s . B a l t i mo r e , M a ry l a n d : Un i ve r s i ty P a r k P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 .

Doh r e nw e nd , B a r b a ra S . S t r e s s f u l L i fe E v e n t s : T h e i r N a tu r e a n d E ffe c t s . N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey a n d S o n s , 1 9 7 4 .

D o n a l d s o n , J . , a n d G o w l e r , 0 . " Pe r o g a t i ve s , P a rt i c i pa t i o n a n d M a n a g e r i a l S t re s s . " M a n age r i a l S t r e s s , pp . 2 1 - 7 3 . E d i t e d by D . Gow l e r a n d K . L e g g e . New Y o r k : E p p i ng Gower P r e s s , 1 97 5 .

E r i k s o n , J . , a n d G u n d e r so n , E . K . " S ta t u s C o n g ru e n c y a n d M e n t a l H e a l t h . 11 P s y c ho l ogi c a l Repo r t s 3 3 ( J u l y , 1 9 7 3 ) : 3 9 5 - 40 1 .

Ev a n s , J o h n R . , a n d C o d y , J o h n T . " P r i n c i p a l s a n d S t re s s . 11 I l l i n o i s P r i n c ipa l s A s s o c i a t i o n 1 5 ( Ma r c h , 1 98 2 ) : 4 - 7 .

F o r be s , R . C o rpo ra t e S t re s s . N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d ay Pre s s , 1 9 7 9 .

F o r s yt h , P a t r i c k B . , a n d Hoy , Wayne K . " I s o l a t i o n a n d A l i e n a t i on i n E d u c a t i on a l Or � a n i z a t i o n s . 11 E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t ra t i on Qua r t e r ly 1 4 ( W i n t e r , 1 9 78 ) : 3 1 2 - 3 2 0 .

F re n c h , J . R . P . , a n d C a p l a n , R . D . " P sy c h o s o c i a l F a c t o r s i n Co r o n a ry H e a r t D i s e a s e . " J o u r n a l o f I n d u s t r i a l Med i c i ne 3 9 ( De c e mb e r , 1 9 70 ) : 3 8 3 - 3 9 7 .

--�- · " O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S t r e s s a n d I n d i v i d u a l S t r a i n . 11 T h e F a i l u re o f S u c ce s s , p p . 3 0 - 6 6 . Ed i te d by A . J . M a r r o w . N e w Y o r k : Amac o n P r e s s , 1 9 7 3 .

F re n c h , J . R . P . ; I s r a e l , J . ; a n d A s , D . 1 1An E x pe r i me n t i n P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a N o rwe g i a n F a c t o ry . 11 H u m a n Re l a t i o n s 1 3 ( J a n u a ry , 1 96 0 ) : 3 - 2 0 .

F r e n c h , J . R . P . ; T u p pe r C . J . ; a n d M i l l e r , E . I . " Wo r k l o a d o f U n i v er s i ty P r o f e s s o r s . " H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 1 3 ( Ja n u a ry , 1 96 5 ) : 3 - 2 0 .

9 2

F r i e d m a n , M . , a n d R o s e n ma n , R . H . 11 A s s o c i a t i o n of S p ec i f i c o v e r t b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s w i t h b l o o d a n d c a r d i o v a s c u l a r f i n d i n g s - b l o o d c h o l e s t e r o l l ev e l , b l o o d c l ot t i n g t i m e , i n c i d e n c e o f a r c u s s e n i l i s a n d C o r o n a ry A r t e ry D i s e a s e . " J o u r n a l o f t h e Amer i c a n Med i ca l A s so c i a t i o n 1 69 ( De c e mb e r , 1 9 59): 1 28 6 - 1 2 9 6 .

Type A B e h v a i o r a n d Y o u r H e a r t . A . K n o p t , 1 97 4 .

G a r f i e l d , C h a r l e s A . S t re s s a n d S u r v i v a l . M i s s ou r i : C . V . M o s by P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 .

G herma n , E . M . S t r e s s a n d t h e B o t t o m L i n e : B e i ng a n d C o rpo r a t e H e a l t h . N e w Y o r k : l 98 1 .

