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A STUDY OF FILIPINO NATIONAL IDENTITY AND NATIONALISM

IN THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION AMONG THE YOUTH OF BAGUIO CITY

(AN APPLICATION OF DORONILA’S NATIONAL IDENTITY SCALE)

A Thesis Presented

to the Faculty of the

College of Social Sciences

University of the Philippines Baguio

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences

APRIL GLORY PRODON HERRERA

JAYVEE PAAS ROBIAS

MARCH 2010

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College of Social Sciences

University of the Philippines Baguio

APPROVAL SHEET

This is to recommend the approval of the thesis of April Glory P. Herrera and Jayvee P.

Robias entitled A Study Of Filipino National Identity And Nationalism In The Age Of

Globalization Among The Youth Of Baguio City (An Application Of Doronila’s National

Identity Scale), which is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences.

_____Reuben Andrew A. Muni_____

Thesis Adviser

Noted:

____Prof. Evangeline F. Ram_____

Department Head,

Department of Social Anthropology and Psychology

Approved:

_____Dr. Raymundo D. Rovillos_____

Dean

College of Social Sciences

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Matapos ang limang taon na pag-aaral ay naabot ko rin ang magsisilbing simbolo ng mga

pinagdaanan at pinaghirapan ko dito sa loob ng unibersidad, hindi ko akalain na makapagtatapos pa ako dahil sa mga bagay-bagay na naging balakid sa akin na umaabot minsan sa punto na hindi na lang tapusin ang aking pag-aaral. At sa huling anim na buwan na aking inilagi dito sa pagbubuo ng pag-aaral na ito ay nagsilbing malaking paghihirap ngunit napakahalaga dahil dito ko napatunayan ang aking sarili at ibahagi ang aking mga natutunan hindi lamang sa loob ngunit pati na rin sa labas ng unibersidad na ito.

Maraming mga bagay at taong tumulong upang ang aking pag-aaral at pagbuo ng pananaliksik na ito ay maging posible na matapos at lumabas na kapakipakinabang para sa lahat lalo na sa mga taong ng makababasa nito. Lubos na pasasalamat ang aking ibinibigay sa inyong lahat na tumulong at naging bahagi nitong aking pananaliksik.

Kay Dr. Maria Luisa C. Doronila na bagamat hindi po namin kayo personal na kakilala ay naging napakalaki ng tulong na naibigay niyo para maabot namin ang tamang daan upang maging maayos at maganda ang maging kalabasan ng aming pananaliksik na ito…

Kay Kuya Stan na naging katuwang ko at karamay upang mapagtagumpayang matapos ang pananaliksik na ito…

Kina Ginoong Reuben Andrew Muni, Prop. Evangeline Ram, Dr. Raymundo Rovillos at sa lahat ng mga naging guro ko dito sa unibersidad mula noong nasa unang taon pa lang ako sa kolehiyo hanggang sa ngayon na natapos na ako, sa paggabay niyo sa akin upang maging posible ang pananaliksik na ito at maging maayos at lumabas na kapakipakinabang ang naging paglagi at pag-aaral ko dito sa unibersidad…

Sa mga tumanggap sa amin sa Baguio City National High School upang doon namin isagawa ang aming pananaliksik, lalo na sa mga estudyante ng III-Freedom…

Kay Mama, Papa at Kuya na laging nandyan upang ako’y palagiang suportahan at unawain sa lahat ng bagay na aking ginagawa at upang matapos ko aking pag-aaral…

Kay Tita Doy, Tita Reg, Tito Henry, Tita Cecil, Kuya Paul, Mommy Nora at Ate Baet na tumulong din sa aming pamilya lalo na sa amin ni kuya upang makapagtapos kami mula elementary hanggang sa kolehiyo…

Sa aking mga naging ‘kapatid’ dito sa Unibersidad na sina Ecka, Ara at Jc na karamay ko sa lahat…

Sa lahat ng League of Filipino Students, ACS at UPBM lalo na kay Kuya Jeff at Ate Glehna na nagsilbing mga magulang ko na tumulong at palagiang gumagabay sa akin upang mag-aral at magmulat. At kina Ate Lhot, Ate Jhet, Ate Kay, Albert, Sheila, Nikka, Ney, Ninez, Tabitha, Em, Janry, AK, Sir Bob, Sir Andrei, Gelo, Marl, Boyet. Jemo…

Sa lahat ng mga naging kabahay ko lalo na sa mga naging kabahay ko sa huling semestre ng paglagi ko dito sa Baguio na sina Kat, Roan, Lea at Jan…

Sa aking mga kaibigan na sina Gha, Rush,Daylin, Queenie, Pett, Erick, Jonar,Jayson, Roselyn, Rigor, Yhet, Jeff, Xang, Veena, Hannah, Ena, Ia…

At sa iyo na na binabasa ito ngayon, maraming salamat uli at maging malaking tulong sana sa iyo ito upang mas makilala mo ang sarili mo bilang Pilipino at mapalawig at mapukaw ang iyong damdamin sa pagmamahal mo at pagkilala sa iyong bayan

APRIL

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Matapos ang maraming taon (at, literal, na mahabang panahon), hindi ko lubos maisip na aabot

din pala ako sa puntong ito ng aking buhay sa Baguio at sa loob ng pamantasan.

At heto, matapos ang humigit-kumulang na anim na buwan, mula sa simpleng ideya ng pag-aanalisa ng kaugnayan ng fashion trend na 3 Stars and a Sun sa nasyunalismong Pilipino hanggang sa pormal na kasalukuyang anyo ng pananaliksik na ito; sa mga gabing ang karamay ko lamang ay ang aking matapat na laptop PC, Coke, kape, at junkfood; maraming bagay, tao, at ideya, ang nakapagbigay insipirasyon at lakas sa akin para “tapusin na ang huling laban kong ito”.

Kaya sa lahat ng mga taong naging bahagi nitong aking pananaliksik, hindi sapat ang aking

lubos na pasasalamat sa inyo. Kay Dr. Maria Luisa C. Doronila, (kahit na hindi po namin kayo kilala) na naging gabay namin sa

pagtalunton ng aming landas tungo sa mithiin ng aming pananaliksik Kay April Glory, sa kanyang malaking ambag sa pananaliksik na ito… Kina Ginoong Reuben Andrew Muni, Prop. Vicky Diaz, Prop. Evangeline Ram, at kay Dr. RR

Rovillos, sa kanilang pagiging butihing gabay at pagbibigay ng pagkakataon at tiwala sa akin na magagawa ko rin ito…

Kay Mommy, Papa, Lolo Benito, Tita Janet, Tita Beth, at iba pa, sa kanilang palagiang suportang

pinansyal at emosyonal, buti na lang mahal n’yo ko, at alam nyo namang mahal ko din kayo =)… Kina Andreau, Lyka Faith, Jamaira, Johara, Jamil, Kuya Aaron, Kuya Noso, Kuya Jumboy, Ate

Apol, Kuya Jeffrey, JR, Jojo, Daisy, at Iday… Kay Kess, ang aking dakilang kabahay, mula sa Dagsian hanggang sa huli, walang iwanan

talaga. Maraming salamat sa kabaitan at tiwala, idol =) … Sa LAHAT sa Tanghalang Bayan ng Kabataan sa Baguio, ACS, kina Dianne, Patrick, Aimee, Pam,

Sarah, Marck, Jerik, Nikka, Ven, Iya, Topin, Leo, Keith, Janine at Bergan, Wea, Ella, Bans… Kina Carlo Martin, Moli Monster_MoMo, Rose Jugjag, Gymbo, Maki, Jogi, Bryan, mga Peechin’,

Petina Danica, Joyce_Misa, Rizza, Mamu, Mickey, Raldge, at sa mga iba ko pang officemates… Kay Cindy Shayne, kay Charlyne Gheiylle, kay Karen, kay Phyna May, kay Joza, kay Johanna

Carren, kay Carole, kay Aileen Shield… Kay Karla Louise…

At sa iyo, na binabasa ito ngayon, marami pong salamat, nawa’y makilala mo pa kung ano at

sino ka bilang Pilipino at mamulat sa diwa ng nasyunalismong Pilipino.

STAN

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Dedicated to

Julius Ashley Robias

(1989-2008)

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ABSTRACT

This exploratory study intends to explore the views of the youth of Baguio on Filipino

national identity and nationalism in the age of globalization. The objective is to be able to

convert the perceptions of the respondents with regards to their respective national identities into

data that were generated by the National Identity Scale (NIS). With Dr. Maria Luisa Doronila’s

NIS, the researchers were able to operationalize or establish the parameters of the concept -

national identity - with particular reference to the Philippine case, and were able to determine the

nature, organization and changes, of national identification among third year high school

students in a particular urban high school in Baguio.

The study found out that that the youth relatively feels very positive on being Filipino.

While respondents exhibit a positive personal preferences for things Filipino, these preferences

have not yet been lifted to a level of consciousness that would make the manifestation of such

personal preferences as expressive of their identity as Filipino, or as charters of national identity.

It also appears that ignorance or lack of information on the cultural affinities of ethnic groups

and on their membership in the national community is the most problematic area.

The refusal of the majority of the population and especially of dominant groups within

the society to confront questions within the society, to confront questions of neo-colonial

domination and to gain lessons from the country’s historical experiences will most certainly be

reflected in the nature and content of national identity formation especially through the schools.

In other words, the colonial and ethnically fragmented character of the nation finds support and

is reflected in the consciousness of its members, among others.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Endorsement ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract vi

Table of Contents vii

List of Tables x

List of Figures xi

I. Introduction 1

A. Background of the Study 1

B. Statement of the Research Problem 2

C. Objectives of the Study 3

D. Significance and Scope of the Study 4

II. Review of Related Literature 5

A. What is Nationalism? 5

Origins of Nationalism 6

Issues on Nationalism 7

B. Types of Nationalism 9

1. Civic Nationalism 9

2. Ethnic Nationalism 9

C. National Identity 10

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D. The Philippines: on National Identity and Nationalism 12

E. Baguio City and the American Colonial Legacy:

A Brief History 15

III. Conceptual Framework 19

A. The Conceptual Languages (Approaches) to Nationalism 19

1. Primordialist Approach 19

2. Situationalist Approach 21

3. Constructivist Approach 23

B. Operational Definition of National Identity:

Conceptual and Methodological Considerations 26

1. A Conceptual Definition of National Identity 26

2. The Philippine Case 32

3. The Set of Orientations Reflective of National Identity 36

IV. Methodology 37

A. Physical Setting 38

B. Study Population and Sampling Technique 39

C. NIS Rating Scale Administration 40

V. Data Presentation and Analysis 41

A. A General Definition of National Identity Formation 42

B. Four General Value Patterns Defining National Identification 44

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Ethnocentrism 44

Valuing Cultural and Historical Traditions 50

Loyalty to the National Community Beyond Ethnic Loyalties 57

Commitment To The Role Requirements Of Citizenship 63

VI. Conclusion 67

VII. Recommendations 70

References 71

Appendices 75

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1 Patterns of Personal Involvement in The National System 30

2 Indices of Sentimental and Instrumental Attachment to The National System 31

3 Final Set of Orientations Defining The Concept National Identity,

With Specific Application to The Philippine Case 36

4 Responses to Four Questions Under Orientation # 1:

Preference for One's Nationality Over All Others 44

5 Responses to Three Questions Under Orientation # 2:

Generalized Pride in One’s Country Over All Others 46

6 Responses to The Questions Under Orientation #3 and 4:

Support of Nationalism Prior to Internationalism and Commitment

to The Goal of Development Through National Self-Reliance 47

7 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #5:

Valuing Special Qualities of The People 50

8 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #6:

Valuing Characteristic Way of Life 51

9 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #7:

Valuing National Traditions 52

10 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #8:

Valuing Cultural Products 54

11 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #9:

Recognition of The Membership of Other Ethnic Groups

in The Philippine National Community 58

12 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #10:

Personal Acceptance of Individuals Who Belong to Other Ethnic Groups

in The Philippine National Community 59

13 Distribution of Responses to Questions Under Orientation #11, 12 And 13:

Recognition of Cultural Affinities Among Philippine Ethnic Groups,

Acceptance of The Membership of These Groups

in The Philippine National Community

And Commitment to The Idea of National Integration

of These Ethnic Groups 60

14 Distribution Of Responses To Questions Under Orientation #14, 15 And 16:

Pride in National Symbols, Deriving Personal Identity from

Identification with The Nation and Commitment to Duties of Citizenship 63

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 National identity – the three conceptual concepts 24

2 The Conceptual Model 27

3 Map of the City of Baguio 38

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INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The awareness of being Filipino does not come naturally. We may be surrounded

by all the symbols of nationhood—the flag, monuments, maps, pictures of our

national heroes and the historic events in which they figured—but, though these may

conjure stirring images of the nation, they do not necessarily bind us to the nation.

We may sing the national anthem and recite the pledge of allegiance every day, but

these do not automatically evoke in us a consciousness of being part of the nation.

Prof. Randolf S. David

It is noticeable nowadays to see somebody wearing a shirt or an accessory bearing

symbols like the Philippine National flag, the map of the Philippines, or even Filipino icons like

Jose Rizal, Maria Clara, Ninoy Aquino, the jeepney, the city of Manila and so on. Many claim

that this new fashion trend is due to the „re-emergence‟ of Filipino nationalist sentiments amidst

the people‟s constant clamor for change and progress in our society and country. On the other

hand, some people claim that this phenomenon is only a fad, or means for entrepreneurs to profit

from it.

The youth is getting more aware of their Filipino heritage and of the lessons that come

from the heroes of 1896 as well as the present. We see such phenomena as examples of the

improving awareness of the people about their national heritage. On this note, we know that it is

our duty and responsibility as Filipinos to acknowledge and promote our own cultural and

national heritage. But do we really think [and do] as such? This question has prompted the

researchers to pursue on the topic.