N e w Y o r k : A l fred

St . L o u i s ,

A Gu i de to P e r s o n a l A m a c o n P r e s s ,

G i amma t t e o , M . , a n d G i amma tteo , D . E x e c u t i v e W e l l - be i ng: S t r e s s and A dm i n i s t ra to r s . R e s to n , V i rg i n i a : N a t i o n a l As s o c i a t i o n of S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l P r i n c i p a l s , 1 980 .

G l a s s e r , W i l l i a m . P o s i t i v e A d d i c t i o n . N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d Row , 1 9 7 6 .

G o r to n , D i c k . 11 A dm i n i s t r a t o r S t re s s : Some S u r p r i s i n g R e s e a r c h F i n d i n g s . " P l a n n i ng a n d C h a ngi ng a J o u r n a l for S c h o o l Adm i n i s t r a t i o n 1 2 (W i n t e r , 1 9 8 2) : 1 95 - 1 99 .

G r oe n , J . J . " Ps y c h o s o c i a l I n f l u e n c e s i n B r o n c h i a l A s t hm a . " S o c i e ty, S t r e s s a n d D i s e a s e , p p . 7 1 - 8 1 . E d i t e d by L . L e v i . v o l . 1 . , L o n do n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 .

H a n d y , C h a r l e s , " T h e F a m i l y : H e l p o r H i n d r a n ce ? " . S t r e s s a t Wo rk , pp . 1 9 7 - 1 2 6 . E d i te d by C a ry L . C o o p e r a n d Roy Payne . New Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey a n d S o n s , 1 9 78 .

H a rdyc k , C u rt i s D . , a n d Pet r i n o v i c h , L ew i s F . I n t ro d u c t i on t o S ta t i s t i c s f o r t h e B e h a v i o ra l S c i e n c e s . L o n do n : W . B . S a u n d e r s Co . , 1 96 9 .

H a rt , D a v i d E . " S t re s s a n d t h e A g e n t o f C h a n g e . " F o r u m ( F a l l / W i n t e r , 1 9 78 ) : 2 0 - 2 3 .

H e n d r i c k s o n , B a r ba r a . to y o u r H e a l t h . " 1 9 7 9 ) : 2 2 - 2 4 .

11 P r i n c i p a l s : Y o u r J o b i s H a z a rd o u s T h e E d u c a t i o n a l D ig e s t ( Septemb e r ,

9 2

F r i e d ma n , M . , a n d R o s e n ma n , R . H . 11 A s s o c i a t i o n of S p ec i f i c o v e r t b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s w i t h b l o o d a n d c a r d i o v a s c u l a r f i n d i n g s - b l o o d c h o l e s t e r o l l ev e l , b l o o d c l ot t i n g t i m e , i nc i de n c e o f a r c u s s e n i l i s a n d C o r o n a ry A r t e ry D i s e a s e . 11 J o u r n a l o f t h e Amer i c a n Med i ca l A s so c i a t i o n 1 69 ( Decembe r , 1 9 5 9) : 1 28 6 - 1 2 9 6 .

Type A B e h v a i o r a n d Y o u r H e a r t . A . K n o p t , 1 97 4 .

G a r f i e l d , C h a r l e s A . S t r e s s a n d S u r v i v a l . M i s s o u r i : C . V . M o s by P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 .

G h e rma n , E . M . S t r e s s a n d t h e B o t t o m L i n e : B e i ng a n d C o rpo r a t e H e a l th . New Y o r k : l 98 1 .

New Y o r k : A l fred

St . L o u i s ,

A Gu i de to P e r s o n a l A m a c o n P r e s s ,

G i a mm a t t e o , M . , a n d G i a mm a t t e o , D . E x ec u t i ve We l l - b e i ng: S t r e s s and A dm i n i s t ra to r s . R e s to n , V i rg i n i a : N a t i o n a l As s o c i a t i o n of S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l P r i n c i p a l s , 1 980 .

G l a s s e r , W i l l i a m . P o s i t i ve A d d i c t i o n . N e w Y o rk : H a r p e r a n d Row , 1 9 7 6 .

G o r to n , D i c k . " A dm i n i s t r a t o r S t re s s : Some S u r p r i s i n g R e s e a r c h F i n d i n g s . " P l a nn i ng a n d C h a ngi ng a J o u r n a l f o r S c h o o l Adm i n i s t r a t i o n 1 2 (W i n t e r , 1 982) : 1 9 5 - 1 99 .