Benedict Anderson, a prominent social scientist, explains that nationalism is on the verge

of crossing its boundaries, that it is not only confined to the nation state alone. He cited Chinese,

Koreans, Filipinos, and other nationalities that are living outside their respective countries

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(Anderson, 2001). Other theorists like Ernest Gellner and Eric Hobsbawm define nationalism as

not just a sociological or political concept, but rather as a civic and ethnic (cultural) concept as

well (Anderson, 2001).

In the Philippines, nationalists like Claro M. Recto, Lorenzo M. Tañada, and even Jose

Maria Sison, call for strengthening our patriotic cause amidst the dominance of foreign

influences during their time (Teodoro, Sison, & Arcilla, 1967). On the other hand, Renato

Constantino stated in one of his papers that the existence of a Filipino nation is a fact, but the

existence of a national consciousness “is only a presupposition, if by national consciousness one

means that sense of oneness which comes from a community of aspiration, response and action”

(Constantino, 1974: 1). For Filipinos, according to Constantino, the question of nationality has

become one of identity, but not of a consciousness of common aspirations and goals. It is this

growing difference between identity and consciousness that has been responsible for the

uncertainty of Filipino behavior, for the Filipino‟s east-west ambivalence, and for their marginal

participation in the historic struggles of other colonial peoples (Constantino, 1974: 1).

A nation in crisis often finds itself confronted with the most basic questions, requiring a

re-examination of its important institutions and values – attitudinal complexes for the purposes

of describing their nature and characteristics, finding some explanations and generating possible

programs of action as a way out of the crisis. In the call to promote the Filipino identity beyond

the usual stereotypes, this study contributes to the goal of identifying who Filipinos really are

and, in turn, raise the level of honor of Filipinos to a higher notch. Hopefully after reading this

study, the reader would know who and what Filipinos are really made of: whether we are a

nation of rich culture and proud lineage of gallant heroes, or otherwise.

Statement of the Research Problem

In the age of globalization, what is the current situation of the ideas of Filipino national

identity and nationalism among the youth, particularly in Baguio City?

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Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of the study is to explore the views of the youth of Baguio on

Filipino national identity and nationalism in the age of globalization.

Specifically, the study aims to:

1) to learn the meanings and definitions that the respondents attribute to Filipino nationalism

and national identity by adapting Doronila‟s National Identity Scale (NIS) and by

conducting key informant interviews;

2) to analyze the basis of such meanings and definitions that the respondents answered;

3) to operationalize or establish the parameters of the concept, national identity, with

particular reference to the Philippine case, and to determine the nature, organization and

changes, if any, of national identification among third year high school students in a

particular urban high school in Baguio;

4) to use this set of values and attitudes as the evaluation criteria for determining the

national identity orientations of these high school students; and also to identify the

factors, such as individuals and situations, that shaped the respondents‟ idea of national

identity.

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Significance and Scope of the Study

With this age of globalization, the Filipino youth today is seen as being transparent on

their national heritage, like in their use of Filipino national symbols as clothing and fashion

styles. With this we would want to ask the relevance of such on their true perception of their

national identities and their attitudes on nationalism. This study aims to provide information on

the real and current situation of the views of the youth in Baguio City in terms of their national

identity – on them being Filipinos. This study is also important because it could contribute

additional and updated knowledge about national identity and nationalism not just to the Filipino

youth, but to the entire Filipino nation in general.

This study would be of great significance to various social scientific fields, for there are

relatively few researches focused on the study of national identity and nationalism, especially in

the Philippine context. Although there is a common notion of the irrelevance of one‟s personal

and national identity to the global scene due to globalization, we deemed that it is still important

to address the problem of constructing one‟s national identity because on the individual level,

human beings have individual political selves, which is the entire complex of orientations

regarding an individual‟s political world, including his own view towards his own political role

(Dawson and Prewitt, 1969). Of the three broad categories of orientations which compose this

political self, the most basic and persistent is national identity, or an attachment, a loyalty or a

sense of belonging to the national community. As Filipinos, we would want to be a part of a

great nation, thus, as political actors, our participation in the political arena (and the social sphere

as well) would be determined by the worldviews that we carry, which includes our national

identities.

The study also focused on Baguio City where the student respondents are residents of

because the city is considered to be a hub for various nationalities and ethno-linguistic groups.

Furthermore, high school students are fit for the study because they are in their stage of their

lives wherein they form their individual identities; also their sense of belongingness, particularly

towards the national community, needs to be fulfilled, unlike the much younger generation.

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. What is Nationalism?

Nationalism refers to an ideology, a sentiment, a form of culture, or a social movement

that focuses on the nation (Smith, 1993). It is a type of collectivism emphasizing the collective

of a specific nation. While there is major debate over the historical origins of nations, Anthony

Smith (1998) explains that nearly all scholars accept that nationalism, at least as an ideology and

social movement, is a modern phenomenon originating in Europe.

As an ideology, nationalism holds that 'the people' in the doctrine of popular sovereignty

is the nation, and that as a result, only nation-states founded on the principle of national self-

determination are legitimate. Since most states are multinational, or at least home to more than

one group claiming national status, in many cases nationalist pursuit for self-determination has

caused conflict between people and states including war (both external and domestic), secession;

and in extreme cases, genocide (Connor, 1994).

The concept comes from the root word nation, and one of the most prominent thinkers in

the study of nations as a concept is Benedict Anderson. In his book “Imagined Communities”,

Anderson defined a nation as "an imagined political community [that is] imagined as both

inherently limited and sovereign" (Anderson, 1983). An imagined community is different from

an actual community because it is not (and cannot be) based on everyday face-to-face interaction

between its members. Instead, members hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity --

for example, the nationhood you feel with other members of your nation when your "imagined

community" participates in a larger event such as the Olympics. As Anderson puts it, a nation

"is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their

fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of

their communion" (Anderson, 1983). Members of the community would probably never know

one another face to face; however, they may have similar interests or identity as part of the same

nation. Mass media also creates imagined communities, through targeting a mass audience or

generalizing and addressing citizens as the public.

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These communities are imagined as both limited and sovereign. They are limited in the

sense that nations have "finite, if elastic boundaries, beyond which lie other nations” (Anderson,

1983). They are sovereign insofar as no dynastic monarchy can claim authority over them, an

idea arising in the early modern period:

... [T]he concept was born in an age in which Enlightenment and Revolution were

destroying the legitimacy of the divinely-ordained, hierarchical dynastic realm. Coming to

maturity at a stage of human history when even the most devout adherents of any universal

religion were inescapably confronted with the living pluralism of such religions, and the

[direct relationship] between each faith's ontological claims and territorial stretch, nations

dream of being free, and, if under God, directly so. The gauge and emblem of this freedom

is the sovereign state. (Anderson, 1983: 6-7)

Even though we may never see anyone in our imagined community, we still know they

are there through communication.

Finally, a nation is an imagined community because "regardless of the actual inequality

and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal

comradeship. Ultimately it is this fraternity that makes it possible, over the past two centuries,

for so many millions of people, not so much to kill, as willingly to die for such limited

imaginings" (Anderson, 1983).

Origins of Nationalism

Exactly when and where it came out is difficult to determine, according to Walter

Laqueur (1997); but its development is closely related to that of the modern state,, and the push

for popular sovereignty that came to a start with the French Revolution in the late 18th

century.

Since then, nationalism has become one of the most important political and social forces in

history, perhaps particularly as a major influence or cause of World War I and especially World

War II with the rise of fascism, a radical and authoritarian nationalist ideology (Laqueur, 1997).

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Issues on Nationalism

Nationalism has long been ignored as a topic in political philosophy, written off as a relic

from bygone times. It is only recently that it came into the focus of philosophical debate, partly

in consequence of rather spectacular and troubling nationalist clashes, like those in Rwanda

(Brown, 2000: 160-164), the former Yugoslavia (Brown: 11, 164) and the former Soviet Union

(Brown: 21, 35). The surge of nationalism usually presents a morally ambivalent and for this

reason often fascinating picture. “National awakenings” and struggles for political independence

are often both heroic and inhumanly cruel; the formation of a recognizably national state often

responds to deep popular sentiment, but can and does sometimes bring in its wake inhuman

consequences, including violent expulsion and “cleansing” of non-nationals, all the way to

organized mass murder (Miscevic, 2005). The moral debate on nationalism, as Nenad Miscevic

in one of his articles points out, reflects a deep moral tension between solidarity with oppressed

national groups on the one hand and repulsion in the face of crimes committed in the name of

nationalism on the other. Miscevic adds that the issue of nationalism points to a wider domain of

problems having to do with the treatment of ethnic and cultural differences within a democratic

polity, which are possibly among the most urgent problems of contemporary political theory.

In recent years, the focus of debate about nationalism has shifted towards issues in

international justice, probably in response to changes on the international scene: bloody

nationalist wars such as those in the former Yugoslavia have become less conspicuous, whereas

the issues of terrorism, of “clash of civilizations” and of hegemony in the international order

have come to occupy public attention (Miscevic, 2005). One important link with earlier debates

is provided by the contrast between views of international justice based on the predominance of

sovereign nation-states and more cosmopolitan views that either insist upon limiting national

sovereignty, or even envisage its disappearance (Miscevic, 2005).

In his journal article “For a theory of nationalism”, Christophe Jaffrelot wrote that many

thinkers like Jürgen Habermas and Arjun Appadurai are questioning the relevance of the nation-

state, with bases on the viewpoint of the European Union (Habermas, as cited by Jaffrelot, 2003:

45) and on the impact of migrations (Appadurai, as cited by Jaffrelot, 2003: 45). He even cited

others which claimed that we live in a “post-national, globalized world dominated by new forms

8

of cosmopolitanism” (Jaffrelot, 2003: 45). But Jaffrelot reminds us that we cannot enter into

such debates which make the search for a theory of nationalism pointless. He proposed that the

more viable nation-state framework (as in such cases of cosmopolitanism and migration) is

multiculturalism: the acceptance of various cultural divisions for the sake of diversity that

applies to the demographic make-up of a specific place, such as a nation (Jaffrelot, 2003: 45).

Jaffrelot insisted in his article that the available comparative and theoretical books insist

on dealing with the concepts of nation and nationalism at the same time. This should not be the

case, as he stated below:

… to construct a theory of the nation and to evolve one of the nation is not the

same thing. Nations have an institutional dimension that is state-oriented – hence the

notion of ―nation-state‖ – whereas nationalism is an ideology (an „ism‟) which often

claims the control of a nation and/or promotes one’s own (superior) identity against

Other’s. Its foundations, therefore, are rooted in identity politics and culture.

Therefore… there are more affinities between theories of nationalism and theories of

ethnicity than between theories of nation and theories of nationalism.

(Jaffrelot, 2003: 5)

In another study, Andreas Wimmer and Nina Glick Schiller studied the mainstream

methodological nationalism and its effect on nation-state building, migration, and the social

scientific inquiry. Methodological nationalism is the assumption that the nation/state/society “is

the natural, social, and political form of the modern world” (Wimmer & Schiller, 2002: 302). In

a brief but comprehensive historical review, Wimmer and Schiller showed that this

„conventional‟ concept has developed in close contact with the nation-state building processes in

the West and the role that immigration and integration policies have played within them. The

move towards a study of „transnational communities‟ – which is the last phase in this process –

was a more of a “consequence of an epistemic move away from methodological nationalism than

of the appearance of new objects of observation” (Wimmer & Schiller, 2002: 324). Their article

concluded with recommendations of new concepts for analysis which, on one hand, are not tinted

by methodological nationalism and, on the other hand, go beyond the fluidity of much

contemporary social theory (Wimmer & Schiller, 2002: 325-327).

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In the article “National Identity in a United Germany: Nationalism and Patriotism?”,

Thomas Blank and Peter Schmidt investigated the ways in which the concepts of nationalism and

patriotism are related to attitudes towards minorities. They explained that nationalism and

patriotism can be thought of as consequences of national identity that represent positive

evaluations of one‟s own group but imply different social goals (Blank et. al., 2003: 293). The

data that they analyzed were drawn from a representative sample of residents of the former East

and West Germany who responded to items on the national identity of Germans in 1996 as part

of a panel study. Blank and Schmidt were able to formulate a model with multiple indicators

which was tested via a multiple-group analysis of a structural equations model followed by latent

class analyses. They found out that both East and West Germans displayed attitudinal patterns

that link national identity with tolerance toward others; in both subsamples, nationalism and

patriotism were respectively associated with greater intolerance and greater tolerance toward

minorities (Blank et. al., 2003: 306).

B. Types of Nationalism

1. Civic nationalism

Civic nationalism defines the nation as an association of people with equal and shared

political rights, and allegiance to similar political procedures (Brown, 2000). According to the

principles of civic nationalism, the nation is not based on common ethnic ancestry, but it is a

political entity whose core is not ethnicity. This civic concept of nationalism is exemplified

by Ernest Renan where he defined the nation as a "daily plebiscite dependent on the will of its

people to continue living together" (as cited in Brown, 2000).

2. Ethnic nationalism

David Brown defines ethnocultural (ethnic or cultural) nationalism as a form

of nationalism wherein the "nation" is defined in terms of ethnicity. Whatever specific ethnicity

is involved, ethnic nationalism always includes some element of descent from previous

10

generations. Furthermore, the central theme for ethnic nationalists is that "...nations are defined

by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a

common ethnic ancestry." It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the

group, and with their ancestors, and usually a shared language; however it is different from

purely cultural definitions of "the nation" which allow people to become members of a nation

by cultural assimilation and a purely linguistic definitions which see "the nation" as all speakers

of a specific language (Brown, 2000: 35).

Numerous thinkers from John Hutchinson, Will Kymlicka, up to Montserrat Guibernau

have supported the suggestion that these two types of nationalisms are differentiated by terms

that usually describe them: civic nationalism as “pre-dominantly democratic and individualistic”

and ethnic nationalism being “inherently authoritarian and collectivist” (Brown, 2000: 50-51).