G r o e n , J . J . " Ps y c h o s o c i a l I n f l u e n c e s i n B r o n c h i a l A s t hm a . " S o c i e ty, S t r e s s a n d D i s e a s e , p p . 7 1 - 8 1 . E d i ted by L . L e v i . v o l . l . , L o n do n : O x f o r d U n i v e rs i ty Pre s s , l 9 7 1 .

H a n dy , C h a r l e s , " T h e F a m i l y : He l p o r H i n d r a n c e ? " . S t r e s s a t Wo rk , p p . 1 9 7 - 1 2 6 . E d i te d by C a ry L . C o o p e r a n d Roy Payne . New Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey a n d S o n s , 1 9 7 8 .

H a r dy c k , C u rt i s D . , a n d Pet r i no v i c h , Lewi s F . I nt ro d u c t i on t o St a t i s t i c s f o r t h e B e ha v i o ra l S c i e n ce s . L o n do n : W . B . S a u n d e r s Co . , 1 96 9 .

H a r t , D a v i d E . " S t r e s s a n d t h e A g e n t o f C h a n g e . " F o r u m ( F a l l / W i n t e r , 1 9 78 ) : 2 0 - 2 3 .

H e nd r i c k s o n , B a r ba r a . to y o u r H e a l t h . 11 1 9 7 9 ) : 2 2 - 2 4 .

" P r i nc i pa l s : Y o u r J o b i s H a z a r d o u s T h e E d u c a t i o n a l D ig e s t ( S eptemb e r ,

9 3

H e n ry , J . P . , a n d S t e p h e n s , P . S t re s s , H e a l t h a n d t h e S oc i a l E n v i r o n me n t . N e w Y o r k : S p r i n g e r P re s s , 1 9 7 7 .

J o h n s o n , J a me s . W o r k a nd t h e H e a l t h o f M a n . L o n d o n : A r t h u r W . C l a r k , 1 90 3 .

Jowl e t t , B rya n . T h e W o r k s of P l a t o : Tra n s l a te d i n t o E ngl i s h w i t h A n a lys e s a n d I n t r o d u c t i o n . N e w Y o r k : T u d o r P u b l i s h i n g Co . , 1 9 3 6 .

K a h n , R . L . " Co n fl i c t , Amb i q u i ty , a n d O v e r l o a d : T h r e e E l e m e n t s i n J o b S t e s s . 11 O c c upa t i o n a l M e n t a l H e a l t h 3 ( Septemb e r , 1 9 7 3 ) : 1 - 1 7 .

Ka h n , R . L . ; Qu i n n , R . P . ; S n oo k , R . P . ; a n d R o s e n t h a l , R . A . O rga n i z a t i o n a l S t re s s . New Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey P r e s s , 1 96 4 .

Ka s l , S . V . " M e n t a l H e a l t h a n d t h e W o r k E n v i r o n m e n t . " J o u r n a l o f O c c upa t i on a l Me d i c i ne 1 5 ( Ju n e , 1 9 7 3 ) : 5 0 9 - 5 1 8 .

Ka t z , D a n i e l , a n d Ka h n , R o b e r t L . T h e S oc i a l P syc h o l ogy o f O rga n i z a t i o n s . N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey P r e s s , 1 9 66 .

Kern s , J . L . S t r e s s i n I n d u s t ry . L o n d o n : P r i o ry P re s s , 1 9 7 3 .

K i e v , A r i . , a n d Ko h n , V e r a . E x e c u t i v e S t re s s : A n AMA S u rv�. New Y o r k : Amacom P re s s , 1 9 7 9 .

Kl e i n , S . M . W o r k e r s U n d e r S t re s s . L ex i n g t o n , K e n t u c ky : U n i ve rs i ty o f K e n t u c k y P r es s , 1 9 7 1 .

Koff , R o b e r t H . , a n d C a f fey , J a m e s M . " Co p i n g w i t h C o n f l i c t : E x e c u t i ve S t re s s a n d t h e S c h o o l Ad m i n i s t r a t o r . 11 N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i on o f S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l P r i n c ipa l s 449 (Decembe r , 1 98 1 ) : 1 - 1 0 .