These distinctions are vital to an understanding of political tensions and dynamics of modern

nationalism, and in particular to the debate as to how states should handle their ethnic minorities.

However, as it was explained further by Brown, the fact that these two variously-denoted forms

of nationalism, even if they are analytically distinct, interlock in particular nation-states and

nationalist movements such that one form may appear more dominant, both types are always

being used to explain some nationalisms that promote individual liberty, and those which restrain

it. Thus, nationalism “does have two ideological faces, civic and ethnocultural, but the political

character is surely protean rather than Janus-faced” (Brown, 2006: 69).

C. National Identity

Based on the work of William Bloom entitled Personal Identity, National Identity and

International Relations‖, he defined the concept of national identity as such:

National Identity describes that condition in which a mass of people have made

the same identification with national symbols – have internalized the symbols of the

nation – so that they may act as one psychological group when there is a threat to, or

the possibility of enhancement of, these symbols of national identity.

(Bloom, 1990: 52)

11

Bloom adds that for national identity to exist, the people as a whole must have gone

through the actual psychological process of making that general identification with the nation.

(Bloom, 1990: 52)

Randolf S. David explained that a national identity is one of many affiliations into which

we are involuntarily thrown in the course of our lives. He added that some of these affiliations

become salient to us insofar as we acknowledge and weave them into our own personal

narratives (David, 2009). The nation penetrates our consciousness by producing consequences in

the way we think, feel or act, and, indeed, in how others treat us.

A Filipino may see his identity as both an asset and a liability, according to David. He

reiterated scenarios like: if our country is at war, the government may call on every Filipino to

defend the nation, and our conscience may prompt us to come to its defense as a matter of duty.

At immigration counters abroad, we may be rudely awakened to the fact of our Filipino identity

when we are made to step aside for a closer scrutiny of our travel documents. In foreign lands,

we may find solidarity and security in the bosom of fellow Filipinos. But others may experience

embarrassment in their company. When the country is praised or criticized by foreigners, or

when a Filipino is singled out for adulation or ridicule by the rest of the world, we may grow in

self-esteem or wither in shame. Either way, as David also implies, our consciousness of being

Filipino is sharpened (David, 2009).

Many studies on national identity have been conducted around the globe, including in the

Philippines. Warat Winit, Gary Gregory, and Rita Di Mascio from the University of New South

Wales tested Keillor et al.‟s (1996) National Identity (NATID) scale in the context of Thailand.

Results showed that the modified NATID scale was appropriate with high scale reliability in all

six dimensions (Winit, et. al., 2005: 1185). Two specific dimensions of the modified scale

(emotional attachment and national heritage) were able to explain differences in consumer brand

perceptions. Results from their study suggested that the original NATID scale of Keillor et al.

(1996) can be applied to the Thai cultural setting. In addition, two additional dimensions,

nativist idea and emotional attachment to the nation, appear to improve the original scale and its

coverage of scale dimensions (Winit, et. al., 2005: 1186). They also concluded that this modified

12

NATID scale will provide researchers with a more comprehensive scale when investigating and

identifying national identity across nations.

Elizabeth Ann Medina‟s paper “Serial Colonization and Filipino Identity” summarized

the factors that serial colonization gave rise to which, on one hand, made it impossible for the

Filipino nation to develop a national identity in a classic manner, but on the other hand, have left

clearly that our principal virtue as a nation is our capacity to assimilate and adapt to all cultures.

It concluded that the pending issue which must be addressed, especially by Filipinos whose

activity consists of education and the transmission of culture, is the reclaiming of our country

from internal colonization. Medina sees this as a true challenge, because putting an end to the

dark legacy of colonialism can only be achieved “through the birth of a unified, global

awareness/identity among all Filipinos, and a cultural and social transformation in the

Philippines as its definitive outcome” (Medina: 2000: 3).

D. The Philippines: on National Identity and Nationalism

History has witnessed the emergence of Philippine nationalism in our shores, but it is not

through the easy road. Frances A. Starner discussed the main historical factors that contributed

to the formulation and advancement of Philippine nationalism in her 1955 article ―The Problems

of Philippine Nationalism‖. She assessed that the nationalists in the Philippines have made the

transition to independence under “uniquely favorable circumstances”:

The process was a gradual one, with the objective in sight long before it was reached;

the nationalist movement, on the whole, was fostered rather than suppressed by the American

government; and its leaders were given an unusual opportunity to participate in and assume

responsibility for the processes of government for some time prior to independence. On the

whole, these circumstances enabled the Philippines to avoid the excesses of ultra-

nationalism. Nevertheless, independence has brought its share of problems to the Republic,

many of which were obscured before the war by the independence issue. A number of these

arise from contradictions inherent in nationalism itself.

(Starner, 1955: 261)

13

Although Starner was able to pin-point the problems regarding nationalism after the

„independence‟ of the Philippines from colonial rule, Filipino thinkers like Epifanio San Juan, Jr.

and Floro Quibuyen think that the United States‟ intervention with our society and culture has

made a deep mark or scar in the formation of our national identity. In his article ―Imagining

Japan and America: A Genealogy of Filipino National Consciousness‖, Quibuyen explored how

we Filipinos have imagined ourselves as a nation by exploring how we have imagined the two

countries which have intervened with our modern history – Japan and the United States. From

the late 19th

century up to the time of the American conquest in the Philippines, Filipino

revolutionary nationalists looked up to Japan as their ally and model (Quibuyen, 2000: 92).

Under the American rule, particularly during the time of Manuel L. Quezon, Japan was replaced

by America in the popular imagination (Quibuyen, 2000: 115). This shift of the national

consciousness, according to Quibuyen, proves the United States‟ hegemonic success in creating

“the new post-colonial Filipino” – entirely different from the previous nationalist generation. He

even exclaimed that:

What Rizal had not thought of, and indeed it might have been unthinkable for his

generation is that, a hundred years hence, 95 percent of Filipino schoolchildren would

rather be American than Filipino.

(Quibuyen, 2000: 119)

San Juan, on the other hand, tackled language and the position of the Filipino speakers in

the United States where the „hegemonic‟ language, which is Standard American English, remains

unchallenged is a symptom of what he calls the neocolonial status of the Philippines (with

regards to the United States). His article ―Filipino Speech Acts – Weapons for Self

Determination of the Filipino Nationality in the U.S.‖ explained the inequality of language-use

that follows the ranking of nationalities and ethnic groups in the United States‟ racialized

hierarchy (San Juan, 2002: 35). San Juan also explains that the non-synchrony of the ideological

superstructure and the material infrastructure may provide mediations and opportunities for

cultural self determination in critical spheres of everyday life. The struggle to learn and practice

Filipino (language) by students in the U.S. foretells the disintegration of multiculturalist

14

pluralism and intimates the possibilities of heteroglossia and dialogism even within the

framework of globalized education (ibid: 43). San Juan quotes Paulo Friere by stating:

To re-appropriate the submerged or erased revolutionary legacy of our people,

we need a language that is an integral and authentic part of that culture – a language

that is not just ―an instrument of communication, but also a structure of thinking for the

national being.

(Friere, as cited in San Juan, 2002: 44)

What is also alarming are the studies on what is now being described as the Filipinos‟

precarious sense of identity. An example is Maria Luisa Doronila‟s study of Filipino

schoolchildren which showed the latter‟s order of preferences with respect to country and

nationality. For role models, first preference went to the American cowboy, followed by the

Japanese samurai, and then the Chinese kung fu master, with, unfortunately, the Filipino heroes

coming in fourth (Doronila, 1986: 38). As to the countries they admired and wanted to live in:

the first choice went to the United States, followed by Japan, and thirdly, the Philippines

(Doronila, 1986: 29). The study also found that as the school kids grew older, their preference

for other countries and for things foreign, far from diminishing, even intensified (Doronila, 1986:

31). The study suggests that specific content of national identity is closely related at any given

point to the character of the nation itself. The refusal of the majority of the population and

especially of dominant groups within the society to confront questions of neocolonial domination

and to gain lessons from the country‟s historical experiences will most certainly be reflected in

the nature and content of national identity formation (Doronila, 1986: 17). In other words, the

colonial character of the Filipino nation finds support, and is reflected, in the colonial

consciousness of its members, among others.

On a different side, Gerardo Sandoval, Mahar Mangahas, and Linda Luz Guerrero reports

on a national survey paper “The Situation Of Filipino Youth: A National Survey”, done in 1996

by Social Weather Stations for the Philippine National Youth Commission that seek to evaluate

in detail the attitudes, values, needs, aspirations, and problems of Filipinos within ages 15 and

30.

15

The survey found out that the youth feels very proud to be Filipino, easily declaring

willingness to defend the country in case of war. They put great importance on marriage and

family, friends, education, work, religion, society, and money, but not much importance on

recreation, hobbies, or politics. They are very sensitive to how parents and children make

personal sacrifices for each other. Not only are they personally religious, but they actively

participate in religious organizations very regularly. They are generally satisfied with the

government's performance in the areas of their own needs.

Comparative analysis with surveys of American youth indicates that the Filipino youth

have more self-confidence and more satisfaction with life. They get along better with parents

and neighbors. They get together with friends less often, and yet are as satisfied with these

relationships as Americans are. They are more content with their educational opportunities, their

standard of living, and their jobs. Filipino youth get less exercise, however, and are less exposed

to television and movies.

A comparison with surveys of adult Filipinos shows that the youth consider the economy

as the country's most pressing problem area, but think that they themselves can do little about it.

They smoke and drink less, regard their health as good, feel happier, and are more optimistic.

Yet, at the same time, the 1996 survey found unexpectedly high incidences of youth involvement

in criminality, illegal drug use, and illicit sex.

E. Baguio City and the American Colonial Legacy: A Brief History

`Baguio City is one of the many mountain centers in the Southeast Asia that the

Westerners developed as a colonial hill station. According to Robert R. Reed‟s “City of Pines:

The Origins of Baguio as a Colonial Hill Station and Regional Capital‖, a colonial hill station is

a place where most of the colonial governments in South and Southeast Asia applied, exercised,

and executed their politico-military policies and major public works projects. Baguio‟s colonial

station period was from the year 1840 to 1940, which was the height of imperialism back then

(Reed, 1976: xiii).

16

Baguio City started as a colonial hill station even during the Spanish era, although it has

only been famously known as a place being developed by the Americans. It is due to the fact

that the Spaniards found difficulty in fighting the determined native opposition of the highlands

of Benguet. “… for almost three centuries, the Igorots stubbornly refused to succumb to the

fundamentally transformative process of Hispanic reduccion, which in its form involved

conquest, political submission, Christianization, cultural Hispanization and permanent

resettlement in towns and cities (Reed, 1976: 33).” But they still succeeded, partly in the next

years.

The valley of Trinidad, by the time it was discovered, was a community of 500 houses

(with around 2000 people), forested hills and irrigated fields that surrounded the community

(Reed, 1976: 39). As the conflict between the Spanish military and the natives intensified, the

population of the natives was reduced. With the coming of the Spaniards, it made way to other

people such as other Spaniards, Europeans, and the Chinese to come and make use of the place,

so as many immigrant Ilocanos who settled in Benguet (Reed, 1976: 39). The Spaniards, like in

the lowland parts of the Philippines, introduced and built up a “small plaza, Catholic church,

government, jail, school, and teacher‟s house (Reed, 1976: 39).”

The reason for Americans to come and settle in Benguet was that they were physically

and mentally exhausted working in the hot and humid surroundings of the lowlands, which is

typical in a tropical archipelago like the Philippines. This is why they thought that a

mountainous place like Benguet would be a good place for them to retreat and relax because it is

close to the climate that they were used to. The Americans also feared for their health with the

diseases they might get, Reed explained, and they were avoiding the occurring cases of cholera,

typhoid, malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, smallpox, dysentery, and possible plague during that time

(Reed, 1976: 54).

The Americans were also the ones that started and developed the transportation or rail

road system in Benguet. Dean C. Worcester, the U.S. Philippine Commissioner, recognized the

problem of transportation of people and materials in the mountains of Luzon. Trying to come up

with a solution, he consulted European businessmen and fellow consuls, and the problem was

17

worked out to make transportation in Benguet feasible (Reed, 1976: 78-79). Developing Baguio

into a modern city was started by Daniel H. Burnham and an assistant, with the goal of making it

“…the summer capital of the Philippines, as a major health resort, as a large market center, and

as a hub of recreational activities (Reed, 1976: 101)”.

America‟s colonial legacy “aspires for radical transformation of Filipino society that

would lead to equality and brotherhood for all islands people”, based on the talk between Gerald

McDonald of the Chicago Public Radio and Paul Kramer, author of The Blood of Government:

Race, Empire the United States and the Philippines. But the thing, according to them, is that the

Americans have other reasons to colonize the Philippines. They were interested in the bases that

they can put up here in the Philippines by the time that war is at its height. Also, they are

concerned on “creating this kind of footprints for American military power that will help build

this longer vision of commercial and market empire” (Kramer, as cited in MacDonald, 2006).

The U.S. wanted to govern the Philippines and take on power to rule the Filipinos on their own

hands by using strategies that would essentially get the trust of the Filipinos. An example of

these tactics is on the part on getting the trust on the local level. “They rely a great deal on local

leaders to command loyalty to the local land and to be able to organize labor forces, to be able to

legitimate the rule at the local level and to provide a kind of local face or an external power”

(Kramer, as cited in MacDonald, 2006). Also, for American investments to flourish, they built

local infrastructures in the Philippines: “In Philippine commodities, they sent out scientists to

study the mining resources of the Philippines, the lumber resources of the Philippines, [and

ways] to cultivate tropical commodities like sugar and tobaccos. They really try to attract the

American investments in the Philippines and to connect the Philippine economy to American

markets” (Kramer, as cited in MacDonald, 2006).

There were doubts on the U.S.‟s move to take over the Philippines; one fact is that critics

have seen it as a violation of the Filipinos nation‟s traditions. At this point, the anti-imperialist

movements were emerging in the Philippines because most Filipinos did not want to be governed

by an “imperialist” country. After the turn of the century in the Philippines, the anti-imperialist

movements proved to be an important influence on the American politics, although after 1902

this influence started to fade (Kramer, as cited in MacDonald, 2006).

18

The American colonial legacy proved to be quite successful in the Philippines; from the

very start, the U.S. government “[was] telling both the Filipino elite class and they are also

telling Americans (the American people) that the United States is not going to be another kind of

colonial power” (Kramer, as cited in MacDonald, 2006). MacDonald, as he explains Kramer,

said that “it may look like the United States is fighting a classic colonial war and that it‟s

imposing a classic colonial government but in fact the United States is doing is developing

Filipino people or helping them achieve their own aspirations” (2006). Americans used

education to „help‟ the Filipinos in preparing them for self-government. MacDonald quoted

Kramer by saying “Filipinos are capable of governing themselves but not quite yet. They need

to be trained by Americans who mastered the art of government… [This] propaganda

[convinces] the American people that the Philippine enterprise is moral enterprise” (Kramer, as

cited in MacDonald, 2006).

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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. The Conceptual Languages (Approaches) to Nationalism

David Brown in his book Contemporary Nationalism (2000) has proposed three

conceptual languages that show how each “generate differing stories as to the relationship of

ethnicity and nationalism, the rise of nation-states, and the problematic character of

contemporary nationalist politics” (Brown, 2000). He adds that these conceptual languages,

which see nationalism as an instinct (primordialism), an interest (situationalism), and as an

ideology (constructivism), provide the nodal points within which the various writers on

nationalism may be located.

1. Primordialist Approach

Primodialist approaches depict the nation as based upon the natural, organic

community, which defines the identity of its members, who feel an innate and

emotionally powerful attachment to it. Natural nations have natural rights to self-

determination.

(Brown, 2000: 6)

Primordialism, according to Brown, starts with the argument that humanity has “…

evolved into distinct, organic communities, each with their own language and culture, with each

individual‟s sense of identity derived from the location within one such community” (2000: 6).

In its simplest version, primordialism claims that nations are organic communities united by the

fact of common ancestry. Brown further suggests that the natural, organic basis for nations

derives not from a genetic basis, but from the innate power of cultural affinities of language,

religion, and custom (2000: 7). Karl Jung gives support for this in his suggestion that

primordialism might refer to the inheritance of a collective memory, an archetype of the

collective unconscious (Jung, as cited in Brown, 2000: 7).

20

During the 1950s and 1960s, primordialist approaches were applied most explicitly to the

discussion of ethnic conflict in less-developed societies, on the assumption that political behavior

in such „backward‟ societies was most likely to be based on emotion and instinct, and on

ancestrally based „tribal‟ affiliations (Brown, 2000: 9). But such optimism was eroded from the

late 1960s onwards, when ethnic and nationalist conflicts escalated, with the start of civil rights

unrest in the US, the conflicts in Biafra and Bangladesh, and the rise of violence in Northern

Ireland and the Basque country.

In explaining ethnic tensions and conflict, Anthony Smith and Adrian Hastings

formulated that modern states have only been able to generate a strong sense of national identity

among their people to the extent that the intelligentsia have been able to link the sense of

nationhood to its authentic ethnic roots (Brown, 2000: 10). This process implies that the citizens

of the state who are of ethnic minority background come to believe that they can culturally

assimilate into the dominant ethnic community and can therefore celebrate the adoption of, and

association with, its history (Brown, 2000: 10). Over time, they will even adopt their myths of

common ancestry as their own.

But the success of such enterprise might be unlikely. The primordialist approach has

stressed that it is the authenticity of the claim to common kinship which gives it its emotional

power. This means that the attempt by a dominant ethnic core to persuade the ethnic minorities

to assimilate by adopting an objectively false kinship myth is unlikely to succeed. This doubt is

reinforced by the reality that the citizens who belong to minority ethnic segments face barriers to

assimilation, and are thus marginalized. For as long as the state employs authoritarian controls,

it can hope to suppress minority ethnic claims in order to maintain national unity and order, but

modern states have recently been faced with various problems in maintaining such authoritarian

controls. This may explain the recurring problems of the Philippines government with regards to

the Muslim insurgency for in Mindanao. In line with this, the primordialist view shows that

solutions to such political issues must be sought in the granting of maximum autonomy to each

ethnic community, so as to ensure special international legal protections for ethnic minorities.

21

2. Situationalist Approach

Situationalism explains ethnic and national identities, not as natural instinctual

ties to organic communities, but rather as resources employed by groups of individuals

for the pursuit of their common interests. As the type of threats and opportunities with

which people are faced change, so do their options and their responses. Thus, both the

utility of ethnicity and nationalism, and the form which they take, will vary in response

to changing situations.

(Brown, 2000: 13)

The situationalist approach offers an important insight in its recognition that the sense of

community based on ethnic or national identity can be a response to commonalities of interest;

and that ethnic and nationalist movements can be vehicles for the defense of such interests in the

face of economic and power disparities.

The situationalist argument begins with the liberal assumption that individuals seek, in

general, to promote their freedom, self-fulfillment, or self-realization; and that this is evident in

their pursuit of particular self-interests (Brown, 2000: 13). At both levels – the pursuit of self-

realization and the pursuit of particular interests – individuals frequently find it useful to ally

with others in „interest groups‟, or what Dov Ronen calls „functional aggregations‟ (Ronen, as

cited in Brown, 2000). The extent to which these interests groups become central to the

individual‟s sense of identity (or in Ronen‟s terms, the extent to which they become „conscious

aggregations‟) varies, and depends both on the type and extent of the interests to which they

refer, and on the type and intensity of the threats or opportunities with which the individual. In

general terms, the more central the interests are to the pursuit of self-realization, and the more

intense the threats, the greater would be the conscious sense of individual identification with the

interest group (Brown, 2000: 14).

It may be noted that the situationalist explanation for ethnic and national identities is, at

several points, comparable to the Marxist explanation of class identity. The term „class‟ is used

in Marxism to refer both to an individual‟s objective location in the production process, and to a

sense of identity and group consciousness in which, in that it involves it involves perceptions of

22

exploitation, is manifested in emotional terms. Class consciousness, like ethnic and national

consciousness, frequently develops only after being mobilized by vanguard activists who can

explain the true structure of the situation to their followers (Brown, 2000: 16). Both are regarded

as rational reactions to the perception of threatening other and also as emotional attachments to

an ethical community. The linkages between the two forms of identity are indeed such that, in

some formulations of situationalism, ethnic and national identities are depicted as a form of class

consciousness; as with the “cultural division of labor” (Brown, 2000: 16).

The situationalist approach claims to provide a straightforward explanation both for the

rise of modern nation-states, and also for the contemporary upsurge of nationalist contention, by

seeing both fundamentally as arising out of interest-based responses to changes in the structure

of the global economy. The situational core to such arguments is most explicit in those

formulations which focused upon industrialization as the core component of modernization. Eric

Hobsbawm similarly argued that capitalism required new political units which could provide the

necessary legal frameworks, political control and markets (Hobsbawm, as cited in Brown, 2000).

It was therefore in the interests of the dominant bourgeoisies to promote the spread of new

nationalist cultures. Karl Deutsch saw the growth of industry and commerce as the key factor

generating new networks of social communication, which provided the basis for the mobilization

of new sentiments of nationalism (Deutsch, as cited in Brown, 2000). Benedict Anderson

viewed the core precondition for the emergence of modern nation-states in the development of

“print capitalism” which facilitated the spread of a common vernacular language and literature,

so that the modern nation could develop as a new imagined community (Anderson, 2003).

If it was indeed the early phases of the spread of industrialization and commerce which

gave rise to the development of modern nation-states; then it would be consistent to argue that

the present problems of these nation-states might also be explainable in similarly situationalist

terms, as the outcome of changes in the global economy. Indeed, the argument that economic

globalization is irreversibly weakening the nation-state is frequently portrayed, these days, as

merely common sense.

23

3. Constructivist Approach

Constructivist approaches suggest that national identity is constructed on the

basis of institutional or ideological frameworks which offer simple and simplistic

formulas of identity, and diagnoses of contemporary problems, to otherwise confused

or insecure individuals.

(Brown, 2000: 20)

The constructivist approach begins by denying that nations are real, substantive entities,

and suggesting that the perception by those involved that they are real should be understood as a

form of ideological consciousness which filters reality, rather than reflects it (Brown 2000: 20).

Thus, the nation is never merely the imagined community, it is also (and always) the invented

community. The core function of nationalism is most usually stated as being that of offering

individuals a sense of identity; and the suggestion that such a sense of identity might be

constructed unconsciously or intuitively as a category of understanding.

Nationalism, in the constructivist sense, is particularly useful in employing psychological

myths as the basis for political ideology, since it is able to grant public legitimacy to private

neuroses by depicting the community as a whole as having the attributes which are sought after

by its individual members. In asserting the uniqueness and permanence of the national

community; the emotional and physical security provided within the homeland; and the right of

the moral community to self determination, nationalism thus translates the psychological needs

of individuals into the public-rights claims of the authentic community, therefore raising the

insecure individual to the status of the proud nation (Brown, 2000: 25)

David Brown explains that [constructivist] nationalism is depicted as an ideology,

invented and employed by new political elites aspiring to power in the modern state, who seek

alternative sources of legitimacy to replace appeals to divine right or colonial mandate. Such

elites construct new myths of unity for the control of societies characterized by socio-economic

complexity and cultural diversity (Brown, 2000: 31).

24

How can we relate this to the Philippine sense? If we recall the events of EDSA People

Power Revolutions 1 and 2, we see the roles of new political elites like Cory Aquino, Fidel

Ramos, Juan Ponce Enrile, Jaime Cardinal Sin, and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo later on, as they

help move the revolution of the Filipino masses. In turn, such state elites are seen to construct

ideas of the natural nation by selectively reinterpreting historical symbols so as to portray the

society within the state in largely „mythical‟ terms of historical continuity, as a community of

common ancestry, kinship, homeland, and destiny (which we see now in the 1987 Philippine

Constitution). The legitimatory and mobilizing power of this „invented‟ nationhood does not

depend upon its factual accuracy (which may vary enormously), but rather on the power of the

state elites to select and deploy symbols which resonate with aspects of contemporary culture,

and to inculcate skillfully myths of organic unity thru appropriate institutional channels (Brown,

2000: 31).

Figure 1. National Identity – the Three Concepts. Brown, David. (2000). Contemporary Nationalism: Civic,

ethnocultural and multicultural politics. London: Routledge

These different approaches have sometimes been used to refer to different types if

identity, contrasting an instinctual and primordial identity in less-developed societies, usually

labeled as „tribalism‟, with an allegedly more rational form of relationship in the developed

West, deserving the title „nationalism‟; and distinguishing also between the genuine nationalist

25

sentiment of the masses, and the xenophobic nationalist fictions sometimes articulated and

manipulated by the elites (Brown, 2000: 5). But, as Brown reminds us, there is no such

distinctions made here, for members of all national communities tend to believe that preferential

loyalty to their communities is in some sense natural (Brown, 2000: 5). The primordialist

approach tends to look for validation and specification of that particular perception; the

situationalist approach shows it as the manifestation of rational interests; and the constructivist

approach perceives it as a politically constructed truth. Until now, the distinction between the

three approaches has been made most explicit in discussions of ethnicity. But since the concepts

of ethnicity and nationalism are so closely intertwined, it seems likely that the unwinding of the

three approaches might also clarify debates on nationalism (Brown, 2000: 5).

Going back to Christophe Jaffrelot‟s journal article, Jaffrelot acknowledges the

primordialist and the constructivist approaches cited by Brown, but he included another approach

(which, in case, would exclude the situationalist approach) that may explain another view on the

emergence of nationalism:

*4. Diffusionist Approach

… those which rehabilitate the role of ideas and culture and look at nationalism

as an ideology, be it propagated or shaped by indigenous intelligentsias [as “agents of

history”] on the basis of existing ethnic material.

(Jaffrelot, 2003: 43)

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B. Operational Definition of National Identity: Conceptual and Methodological

Considerations

Ernest Renan defined the concept of nation as a group of people who have a “sense of

common history, a memory of common sufferings which seem more important than the conflicts

and divisions also to be found within that history.” Moreover, these people must have a will to

live together for “to have done great things together and to have the will to do more are the

essential conditions for a people or a nation” (as cited in Doronila, 1986: 6).

The point in Renan‟s definition is on the affective nature of national identity, an

experienciable “we” feeling, an identification with and attachment to one‟s national community.

Its premise is on the understanding and appreciation of its present character as determined by its

specific cultural and historical circumstances, and a clear expression of its future possibilities.

We also discussed earlier that Thomas Blank and Peter Schmidt explained that

nationalism (along with patriotism) can be thought of as consequences of national identity that

represent positive evaluations of one‟s own group but imply different social goals (Blank and

Schmidt, 2003: 293). This gives us a direct relationship between the concepts of national

identity and nationalism.

1. A Conceptual Definition of National Identity

A political self, according to Dawson and Prewitt, is the entire complex of orientations

regarding an individual‟s political world, including his own view towards his own political role

(Dawson and Prewitt, 1969). Three broad categories of orientations compose this political self,

the most basic and persistent of which is national identity, or an attachment, a loyalty or a sense

of belonging to the national community. The two other categories are those towards other

political institutions, and those towards more transient political events, personalities, policies and

programs.

27

Figure 2. The Conceptual Model.