K o r n h a u s e r , A l l e n . M e n t a l He a l t h a n d t h e I n d u s t r i a l W o r k e r . N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i l ey P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 .

Kowa l s k i , Theodo re . " De v e l o p i n g a n I n d i v i du a l i z e d P r o g r a m for Cop i n g w i t h W o r k R e l a t e d S t r e s s . " I l l i no i s P r i n c ipa l s A s s oc i a t i o n 1 3 ( May , 1 98 1 ) : 1 9 - 2 0 .

K u r t z , S a nd r a . An A n n o t a t e d B i b l i ography o f L i t e r a t u re D e a l i ng w i t h S t r e s s i n t h e Tea c h i ng P r o fe s s i o n . M a s t e r s T h e s i s , I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i ty a t S o u t h B e n d , 1 980 .

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L a z a ru s , R . S . P a t t e r n s o f Adju s t me n t . N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w ­H i l l , 1 9 7 6 .

Psyc h o l ogi c a l S t r e s s a n d t h e C opi ng P r o c e s s . N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w- H i l l , 1 9 6 6 .

" T h e C o n c e p t s o f S t r e s s a n d D i s e a s e . " So c i e ty S t r e s s a n d D i s e a s e , p p . 5 0 -6 1 . E d i te d by L . L e v i . v o l . 1 . , L o n d o n : O x fo rd U n i v e r s i ty Pre s s , 1 9 7 1 .

L e S h a w , L . 11 P h yc h o l o g i c a l S t a t e s a s F a c t o r s i n the D e v e l o p m e n t o f Ma l i g n a n t D i s e a s e : A C r i t i c a l R e v i ew . " J o u r n a l o f N a t i on a l C a n c e r I n s t i t u t e 2 2 ( F a l l , 1 95 9 ) : 1 - 1 8 .

L i e f , A l l e n . T h e C o mme n s e n s e P s y c h i a t ry o f D r . Ad o l ph M eye r . N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1 948 .

L o c k e , S t e ve n . " Soma t i c R e s p o n s e P a t t e r n i n g a n d S t r e s s : Some R e v i s i o n s o f A c t i v a t i o n T h e o ry . " Psyc h o l ogi c a l S t r e s s . p p . 6 5 - 8 5 . E d i t e d by M . H . A p p l ey a n d R . T r u m be l l . N e w Y o r k : A p p l e t o n - C e n tu ry - C r of t s , 1 92 7 .

M a n e ra , E l i z a be t h , a n d W r i g h t , R o b e r t E . " Know i n g t h e D i f f e r e n c e B e tw e e n S t r e s s a n d C ha l l e ng e . " N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l P r i n c ipa l s 449 {Decembe r , 1 98 1 ) : 1 0 - 1 5 .

Ma r e s o n � S t e p h e n . Automa t i on A l i e n a t i o n a n d Anom i e . N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d R o w P re s s , 1 9 7 0 .

M a r go l i s , B . L . ; Kroes , W . H . ; Qu i nn , R . P . " J o b S t re s s : A n U n l i s t e d Oc c u pa t i o n a l H a z a r d . " J o u r n a l o f O c c upa t i o n a l M e d i c i ne 1 6 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 7 4 ) : 7 6 4 - 8 6 1 .

Marx , J e a n L . " St re s s : Ro l e i n H y p e r t e n s i o n D e b a te d . " S c i e n c e ( De c e mb e r , 1 9 7 7 ) : 9 0 5 - 9 0 7 .

M a s l o c h ., C h r i s t i n a . " B u r n e d O u t . " H u m a n Be h a v i o r ( S e p tembe r , 1 9 7 6 ) : 1 1 1 - 1 1 7 .

M a s o n , J . W . " A H i s t o r i c a l V i ew of t h e S t r e s s F i e l d . " J o u r n a l o f H u m a n S t r e s s l ( J u n e , 1 9 7 5 ) : 3 5 - 4 5 .

M c G ra t h , J . E . N e w Y o r k :

M c l e a n , A l a n . C h a n g e . "

S oc i a l a n d Psyc h o l ogi c a l F a c t o r s i n S t r e s s . H o l t , R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s to n , 1 9 7 0 .

" J o b S t r e s s a n d t h e P s y c h o s o c i a l P re s s u re s o f P e r s o n n e l 1 6 ( J a n u a ry , 1 9 7 6 ) : 4 0 - 4 9 .

9 5

McQu a d e , W . , a n d A i km a n , A . S t re s s : W h a t I t I s , W h a t I t C a n Do To Y o u r H e a l t h , H o w Y o u C a n F igh t B a c k . New Y o r k : E . P . Dutton and C o . , 1 9 7 4 .

M i l l e r , J . G . " I n fo r ma t i on I n p u t O v e r l o a d a n d P s y c h o p a t h o l o gy . " Ame r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P syc h i a t ry 8 ( N o v emb e r , 1 9 60 ) : 1 5 - 2 5 .

M i l l e r , N . E . " E ff e c t s o f L e a r n i n g o n Phys i c a l Symp toms P r o d uc e d by P s y c h o l o g i ca l S t re s s . 11 S eyl e ' s Gu i de to S t r e s s R e se a rc h , p p . 5 5 - 6 1 . E d i t e d by H a n s Seyl e v o l . l . New Y o r k : V a n N o r s t r a nd , 1 980 .

M i l l e r , W i l l i am C . De a l i ng w i t h S t re s s : A C h a l l enge f o r E d u c a t o r s . B l oom i ng to n , I nd i a n a : P h i D e l t a K a p p a E d u c a t i o n a l F o u nd t i o n , 1 9 79 .

M o rr i s o n , D a v i d E . 11 S t r e s s a n d t h e Pu b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t o r . " Pu b l i c M a n agem e n t F o rum ( J u l y , 1 9 7 7 ) : 4 1 2 - 4 1 8 .

P i nc h er l e , G e o r g e . " F i t n e s s f o r W o r k . " J o u r n a l o f C h ro n i c D i s ea s e 2 2 ( A u g u s t , 1 9 7 2 ) : 3 2 1 - 3 2 4 .

R o s e nma n , R . H . ; B r a n d , R . J . ; J e n k i n s , D . ; F r i edma n , M . ; a n d W u r m , N . 11 C o ro n a ry H e a r t D i s e a s e i n W e s t e r n C o l l a bo ra t i v e G r o u p S t u dy : F i n a l F o l l o w - u p E x p e r i e n c e o f B i y e a r s . 11 J o u r n a l o f t h e Ame r i c a n Med i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n 2 3 3 (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 75): 8 7 2 -8 7 7 .

R o s e n ma n , R . H . ; F r i ed ma n , M . ; a n d S t r a u s s , R . 11 C H D i n t h e W e s t e rn Co l l a b o r a t i ve G r o u p S t u dy . 11 J o u r n a l o f t h e Ame r i c a n M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n 1 9 5 ( M a rc h , 1 9 66) : 8 6 - 9 2 .

R u s s e k , H . I . " Emo t i o n a l S t r e s s a n d C o ro n a ry H e a r t D i s ea s e i n Ame r i c a n P h ys i c i a n s , Dent i s t s a n d L awye r s . 11 Ame r i c a n J o u r n a l o f Med i c a l S c i e n c e ( O c t o b e r , 1 96 2 ) : 2 4 3 - 2 6 2 .

R u s se k , H . J . a n d Z o h ma n , B . L . " T h e R e l a t i v e S i g n i f i c a n c e o f Hered i t a ry , D i e t a n d O c c u p a t i o n a l S t e s s i n C h ro n i c H e a r t D i s ea s e o f Y o u n g A d u l t s . 11 Amer i c a n J o u r n a l o f Med i c a l S c i e n c e ( Se p t e m b e r , 1 9 58) : 2 3 5 - 2 6 6 .

S a e n z , R e u b e n J . " D e f i n i ng t h e P r i n c i p a l sh i p . 11 A s s o c i a t i o n o f S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l P r i n c ipa l s 1 982): 5 .

N a t i on a l 30 (S e p t e m be r ,

S c h a fe r , W a l t e r E . S t re s s , D i s t r e s s a n d Growt h . D a v i s , C a l i fo r n i a : R e s p o n s i b l e A c t i o n P r e s s , 1 9 78 .