(based on definitions by Dawson and Prewitt, Blank and Schmidt, and

parameters by Kelman and Doronila)

National identity is viewed by the authors as a basic interpretative orientation because it

serves as the frame of reference for the two other broader categories of orientations. Because of

its primary importance, the development of national identity in students is identified as one of the

most important objectives of civic education in all state-supported educational systems. This

objective contributes to the fulfillment of the goals of the nation-state by enlarging loyalties of

students to include not only the home, the neighborhood and the peer groups but also the abstract

notion of loyalty or attachment to the national community.

28

This aspect of civic education has usually been studied in terms of political socialization,

here defined as the process by which an individual acquire attitudes, beliefs and values relating

to the political system of which he is a member, and to his own role of citizen within the system

(Greenberg, 1970). Research on political socialization is usually based on two well-accepted

assumptions: (1) that every political regime attempts to instill in its young people those values,

beliefs and behaviors consistent with the continuance of its political order, and (2) that childhood

political learning is relevant to later adult orientations, although no one-to-one correspondence

between childhood political orientations and adult performances can be assumed.

Accordingly, one of the critical issues raised in the research literature of political

socialization pertains to the way in which a society manages or fails to arouse support for its

political system from generation to generation.

In his conceptual scheme for the analysis of political life, David Easton has suggested

that the degree of support for a system may be conceptualized as of two types: overt support as

manifested in actions and covert support as manifested in attitudes or sentiments (Easton and

Dennis, 1965). Covert and overt support for the political system may be directed towards the

three major components of the political system: (1) the political community, used in his study as

synonymous to the national community, (2) the regime, which is the set of structures, norms and

ultimate values which determine the form of the state; and (3) the authorities, the people who occupy

regime roles at any point in time. The political community is the collection of people who share a

political division of labor. Its major importance is that it permits people in one country to

identify themselves as politically different from the rest of the world.

The present study is concerned with the socialization of support for the political

community or, from the point of view of the respondents, the acquisition of a national identity.

There are two aspects to political community, namely: (1) an objective set of political

relationships by which individual members of a political system are linked to one another, and

(2) a subjective set of feelings of mutual identification with that political community, also

referred to as a sense of national community, or a national identity. The second aspect is the

subject of this study.

29

If support or non-support of the political system is viewed as essentially descriptive of the

relations of the individual to the national community, then it is possible to study the nature of the

patterns of personal involvement in the political system. Herbert Kelman (1961) has proposed

six patterns of personal involvement with the political system dichotomized into sentimental or

instrumental attachment, shown in Table 1.

These patterns of involvement or attachment to the system may be studied on the bases of

a set of indices which Kelman has also suggested. Table 2 shows the indices.

While Kelman makes no distinction among the three major components of the political

system, the indices may be reclassified according to Easton‟s conceptual scheme. Thus, among

the six patterns of involvement given, commitment to cultural values reflective of national

identity and support of the role of the role requirements of citizens or nationals would fall under

political community; commitment to the sacredness of the state, its institutions and to law and

order would fall under regime; and commitment to social roles as public servants would

correspond to authority.

However, Kelman also suggests that two additional categories under involvement with

the political system have to be added to the original set, namely: (1) ethnocentrism and (2)

personal loyalty to the national community over loyalty to one‟s ethnic subgroup. Both

categories may be included in the set that defines sentimental attachment to the political

community.

30

TABLE 1. PATTERNS OF PERSONAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE NATIONAL SYSTEM

(System requirements

conducive to this type of

integration)

(Consolidation) (Mobilization) (Conformity)

(Influence process

characteristic of this type

of integration)

(Internalization of

system values)

(Identification with

system roles)

(Compliance with

system demands

seen as legitimate)

Ideological Role-Participant Normative

Source of

Attachment

(Loyalty)

to the

System

Sentimental Commitment to

cultural values

reflective of national

identity

Commitment to the

role of national

linked to group

symbols

Acceptance of

demands based on

commitment to the

sacredness of the

state

Instrumental Commitment to

institutions

promotive of the

needs and interest of

the population

Commitment to

social roles mediated

by the system

Acceptance of

demands based on

commitment to law

and order (principle

of equity)

Source: Herbert Kelman, “Patterns of Personal Involvement in the National System: A Socio-Psychological

Analysis of Political Legitimacy,” in International Politics and Foreign Policy (New York: Free press

of Glencoe, 1961), pp. 276-288.

31

TABLE 2. INDICES OF SENTIMENTAL AND INSTRUMENTAL ATTACHMENT TO THE

NATIONAL SYSTEM

Sentimental Attachment Indices

1. Commitment to cultural values reflective of

national identity

a. Valuing of the special abilities of the

people

b. Valuing their characteristic way of life

c. Valuing their cultural products (e.g.

language, literature, art)

d. Valuing national and religious traditions

e. Valuing national goals in the nation‟s

historical development

2. Commitment to the role of national or

citizen

a. Support of the role requirements of

citizens/nationals

b. Support for the national stand in times

of crises or when the external and

internal integrity of the national system

is threatened

c. Attachment to national symbols

d. Deriving personal identity from

identification with the nation

3. Commitment to the sacredness of the state

a. Belief that the state must be preserved at

all cost

b. Obedience to the demands of the state

Instrumental Attachment Indices

1. Commitment to social institutions

a. Valuing institutional arrangements

within the society

b. Belief that these institutions maximize

the realization of the general welfare

c. Belief in the inherent rightness and

justness of these institutional

arrangements

2. Commitment to social roles

a. Commitment to the performance of

social roles (as public servants)

b. Belief that support of the national system

is a useful means toward the

performance of occupational and

community roles

c. Belief that performance of social roles

will redound to the general and

individual welfare

3. Commitment to law and order

a. Belief that the violation of rules which

will disrupt law and order is a threat to

the integrity of the society

b. Belief that the existing system of law and

order conforms with the principles of

justice and equality

Source: Maria Luis C. Doronila, “Towards The Measurement of National Identity” in The Limits of Educational

Change (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1989), p. 38.

A rank-ordering of the patterns of personal involvement in the national system tapped by

these instruments showed that these four patterns could be used with some confidence to define

the parameters of the general pattern, personal attachment to the political community. Further

analysis of these research instruments showed that patterns of sentimental attachment to the

political community are tapped more often than instrumental attachment (Doronila, 1989: 38).

32

This finding supports Dawson‟s and Prewitt‟s statement, given earlier, that the basic type

of attachment of an individual to a political system is a unidirectional one, that is, an attachment

that does not call for a response. Instrumental attachment, on the other hand, implies reciprocity

between the individual and the institutions of the political system. The relation between

sentimental and instrumental attachments has not yet been explored in the research literature.

This is a crucial point that deserves to be investigated.

Further analysis showed that (1) commitment to the role of national, (2) ethnocentrism,

(3) commitment to law and order and (4) loyalty to the national community over one‟s ethnic

group, in that order, were used most often. Of all the indices, (1) attachment to national symbols,

(2) support or acceptance of role requirements as national or citizen, (3) deriving personal

identity and from identification with the nation, and (4) preference for one‟s own nationality over

all others, in that order had the highest frequencies. These may be the specific orientations that

the youth are able to acquire at their stage of development, the simplest and perhaps the most

basic of all orientations.

2. The Philippine Case

It is necessary to include a very brief discussion of how scholars have defined national

identity in the context of the Philippine situation on the assumption that the way scholars have

interpreted reality or given meaning to objective situations influences the orientations that are

eventually transmitted through the schools. This discussion is not intended to be exhaustive, its

purpose being only to establish the broad outlines of the content of orientations to the Philippine

political community or the national community.

It will be clear from the discussion which follows that the underlying assumption behind

the examination of the specific content of orientations to the Philippine national community is

that there is no universalistic set of orientations that defines national identity, for its specific

content has both cultural and historical dimensions which differ from one society to another, and

within a society, from one epoch to the next. Thus, it is possible to speak of Filipino nationalism

33

(Agoncillo, 1974) whose parameters may be similar in some ways to that of other nations but

different in others.

Eugene Kamenka has pointed out: “What is important is a conscious psychological sense

of nationhood. But what could become the nucleus of a feeling of nationhood and what could

not, is a matter of detailed historical condition or historical accidents” (Kamenka, 1976).

In his discussion of nationalism in nations formerly under colonial rule or newly

established as states, Clifford Geertz suggested a dichotomous scheme for analyzing the basis of

the various definitions of national identity (as cited in Doronila, 1986: 7). This is only for

analytical purposes, because in reality, as Geertz will show, these elements may well be mixed.

Nationalist ideologizing, according to Geertz, typically takes two forms:

1. The essentialist definition is focused on the indigenous way of life in which local norms,

established social institutions and the unity of common cultural experience are used as

the bases of definition of the collective identity. Although this has often been simplified

in school materials as “the basic understanding of Philippine culture, the desirable

traditions and virtues of our people as essential requisites in attaining national

consciousness and solidarity”, the problem of Filipino scholars is significantly more

complex. From the cultural diversity of the different ethnic groups that now comprise the

state, they have been and are trying to discover the criteria which these groups can use to

define their cultural affinities with one another (as cited in Doronila, 1986: 7).

2. The epochalist definition on the other hand, is focused on the historical processes by

which the country has developed to its present state, with these very processes being used

to define the commonalities in the historical experience of the ethnic groups that

comprise the state (as cited in Doronila, 1986: 7). In the Philippines, these processes are

considered as part of the Philippine colonial experience. In the same manner, O. D.

Corpuz mentioned that the rewriting and reinterpretation of Philippine history is based on

two important sources: (1) the pre-Western part with focus on the search for the cultural

identity of the Filipino when he “himself” was still unchanged by the colonial experience,

and (2) the colonial experience, itself (Corpuz, as cited in Doronila, 1986: 7).

34

The essentialist form takes an inward view of the national state, its purpose being to

selectively make clear the cultural basis of the nation in an effort to make its political boundaries

adjacent with its ethnic boundaries. The epochalist form takes an outward view of the national

state, its purpose being to draw attention to the unity of the ethnic groups within the nation in

terms of their colonial past and in the processes of decolonization. No necessary contradiction is

seen in these two modes of defining national identity and consciousness.

Two quotations from Filipino scholars using theses perspectives would be instructive.

In his introduction to his book Philippine Pre-history, F. Landa Jocano writes:

It is primarily the knowledge of the past which will enable us to understand better the

roots of our national culture and to appreciate properly the dynamics of our contemporary

society. For it is not so much, I believe, that we have borrowed from the West ideas and ways

of life which have caused the paradox of our cultural orientation. Rather it is the continuous

neglect of, if not the suppression from, the learning process in schools and at home of what

are legitimately our own tradition, which contributes to our tacit acceptance of the idea that

we have no cultural roots to speak of. It is therefore in going back to prehistory that we can

learn more and understand better the major elements of our social transformation.

(underlining supplied)

(Jocano, 1975: xiii.)

In the epochalist tradition, Renato Constantino writes,

… the resolution of the main contradiction – that between the Philippine people and

imperialism – is the prerequisite for the resolution of all other contradictions in Philippine

society.

Nationalism, in this sense, is a transitional historic phase wherein various social strata

with differing interests unite for a common cause. Nationalism is the only force that can bind

all elements against imperialism. (underlining supplied)

(Constantino, 1979: 72)

35

So to what extent are these two forms reflected in the set of categories presented in an

earlier section? An examination of the category set will show that (1) commitment to cultural

values reflective of national identity takes account of the essentialist perspective, and (2) national

loyalty to one‟s ethnic group may be used as a generalized orientation to determine the extent to

which the individual‟s ethnic loyalties have been transcended in favor of loyalty to the national

community. In view of the question of inter-ethnic majority-minority relations in the

Philippines, particularly here in Baguio, it may be necessary to determine the extent to and the

manner in which cultural values of ethnic minorities are included in the content of the national

culture transmitted through the social institutions (family, education, etc.) that they belong.

With these considerations in mind, four subcategories were added under the pattern

loyalty to the national state over ethnic loyalty, namely: (1) personal acceptance of members of

other ethnic groups in the state, (2) recognition of cultural affinities with other ethnic groups, (3)

recognition of the membership of these other groups in the Philippine national community, and

(4) acceptance of the membership of these groups in the Philippine national community.

The categories under the pattern ethnocentrism may be used to account for the epochalist

content of the orientation to the national community, namely: (1) generalized admiration for the

country over all others and (2) preference for one‟s nationality over all others which have

exercised or are exercising some influence and control over the Philippines will be included

(Doronila, 1981: 67-83).

Another category, commitment to national goals in historical development, was placed

under the pattern ethnocentrism and was restated as follows: valuing the goal of development

through national self-reliance, with specific reference to the country‟s decolonization goals. It

will be noted that decolonization goals may be included under the concept of self-reliance in all

aspects of Philippine life as a guiding principle in the protection of national interest.

36

3. The Set of Orientations Reflective of National Identity

Table 3 presents the final set of orientations or parameters of national identity revised on

the bases of the analyses done by Doronila following Kelman‟s parameters. This set was used

by Doronila in the assessment of the content of the process of socialization into a national

identity. It is understood that these have specific application to the Philippines at this point in its

history and should be viewed in terms of politically specific orientations as differentiated from

politically relevant or indirectly political orientations. This distinction is well recognized in the

literature.

TABLE 3: FINAL SET OF ORIENTATIONS DEFINING THE CONCEPT NATIONAL IDENTITY,

WITH SPECIFIC APPLICATION TO THE PHILIPPINE CASE

Pattern Orientations

A. Ethnocentrism 1. Preference for one‟s nationality over all others

2. Generalized pride in one‟s country over all

others (including those that have exerted or are

exerting influence and control over the country)

3. Support of nationalism prior to internationalism

4. Commitment to the goal of development through

national self-reliance, with specific reference to

the country‟s decolonization goals

B. Valuing of cultural aspects reflective of

national identity

5. Valuing the special qualities of the people

6. Valuing their characteristic way of life

7. Valuing national traditions (historical, cultural,

legal)

8. Valuing their cultural products (language, art,

literature)

C. Loyalty to the national community beyond

ethnic loyalties

9. Recognition of the membership of other ethnic

groups in the Philippine national community

10. Personal acceptance of individuals who belong

to these other ethnic groups

11. Recognition of cultural affinities of one‟s ethnic

group with other ethnic groups

12. Acceptance of the membership of other ethnic

groups in the Philippine national community

13. Commitment to the idea of national integration

of all ethnic groups

D. Commitment to the role requirements of

citizenship

14. Pride in national symbols

15. Deriving personal identity from identification

with the nation

16. Commitment to the duties of citizenship (Active

citizenship, disengaged or passive citizenship,

non-political aspects of citizenship)

Source: Maria Luis C. Doronila, “Towards The Measurement of National Identity” in The Limits of Educational

Change (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1989), pp. 46-47.