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Seyl e , H a n s . S t r e s s : T h e Phys i o l ogy a n d P a t ho l ogy of E xpo s u r e t o Sys t em i c S t r e s s . M o n t r ea l : A c t a , I n c . , 1 9 5 0 .

The S t r e s s o f L i fe . New Y o r k : M c G r a w- H i l l , 1 9 5 6 .

S t r e s s W i t h o u t D i s t r e s s . Ph i l a de l ph i a , P a : J . P . L i p p i nc o t t , 1 9 7 4 .

S t r e s s i n H e a l t h a n d D i s ea s e . M a s s a c h u s e t t s : B u t t e rworth P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 .

S h ep a r d , J . M . Automa t i o n a n d A l i e n a t i o n . C am b r i d g e , M a s s . : T h e M . I . T . P re s s , 1 9 7 1 .

S i l v e rma n , S a m u e l . P hys i o l ogi c a l C o r re l a t e s o f Emot i o n . New Y o r k : A c a d em i c P r es s , 1 9 7 0 .

S l o a n , C h a r l e s A . " S t r e s s a n d t h e I l l i no i s P r i nc i pa l : Are I l l i no i s P r i n c i pa l s E x p e r i e n c i n g S t re s s ? 11 I l l i n o i s P r i n c i pa l s A s s oc i a t i o n 1 3 ( M a y , 1 98 2 ) : 1 5 - 2 5 .

S o fe r , C h a r l e s . M e n i n M i d - C a re e r . M a s s a c h u s e t t s : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 .

T a c h e , Je a n ; S ey l e , H a n s ; a n d Day , S t a c ey B . C a n ce r , S t r e s s a n d Dea t h . N e w Y o r k : P l e n u m Med i c a l B o o k Co . , 1 9 7 9 .

T a n n e r , Ogd e n . H u m a n Be h a v i o r : S t res s . New Y o r k : T i me - L i fe P re s s , 1 9 7 6 .

Tay l o r , James C . 11 J o b S a t i s f a c t i o n a n d Qu a l i ty o f W o rk L i fe : A Rea s s e s sme n t . " J o u r n a l o f O c c upa t i o n a l P syc h o l ogy 5 0 ( S p r i n g , 1 9 77 ) : 6 1 - 6 6 .

To f l e r , A l v i n . T h e T h i rd Wa v e . New Y o r k : W i l l i a m Morrow a n d C o . , 1 98 0 .

Wa rdwe l l , W . I . ; Hyma n , M . ; a n d B a h n s o n , C . B . 11 S t r e s s a n d C o r o n a r y D i s e a s e i n T h r e e F i e l d s . 11 J o u r n a l o f C h r o n i c D i s e a s e 1 7 ( Se p temb e r , 1 96 4 ) : 7 3 - 8 4 .

\� i l l i a m s , R . B . " H e a d a c h e " B e h a v i o r a l A p p r o a c h e s t o Me d i c a l T re a tme n t , p p . 5 0 - 6 0 . E d i t e d by A . B . W i l l i ams a n d W . D . G e n t ry . C a mb r i d g e , M a s s : B a l l i n g e r P u b l i s h i ng C o: , 1 9 7 7 .

W i n te r , R i c h a r d E . Copi ng W i t h E x e c u t i ve S t r e s s : E x e c u t i v e H e a l t h E x am i n e r s . New Y o r k : M c G r a w- H i l l B o o k C o . , 1 98 3 .

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Wo l f , S te p he n . " Ps y c h o s o c i a l F o r c e s i n Myo c a r d i a l I n f a r c t i o n a n d S u d d e n D e a t h . 11 S o c i e ty, S t r e s s a n d D i s e a s e , p p . 2 8 - 4 1 . E d i ted by L . L ev i . v o l . l . L o n do n : O x f o r d U n i ve rs i ty Pre s s , 1 9 7 1 .

Wo l f , S te p h e n , a n d Goode l l , H . S t r e s s a n d D i s e a s e . S pr i n g f i e l d , I l l i no i s : C h a r l es C . T h o m a s P re s s , 1 96 8 .

Y a t e s , J e re E . M a n agi ng S t r e s s . N e w Y o r k : Amaco n , 1 9 7 9 .