37

METHODOLOGY

This exploratory study employed several qualitative research techniques. The research

design involved two phases. The first phase consisted of survey tests adapted from Doronila‟s

National Identity Scale. The objective is to be able to convert the perceptions of the respondents

with regards to their respective national identities into data that were generated by the National

Identity Scale.

The study adapted Maria Luisa Doronila‟s framework of using the National Identity

Scale used on varying respondents that would be categorized as third year high school students.

Taking the essentialist and the epochalist forms which were mentioned earlier, four general value

patterns and sixteen orientations or attitudes were identified to operationally define the concept

of national identity. Each of the four general value patterns was conceptualized as a possible

focus of sentimental or affective attachment to the national community around which value focus

is organized a set of specific attitudes or orientations which are either essentialist or epochalist in

content. In turn, the four general value patterns, taken together, were interpreted as defining the

parameters of national identity and consciousness at that point in Philippine history (as of 1981),

taking into account the modalities, patterns, and impact of more than four centuries of

domination upon the collective consciousness (Nepomuceno and Constantino, as cited by

Doronila, 1986: 8), and the diversity of Philippine ethnic groups. The value-attitude set will, in

turn, be used as basis of a 35-item National Identity Scale, which will be written in Filipino and

English, designed for individual administration and intended for readers and non-readers alike.

Items in the scale, most of which are accompanied by visuals, will be classified in two

ways: (1) on the basis of the 16 attitudes under the four general value patterns, and (2) along a 4-

point continuum from self, to kin, to ethnic and finally to national identification, following van

der Berghe‟s contention that “both ethnicity and race (in the social sense) are extensions of the

idiom of kinship and that therefore ethnic and race sentiments are to be understood in part as an

extended form of kin selection.” (as cited by Doronila, 1986: 8) This agrees with Geertz‟ notion

of an experienciable “we” feeling that was mentioned earlier.

38

A. Physical Setting

This study was conducted in Baguio City (shown in Figure 3), which is located 250

kilometers north of Manila, the country‟s capital. It has a land area of 22.2 square miles and is

part of the province of Benguet. The province has 2 districts, wherein Baguio City is the first

district while the rest of the province‟s towns comprised the second district. The climate here

averages at 16 degrees centigrade throughout the whole year, the city being 5000 feet above sea

level.

Figure 3. Map of the City of Baguio. http://www.gobaguio.com/files/Images/baguio_map.jpg , accessed 18

March 2010

The Baguio City National High School (BCNHS), Main Campus is situated at Governor

Pack Road, Baguio City Philippines. It is strategically located within Baguio City‟s business and

39

educational zones. The present site of the high school was segregated from Burnham Park

reservation on June 27, 1953 under Proclamation No. 401 that awarded then Baguio City High

School (BCHS, now BCNHS) 11,840 square meters of land. From the original main building,

the ESF building, and the Science Laboratories I and II, numerous buildings were constructed

such as the DepEd building, the DOST building and laboratory, Flavier I and II, and the Bagong

Lipunan building. It also has a BERKS center and an extensive library.

The school has an auditorium, a gymnasium, and an audio visual room. The school also

utilizes the Athletic Bowl, which is adjacent to it. The school's facilities are also rented to

outsiders to generate more funds. BCNHS also has canteens and home economics stores. All

subject areas have a learning center and the school has eight computer laboratories.

B. Study Population and Sampling Technique

As of June 2, 2009, the total enrolment of Baguio City National High School Main

Campus for School Year 2009-2010 was 6,388 students from the first year up to the fourth year

level. The third year level has 28 sections with a total of 1557 students. BCNHS caters to both

male and female enrollees.

The sample technique that was used was simple random sampling. The researchers

selected Baguio City National High School as for the target population because it is the biggest

public high school in the city. The researchers have intentionally selected third year high school

students because it was in this group that their sense of identity, as well as their sense of

belongingness particularly towards the national community, needs to be fulfilled, unlike the

much younger generation. Data were collected from 36 male and female fourth year students

that were selected using the „fish-bowl‟ technique. No provision for differentiation by sex, I.Q.,

and socio-economic status were made in the sampling design since it has already been

established in the literature that these variables have no mediating influences on the acquisition

by the youth of attachment to the nation (Doronila, 1989, 69).

40

C. NIS Rating Scale Administration

The researchers conducted the data collection in BCNHS, Baguio City, Benguet

Province. The quantitative data for this study were gathered by the researchers who acted as

coders for content analysis, test administrators and field interviewers. The student respondents

were briefed by the researchers on the purpose of this research study and were given assurance

that any information obtained from them will be held in strict confidentiality and that their

identities shall remain anonymous. Testing venue was at III Year – Freedom section‟s Room

303, which school authorities kindly made available throughout the testing period. Rating scale

administration lasted from 2:30PM to 3:00 PM on March 15, 2010. No teacher of the school was

present during the testing sessions, and none of them is familiar with the evaluation instrument.

The data were analyzed by way of the Microsoft Office Excel 2007 software as

descriptive statistical analysis using frequency, percentage, minimum, maximum, mean, median,

and standard deviation. Criteria for statistical significance were set with p-value ≤ 0.05.

41

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

The data and analysis presented in this section constitute at best a preliminary analysis of

national identification; owing to the limitations of the data, the complexity of the phenomenon to

be studied and the methodological problems involved in the empirical study of value-attitude

complexes. Nonetheless, such an attempt appears to be well worth the effort, which is to provide

additional empirical information for an important aspect of the Filipino political self which is

national identification.

Each of the four general value patterns related to national identification mentioned earlier

was conceptualized as a possible focus of sentimental or affective attachment to the national

community, around which value focus four sets of specific attitudes or orientations are

organized. These value patterns and orientations were construed as defining the parameters of

national identity at this point in Philippine history, taking into account the ethnic cultural

diversity of the population, and the modalities, patterns and impact of more than four centuries of

past and continuing foreign domination over our country.

The value-attitude set was in turn used as basis for the use and adaptation of a 35-item

rating scale used by Dr. Maria Luisa Doronila. Items in the scale, seven of which are

accompanied by visuals, are classified in two ways: (1) on the basis of the 16 attitudes under the

four general value patterns, and (2) along a four-point continuum from self, to kin, to ethnic, and

finally to national identification, following Van der Berghe‟s contention that “both ethnicity and

race (in the social sense) are extensions of the idiom of kinship and therefore ethnic and national

sentiments are to be understood in part as an extended form of kin selection.” This agrees with

Geertz‟ notion of an experienciable “we” feeling, mentioned earlier.

The summary discussion which follows the data presentation gives an analysis of two

dimensions of national identification among the youth, as follows: (1) the extent and focus of

attachment to the national community; and (2) the continuity of identification or lack of it, along

a continuum of self identification, identification with kin and kin-like relations, ethnic

identification, and finally national identification.

42

A. A General Definition of National Identity Formation

National identity formation as a specific aspect of political socialization is the process by

which “socializees are inducted into those available or existing meanings, ideas, practices,

attitudes, beliefs, norms and values which define one‟s attachment or sense of belonging to a

national community” (Doronila, 1989: 70). Such meaning according to Doronila constitute a

system of classification which permits an individual to distinguish his/herself and others like

him/her as belonging to a definite group whose characteristics, historical development, cultural

systems, national problems, interests and aspirations, are identifiably different from those of

others.

This system of meanings is a basis at once for inclusion and exclusion of particular

groups of people by means of a set or sets of socially constructed boundaries which define who

belongs to the national community and who does not.

In the Philippines, this system of meanings is particularized, according to Renato

Constantino, by four general conditions: (1) our colonial history of more than 400 years during

which majority of the ethnic groups were successfully designated into a predominantly Western

and Christian orientation, even while Muslim Filipino groups which had earlier embraced Islam

had successfully resisted Spanish and American colonial domination; (2) the absence of any

well-developed state system among the lowland groups before Spanish and American

colonization; (3) the diversity of ethnolinguistic groups who occupy definite geographical

territories within the national territory (with the exception at present of major metropolitan cities

with multi-ethnic populations), and (4) the pattern of economic, political and cultural relations

after independence characterized by closeness to and increasing dependence upon other

countries, particularly the U.S., and at present also including Japan, the Middle East and Western

Europe (Constantino, 1978).

The social construction of a Filipino identity at the present stage of national historical

development thus appears to revolve around two general problems: (1) at the individual level,

broadening one‟s loyalties and attachment to include not only those to one‟s self and kin but also

43

to the national community; and (2) at the level of ethnic groups, breaking down the boundaries

among them while at the same time strengthening those between the national community and

other nations in terms of national interests, aspirations and processes of decolonization.

The four general value patterns earlier identified, and the range of identification from self

to kin to ethnic group to nation required including all these considerations. Data gathered and

analyzed on these bases using the National Identity Scale for Students (NISS) are reported

below. A summary analysis is given after each section.

44

B. Four General Value Patterns Defining National Identification

ETHNOCENTRISM

The first value pattern, ethnocentrism, here defined as a conception of the importance of

one‟s national community and of the need to protect its interests in order to assure its continued

survival, includes four specific attitudes.

TABLE 4: RESPONSES TO FOUR QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #1:

PREFERENCE FOR ONE‟S NATIONALITY OVER ALL OTHERS

(N = 36, row totals)

RE S P O N S E S

Item

Nos.

Questions

Filipino

in 1st

place

Filipino

in 2nd

place

Filipino

in 3rd

place

Filipino

in 4th

place

Filipino

in 5th

place

Filipino

not mentioned

Group

Means/

Standard

Deviation

5

Ang sumusunod

ay lista ng mga

mamamayan ng

iba‟t-ibang

bansa. Sa iyong

palagay, ano ang

limang pipiliin o

magugustuhn

mo?

18

(50%)

5

(13.89%)

1

(2.78%)

3

(8.33%)

4

(11.11%)

5

(13.89%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

6.0663

15

Aling manyika

and pipiliin

mo?

9

(25%)

8

(22.22%)

11

(30.56%)

3

(8.33%)

4

(11.11%)

1

(2.78%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

3.89871

8

17

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

mga bata ang

kakaibiganin

mo o pipiliing

maging

kaibigan mo?

27

(75%)

2

(5.56%)

3

(8.33%)

1

(2.78%)

1

(2.78%)

2

(5.56%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

10.3150

4

21

Kung ikaw ay

bibigyan ng

pagkakataon,

alin sa mga

sumusunod na

bansa ang iyong

pipiliin na ikaw

ay maging

mamamayan o

citizen?

20

(55.56%)

7

(19.44%)

3

(8.33%)

5

(13.89%)

1

(2.78%)

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

7.32120

2

45

The patterns of responses in Table 4 show that in four different situations, all homely and

familiar to the students, the Filipino nationality consistently ranks first (with the exemption of

Item 15, “dolls from different countries”) in the order of choice when compared with such

nationalities as American, Japanese, Korean and Saudi Arabian. Although Items 17 (“children

with different nationalities or citizenship”) and 21 (“countries of residence”) have relatively high

variability compared to Items 5 (“nationalities or citizenship”, with the lowest variability, despite

that there were 10 options instead of the usual five) and 15 (“dolls from different countries”).

It is noticeable in Item 5 (“nationalities or citizenship”) where the range of choice is

wider, 5 responses or 13.89 percent of the respondents did not mention Filipino at all, indicating

that even the word Filipino does not appear to be the subject of controlled or selected attention

among the student respondents.

Despite such results, this finding has significant difference compared to the 1989 study

done by Doronila, wherein students ranked the Filipino nationality only second or third in their

order of choice and the similar observation in the Quibuyen‟s article. We see now that these

students would still prefer their nationalities despite our previous notions of Americans or

Japanese as being “superior”, this parallels that from the studies done by Sandoval, Mangahas,

and Guerrero.

The trend that is apparent from the standard deviations of responses to Items 17

(“children with different nationalities or citizenship”) and 21 (“countries of residence”) is that as

students proceed through the higher year levels, the variability of their responses increases. This

also suggests that with respect to the orientation, preference for one‟s nationality over all others,

it is possible that schooling makes a contribution in the perhaps „positive‟ direction. In addition,

it appears that the net effect of this contribution is towards greater uniformity of attitudes,

whether positive or negative.

Item 5 (“nationalities or citizenship”), on the other hand, shows a steady increase in the

mean but not in variability. Compared with the rest of the items under Orientation #1, Item 5

(“nationalities or citizenship”) differs markedly. It is possible that this item does not really

belong to the same content domain as Items 15 (“dolls from different countries”), 17 (“children

46

with different nationalities or citizenship”) and 21 (“countries of residence”); on the other hand,

it is also possible that the steady increase in the means may only be a function of maturation and

increase in the attention span of students, since the question requires the respondent to choose

only 5 out of 10 choices of nationalities.

TABLE 5: RESPONSES TO THREE QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #2:

GENERALIZED PRIDE IN ONE‟S COUNTRY OVER ALL OTHERS

(N=36)

R E S P O N S E S

Item

Nos.

Questions

Phils. in

1st place

Phils. in

2nd

place

Phils. in

3rd

place

Phils. in

4th

place

Phils. in

5th

place

No

Answer

Group

Means/

Standard Deviation

19

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

tao ang iyong

lubos na

hinahangaan?

20

(55.56%)

7

(19.44%)

3

(8.33%)

2

(5.56%)

4

(11.11%)

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

7.23878

20

Aling bansa

ang

pinakamahusay

na lugar para

tirahan o

manirahan?

8

(22.22%)

7

(19.44%)

7

(19.44%)

6

(16.67%)

8

(22.22%)

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

3.03315

22

Sa iyong

palagay, alin sa

mga

sumusunod na

labanan ang

pinakaalam

mo?

28

(77.78%)

8

(22.22%)

0

0

0

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

11.24278

Table 5 shows the distribution of group responses to three questions under Orientation

#2; generalized pride in one‟s country.

Orientation #2 is related to the first orientation, for which reason the patterns of responses

on these two are similar. Again the Philippines ranks first (Item 20 has a tie) as a country to be

admired, as the best place to live in, and as a country which has to be defended by its soldiers

(Item 22, “willingness to defend the country from outside threats”). Although ironically, it also

ranks the least on Item 20 (“the best place or country to live in”, which also has the lowest

variability of responses), most likely because of the poor economic conditions and the political

47

instability our country has. But nonetheless, the feeling of the respondents towards the

Philippines is positive, which could show the students‟ increasing awareness and pride in their

country.

All items in Orientation #2 have relative means of 6, although items 19 (“most admired

country”) and 22 (“willingness to defend the country from outside threats”) have greater

variability of responses (Item 22 as having the highest rate of variability) giving weight to the

claim that not at all times the school is a “homogenizer of attitudes” (Doronila, 1989: 74) in

either positive or negative direction.

Orientations 3 and 4 – support of nationalism prior to internationalism, and commitment

to the goal of development through national self-reliance – are each represented by one item.

TABLE 6: RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATIONS #3 AND 4:

SUPPORT OF NATIONALISM PRIOR TO INTERNATIONALISM, AND

COMMITMENT TO THE GOAL OF DEVELOPMENT THROUGH NATIONAL SELF-RELIANCE

(N=36)

Item

No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Means

and S.D.

26

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

gantimpala ang

magugustuhan

mong

tanggapin o

makamit?

Best Phil.

Leader in

1st place

10

(27.78%)

In 2nd

place

8

(22.22%)

In 3rd

place

5

(13.89%)

In 4th

place

6

(16.67%)

In 5th

place

7

(19.44%)

No

Answer

0

Mean = 6

S.D. =

3.405877

32

Sa iyong

palagay alin sa

mga

sumusunod ang

pinakamabigat

o maselang

suliranin o

problema

ngayon ng

ating bansa?

Multi-

nationals

3

(8.33%)

Lack of

capital

for industry

7

(19.44%)

Labor

strikes

8

(22.22%)

Few

skilled

Filipino workers

7

(19.44%)

Lazy

workers

11

(30.56%)

No

Answer

0

Mean = 6

S.D. =

3.898718

Item 26 (“most preferred award”) continues the trend of the Philippines occupying first,

second, and ironically, fifth place in the ranking of choices. Both Items 26 (“most preferred

48

award”) and 32 (“problems confronting the nation”) have relatively low variability, indicating

that students already have brief (but not necessarily concise) understanding of the problems

confronting the nation. But taking note the responses of the students on Item 32 (“problems

confronting the nation”), it was registered that it is more of the Filipinos being lazy workers,

labor strikes, lack of resources and capital for starting businesses that the respondents think are

the problems facing our economy, overwhelming the few respondents saying that the increase of

multinational corporations might be the problem. This shows that the students are probably

more concerned with the notion of being “good employees” rather than being „”employees who

are getting proper benefits”.

Summary

Student responses in the four orientations under the first value pattern clearly reveals the

presence of ethnocentric preference for the Filipino nationality, pride of country, support of

nationalism prior to internationalism, and commitment to decolonization and national self

reliance. Under whatever condition or situation, whether mundane (seatmates in a classroom,

dolls), heroic (wars, awards), or national in scope (most admired country or people, national

problems, preferred country), the students relatively placed the category Filipino in first and last

places.

More important, the actual number of respondents placing the “Filipino” option in first

place is evenly bigger, accounting for an average of 19 out of 36 respondents (51.39 percent).

Over 44 percent of the responses to all the questions focus on options other than Filipino,

particularly the United States. The very consistency of the responses appears to confirm the

existence of what many scholars have termed as colonial mentality which, in this context, refers

to an identification with and preference for other nationalities. Thus, in Item # 5 (“nationalities

or citizenship”) for example (Table 4), 13.89 percent did not even recall the word Filipino,

indicating that the term may not even been seized by some of the respondents as a label of

identification. Similarly, 44.44 percent of the respondents would rather choose (Item 21

“countries of residence”, Table 4) to be citizens of some other country than the Philippines.

49

Of all the items in the set of nine, the most dynamic manifestations of ethnocentrism are

readiness to defend the country from external threat (Item 22, “willingness to defend the country

from outside threats”, Table 5) and a correct analysis of where the country‟s national interest lies

(Item 32, “problems confronting the nation”, Table 6). Yet 22.22 percent of the respondents

imagined themselves fighting over other people‟s wars, while over 91 percent of them have no

understanding of the possible harmful effects on the economy of the massive presence of foreign

capital in the country.

Despite the latter, the general results are similar with the 1996 study by Sandoval,

Mangahas, and Guerrero, where they found out that the youth feels very proud to be Filipino,

easily declaring willingness to defend the country in case of war.

Boundary maintaining patterns conceptualized in this set as an ethnocentric attachment to

and preference for the country, its people and the interests of the national community appear to

be fairly strong. On the basis of the data, it is reasonable to say that the student respondents

already have a conception of what it means to be Filipino (although there are still some instances

that such respondents are identifying with the characteristics and interests of other nationalities,

particularly American).

Moreover, it appears from the standard deviations of the means across all the respondents

that no significant change in these orientations occurs over time and even with schooling.

Instead, the school appears to homogenize or makes more uniform these orientations, most of the

time in the positive direction.

50

VALUING CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL TRADITIONS

The second general value pattern, valuing cultural and historical traditions, focuses on

both the essentialist and epochalist modes of national identification, as previously defined by

Geertz. Four specific orientations under this pattern were sought to be investigated, with eight

questions focusing on the essentialist (cultural) mode, and four on the epochalist (historical)

mode.

TABLE 7: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #5:

VALUING SPECIAL QUALITIES OF THE PEOPLE

(N=36)

Item

No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean and

S.D.

8

Sinasabi ng

marami na ang

mga Pilipino

ay katutubong

tamad tulad ni

Juan Tamad.

Sumasang-

ayon ka ba?

Strongly Agree

4

(11.11%)

Agree

4

(11.11%)

Not Sure

7

(19.44%)

Disagree

10

(27.78%)

Strongly Disagree

11

(30.56%)

No Answer

0

Mean = 6

S.D. =

4.147288

28

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

pangungusap

ang

pinakamagalin

g na

naglalarawan

ng mga

Pilipino?

―May sariling

isip‖ in

1st place

2

(5.56%)

In 2nd

place

5

(13.89%)

In 3rd

place

8

(22.22%)

In 4th

place

10

(27.78%)

In 5th

place

11

(30.56%)

No Answer

0

Mean = 6

S.D. =

4.427189

The responses in Item 8 (“Filipinos are lazy”) show that over 30 percent of the students

believe that Filipinos are not lazy, although 11 percent of them say so. Item 28 (“characteristics

of being a Filipino”) displays neutrality of responses with respect to the only option in the set

which denotes independent-mindedness (“may sariling isip at bait”), with about 58 percent of

the respondents still opting for more popular labels like “marunong makisama” and “may utang

na loob”.

51

Item 28 (“characteristics of being a Filipino”), on the other hand, has comparatively low

range in variability which suggests general agreement on the option “may sariling isip at bait

ang Pilipino,” although as shown by the mean, it still ranks last in the set of options.

TABLE 8: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #6:

VALUING CHARACTERISTIC WAY OF LIFE

(N=36)

Item

No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean

and S.D.

1

Alin sa mga

prutas na ito

ang unang

pipiliin mo?

Apple noticed

first

13

(36.11%)

In 2nd

place

14

(38.89%)

In 3rd

place

5

(13.89%)

In 4th

place

3

(8.33%)

In 5th

place

0

No Answer

1

(2.78%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

6.0663

9

Sinasabi ng

maraming

manunulat na

tayong mga

Pilipino ay

hindi dapat

masyadong

maka-pamilya

upang umunlad

o umasenso ang

ating bansa.

Sumasang-ayon

ka ba?

Strongly Agree

3

(8.33%)

Agree

7

(19.44%)

Not Sure

5

(13.89%)

Disagree

9

(25%)

Strongly Disagree

12

(30.56%)

No Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

4.289522

25

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

pagkain ang

pinakabagay o

pinakamabuting

ihain sa isang

bisitang

dayuhan?

Filipino in 1

st

place

27

(75%)

In 2nd

place

5

(13.89%)

In 3rd

place

2

(5.56%)

In 4th

place

1

(2.78%)

In 5th

place

1

(2.78%)

No Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

10.43072

Items 1 (“fruits”) and 25 (“dishes from different countries”) are in the same generally

positive pattern of responses; Item 9 (“Filipinos being family-oriented”) looks skewed to the

right, most probably on account of the deeply held value of close kinship ties reported so often in

literature.

52

This affirms the statement made earlier that close family ties are deeply valued and

remain so over the years; in addition, variability in response increases as the year level increases,

an indication of the general agreement of the respondents on this value.

TABLE 9: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #7:

VALUING NATIONAL TRADITIONS

(N=36)

Item

No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean

and S.D.

4

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

makasaysayan

g pangyayari

ang alam mo?

Familiar with one

event

7

(19.44%)

2 events

6

(16.67%)

3 events

11

(30.56%)

4 events

3

(8.33%)

5 events

9

(25%)

0 events

0

Mean =

6

S.D. = 4

11

Naniniwala ang

ibang tao na

kung hindi

dumating sa

Pilipinas ang

mga dayuhan,

ang ating bansa

ay nanatiling

huli o napag-

iwanan ng

sibilisasyon.

Sumasang-ayon

ka ba?

Strongly Agree

8

(22.22%)

Agree

9

(25%)

Not Sure

8

(22.22%)

Disagree

6

(16.67%)

Strongly Disagree

5

(13.89%)

No Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

3.286335

30

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

makasaysayang

pangyayari ang

dapat na

ipagmalaki ng

mga Pilipino?

Phil.

Revolution

in 1st place

15

(41.67%)

In 2nd

place

13

(36.11%)

In 3rd

place

4

(11.11%)

In 4th

place

2

(5.56%)

In 5th

place

1

(2.78%)

No

Answer

1

(2.78

%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

6.324555

31

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

makasaysayang

pangyayari ang

dapat na

ipagmalaki ng

mga Pilipino?

Pugad Lawin in

1st place

19

(52.78%)

In 2nd

place

6

(16.67%)

In 3rd

place

1

(2.78%)

In 4th

place

7

(19.44%)

In 5th

place

3

(8.33%)

No Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

6.928203

53

Table 9 (above) shows the distribution of responses on the questions under Orientation

#7: Valuing national traditions.

All items under Orientation # 7 require prior knowledge of certain historical events; even

the more generalized question in Item 11 (“the coming of foreigners”) requires at least a passing

acquaintance with Philippine colonial history. The lack of knowledge of our national history by

the respondents is reflected in the manner of “unfamiliar” responses: on Item 4 (“Philippine

historical event”), seven responses or 19.44 percent of respondents are only familiar with one

Philippine historical event, while 8 responses or 22.22 percent of respondents are not sure if our

civilization would progress with or without the coming of foreign colonialists. On the positive

note, the Cry of Pugad Lawin (with 19 or a 52.78 percent positive response) is an event the

students are proud of, as well as the Philippine Revolution (with over 41 percent response,

highest among all responses) which is one of the glorious periods in the history of Filipino

nationalism. The pattern of responses to these questions suggests that these historical events

have been given focus by the students in their Social Studies and History class discussions and

textbooks. Regular observation in the official calendar of holidays like the commemoration of

Pugad Lawin can also be a possible consideration.

Item 11 (“the coming of foreigners”) which is a blanket statement on the goodness of

foreigners to the country and its people gets a resounding 47.22 percent (17) vote from the

respondents, showing that the respondents who have been in school longer actually believe that

the coming of the foreigners to this country in the past and up to the present is an unmitigated

blessing. This also indicates that our colonial past is not completely “taken out of the picture”

and that the ill effects of present neo-colonial domination of the Philippines are being glossed

over. Quibuyen‟s study of the Japanese and the American legacies in relation to our national

consciousness supports this statement.

54

Table 10 below shows the distribution of responses for Orientation # 8: valuing cultural

products.

TABLE 10: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #8:

VALUING CULTURAL PRODUCTS

(N=36)

Item No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean and S.D.

2

Alin sa mga

kwentong ito

ang

magugustuhan

mong

pakinggan?

Malakas

at Maganda

in 1st

place

3

(8.33%)

In 2nd

place

7

(19.44%)

In 3rd

place

2

(5.56%)

In 4th

place

10

(27.78%)

In 5th

place

14

(38.89%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.329165

Item No.

Question About Phil. life,

in Filipino

About Phil. life,

in English

About other

countries in

Filipino

Any program

About other

countries, in English

No Answer

Mean and S.D.

14

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

programa sa

telebisyon ang

pipiliin mong

panoorin?

8

(22.22%)

3

(8.33%)

1

(2.78%)

14

(38.89%)

10

(27.78%)

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.549775

23

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

klase ng

pelikula ang

iyong

panonoorin?

11

(30.56%)

5

(13.89%)

7

(19.44%)

0

13

(36.11%)

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.440588

There are significant differences in student responses to Items 14 (“preferred TV

programs) and 23 (“preferred movies”) which are related questions. Perhaps the larger

preference to any TV program (38.89 percent) than for any English film about other countries (at

36.11 percent) may be a function of the wider array of choice for both local and foreign movies.

55

Three types of mass media are targeted by these three related questions: books, TV and

movies. In the case of books and movies (Items 2 “fairy tales” and 23, “preferred movies”),

fairly large decreases are noted; for TV (Item 14, “preferred TV programs), a fairly large

increase is noted. These figures suggest that as these students mature, they would more likely to

prefer foreign books and movies rather than local ones; however, their preference for TV

programs, whether about the Philippine life in Filipino or not, increases as they grow older.

One possible explanation for this is the extent of choice may be a determinant of the

degree of exposure of the youth to the three types of mass media. Of the three types, television

offers a wide variety of choices, from sitcoms to TV series, reality shows, even movies and pay-

per-views, and the ease of access to it makes it the preferable choice for the respondents.

Movies offer the next wider choice and books offer the widest. Using the same

explanatory variable, Item 2 (“fairy tales”) should have the largest difference but it does not

have; instead it is in Item 23 (“preferred movies”) where the largest difference is noted. It has

been pointed out, however, that in the Philippines, book reading for leisure and entertainment is

not well-established as movie-going mostly because of the Filipinos‟ purchasing power (we tend

to spend more on cinemas rather than on purchasing books, which are sometimes more

expensive than movie tickets). If this is correct, then exposure to foreign books is not as large as

exposure to foreign films. This may be the reason why foreign books, despite the emergence of

titles like Harry Potter and others, still do not exert significant influence on the youth as movies

do.

Summary

What cultural characteristics have been pinpointed by the respondents as identifiably

Filipino? Two of these stand out in the set of eight items: (1) the Filipino is not as lazy, contrary

to all the stories about Juan Tamad in Philippine folk literature; (2) the Filipinos have very close

family ties which respondents say should be preserved since they are not a hindrance to progress.

This is additional confirmation that Filipinos are family-oriented and person-oriented.

56

In all the five other items, however, the trend towards neutrality or lack of attachment to

the national community continues, with the respondents again consistently placing the “Filipino”

option in third or second place.

Filipinos are not viewed as possessing independence of mind and spirit (Item 28,

“characteristics of being a Filipino”, Table 7), with respondents preferring such other labels as

mahusay makisama (easy to get along with), may utang na loob (capacity to be grateful),

marunong makiramdam (sensitive), or madaling mapahiya (easily embarrassed). The valued

fruit is still the apple, no doubt due to the ubiquitous presence of this fruit in reading primers,

advertisements and spelling tests (A is for apple; even the Biblical forbidden fruit is an apple).

Preferred fairy tales and movies by the students are those in English, though any TV program

would suit their choice.

Respondents fairly identify with or value our country‟s historical traditions primarily

because of the continuing efforts of our social and historical institutions to educate the youth

about our past. Despite this, over 19 percent of the respondents have little familiarity with any of

the five significant historical events, and 3 (or 8.33 percent) respondents are more or less

unfamiliar of wars participated in by Filipino soldiers.

The “sense of common history or a memory of common sufferings” which Ernest Renan

pointed out as a defining characteristic of a nation (as cited in Doronila, 1989: 82) is somehow

present, at least, within these respondents‟ consciousness. As the data show, despite positive

attitudes of the students on being “Filipino”, there is still a significant number of respondents (17

or 47.22 percent) that view the coming of foreigners or colonizers with gratitude because “they

have helped us and continue to help us a lot”. This is also supported by Quibuyen‟s findings.

On the basis of all the above, it seems fair to say that as in the first value pattern,

boundary maintenance is relatively stable, for cultural traits (except the one previously

mentioned) and national history has been grasped by the respondents as something that sets them

apart from other nationalities.

57

LOYALTY TO THE NATIONAL COMMUNITY BEYOND ETHNIC LOYALTIES

The formation of a national identity, as it was pointed out earlier, may also be understood

in part as a process by which individuals become aware of boundaries, by at once including those

like him in the national community, while at the same time excluding those unlike him from that

same community. The sets of questions under the first two value patterns wanted to determine

whether or not respondents are able to draw boundaries which would tend to exclude other

nationalities from their definition of the national community.

Given the pluralistic ethnic composition of the Philippine population with a distinct

geographical distribution, it was also necessary to determine whether or not the respondents are

able to transcend ethnic boundaries to include other Philippine ethnic groups in their conception

of the national community. The value pattern, valuing national loyalties beyond ethnic

boundaries, addresses such a question.

The literature on Philippine ethnic groups reports that ethnic boundaries have not yet

been transcended, for which reason it is also reported that Philippine society remains primarily

„familistic‟ and secondarily regionalistic in orientation (Doronila, 1989: 83).

Five orientations sought to determine whether or not such ethnic boundaries are in fact

being transcended by respondents who live in a multi-ethnic urban community, such as here in

Baguio. These orientations are intended to be sequential by nature: it is defining successive

stages towards the integration of the national community. Table 11 sums up the responses on the

first level of possible integration of ethnic groups into a national community.

58

TABLE 11: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #9:

RECOGNITION OF THE MEMBERSHIP OF OTHER ETHNIC GROUPS

IN THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL COMMUNITY

(N=36)

Item No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean and

S.D.

3

Ang

sumusunod ay

lista ng ilan sa

mga grupo ng

tao sa

Pilipinas. Alin

sa mga ito ang

iyong kilala?

5 correctly identified

2

(5.56%)

4 identified

6

(16.67%)

3 identified

3

(8.33%)

2 identified

17

(47.22%)

1 identified

7

(19.44%)

Don’t know

1

(2.78

%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.86515

7

Ang

sumusunod ay

lista ng

limang grupo

ng tao sa

Pilipinas. Sa

iyong

palagay, alin

dito ang tunay

na mga

Pilipino?

chose Bontoc

10

(27.78%)

chose Kapampa-

ngan

2

(5.56%)

chose Tagalog

19

(52.78%)

chose Manobo

2

(5.56%)

chose Negrito

3

(8.33%)

No answ

er

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.86515

The two questions in Table 25 are exactly the same, only the options differ. Ten ethnic

groups are included, three of them majority groups. For Item 3 (“Philippine ethnic groups”),

only 5.56 percent correctly identified all five groups as Filipinos. Since the geographical

distribution of Philippine ethnic groups and the absence of a truly common market prevents

direct interaction among a majority of the Philippine population, the amount and nature of

information about these groups become crucial to national identity formation. The low

percentages reported above are indications of the lack of exposure of students to these groups in

classroom discussions or through the mass media. Overall, there is still no substantial

recognition by the respondents of the membership of many other ethnic groups within the

national community.

59

TABLE 12: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER ORIENTATION #10:

PERSONAL ACCEPTANCE OF INDIVIDUALS WHO BELONG TO OTHER ETHNIC GROUPS

IN THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL COMMUNITY

(N=36)

Item No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean and S.D.

12

Kung

papipiliin ka

ng magiging

textmate/

chatmate,

alin sa mga

sumusunod

ang iyong

pipiliin?

Mindanaoan

in 1st place

2

(5.56%)

In 2nd

place

2

(5.56%)

In 3rd

place

5

(13.89%)

In 4th

place

10

(27.78%)

In 5th

place

14

(38.89%)

No

Answer

3

(8.33%

)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

4.939636

13

Papayagan

mo ba ang

isang

Muslim na

Pilipino na

tumira o

kumain sa

inyong

bahay?

Strongly

Agree

12

(33.33%)

Agree

12

(33.33%)

Not Sure

6

(16.67%)

Disagree

5

(13.89%)

Strongly

Disagree

1

(2.78%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.176872

18

Alin sa mga

sumusunod

na

binata/dalaga

ang maluwag

o malugod

mong

tatanggapin

para maging

asawa mo?

Filipino in

1st place

23

(63.89%)

In 2nd

place

4

(11.11%)

In 3rd

place

4

(11.11%)

In 4th

place

2

(5.56%)

In 5th

place

3

(8.33%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

8.461678

The three items in Table 12 probe various aspects of social distance. The responses show

that a Filipino bride or groom is the overwhelming first choice with over 63 percent. This

pattern is in contrast to Item 12 (“preferred textmate/chatmate”), where a Mindanaoan is tied up

with another nationality in the last choice. Responses to Item 13 (“acceptance of a Muslim

visitor”) however show that while some affirmative responses appear to be timid (“agree”

response), there is a combined total of 24 or 66.66 percent who will accept a Muslim Filipino

house guest. Perhaps this is a function of the presence of some Muslim Filipino families already

residing here in the city.

60

The negative findings above are in parallel with previous researches, such as Rodolfo

Bulatao‟s finding (as cited in Doronila, 1989: 83) that older people were found to be more

ethnocentric than younger people is confirmed. In addition, it appears from the date that

education has little or no considerable effect on personal acceptance of individuals, although it is

necessary to investigate, in this case, the relevant educational content specific to this aspect of

ethnic relations.

TABLE 13: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER

ORIENTATION #11, 12 AND 13:

RECOGNITION OF CULTURAL AFFINITIES AMONG PHILIPPINE ETHNIC GROUPS, ACCEPTANCE

OF THE MEMBERSHIP OF THESE GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL COMMUNITY AND

COMMITMENT TO THE IDEA OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION OF THESE ETHNIC GROUPS

(N=36)

Item No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean and S.D.

6

Ang

sumusunod ay

lista ng limang

grupo ng tao sa

Pilipinas. Sa

iyong palagay,

alin sa mga ito

ang

pinakakatulad

o pinakapareho

sa iyong

pamilya?

chose

Yakan

0

chose

Bisaya

6

(16.67%)

chose

Maranao

3

(8.33%)

chose

Negrito

0

chose

Tagalog

27

(75%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

10.56409

10

Naniniwala

ang ibang

Pilipino na

iyon lamang

mga Kristiyano

ang dapat na

tawaging

Pilipino.

Ganito rin ba

ang paniwala

mo?

Strongly

Agree

1

(2.78%)

Agree

1

(2.78%)

Not Sure

0

Disagree

10

(27.78%)

Strongly

Disagree

24

(66.67%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

5.176872

24

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

mga balita ang

gustong

mapakinggan o

marinig ng

mga Pilipino?

Mindanao

in 1st

place

14

(38.89%)

In 2nd

place

9

(25%)

In 3rd

place

6

(16.67%)

In 4th

place

5

(13.89%)

In 5th

place

2

(5.56%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

8.461678

61

Orientations 11, 12, and 13 are represented by only one question each. The distribution of

responses to these questions is given in Table 13 (above).

The distribution of responses in the above table again suggests the lack of information of

students on other Philippine ethnic groups such as the Yakan and Negrito (on Item 6, where the

Tagalog group has an enormous lead of 75%) and their increasing understanding of the

distinction between secular/political and religious affiliations (Item 10, “Christians as the only

Filipinos”). Item 24 (“preferred news”) on the other hand, displays an emerging concern among

the students over the political and economic crises that are happening in Mindanao.

These results further affirm Bulatao‟s finding that ethnocentrism increases with age and

possibly with lack of information; Item 10 (“Christians as the only Filipinos”) shows a marked

increase in understanding of distinctions between political and religious affiliations and a

theoretical acceptance of the membership of various non-Christian ethnic groups in the political

community. Item 24 (“preferred news”) indicates an increase in understanding of the

implications of the Mindanao conflict to national integration.

Summary

The data results under the value pattern loyalty to the national community beyond ethnic

loyalties indicate that ethnic loyalties have not been transcended to include loyalty and

attachment to the national community. This is in accord with previous observations of the

regionalistic orientation of the Philippine society and the increase with age of ethnic prejudices.

Yet, contrary to popular belief, these prejudices do not appear to be related to religious

differences since more than 94 percent of the respondents are able to distinguish between

religious and political affiliations, in the sense of belonging to a national community. In

addition, at the personal level, over 66 percent of the respondents would have no objections on

having a Muslim Filipino as a house guest.

Instead, what appears to be two general factors that contradict the loosening of

boundaries between Philippine ethnic groups are: (1) simple ignorance of the cultural affinities

62

among Philippine ethnic groups, a sign that the principle of unity and cultural diversity is not

being observed in classroom discussions; and (2) the stronger attraction of non-Filipino groups

as shown in Items 12 and 18 (“preferred textmate/chatmate” and “preferred spouse” respectively,

Table 12) where only 38.89 percent of respondents chose a Mindanaoan as a favored textmate or

chatmate. Responses to these two social distance scale items suggest respondents‟ closeness to,

and perhaps identification with foreigners, especially Americans.

In terms of boundary maintenance, it seems that respondents have no clear definitions of

who will be excluded from or included in the national community. Perhaps it would not be too

far-fetched to point out that colonial divide-and-rule tactics of pitting Philippine ethnic groups

against others appear to have been so successful that even now ethnic boundaries remain strong,

thus preventing in part the forging of national unity.

63

COMMITMENT TO THE ROLE REQUIREMENTS

OF CITIZENSHIP

Three orientations were identified as defining the role requirements of citizenship. These

are: (1) pride in national symbols, in this case the flag (Item 16); (2) deriving personal

identification from identification with the nation, in this case, identification with various Filipino

role models (Items 33, 34, and 35); (3) commitment to citizenship duties, in this case, attendance

at flag ceremonies and active participation solving national problems (Items 27 and 29).

TABLE 14: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS UNDER

ORIENTATION #14, 15 AND 16:

PRIDE IN NATIONAL SYMBOLS, DERIVING PERSONAL IDENTITY FROM

IDENTIFICATION WITH THE NATION AND COMMITMENT TO DUTIES OF CITIZENSHIP

(N=36)

Item

No.

Question

R E S P O N S E S

Mean

and S.D.

16

Aling bandila

ang pipiliin

mo? Ayusin

ang mga ito

ayon sa pili

mo.

Phil. Flag

in 1st place

27

(75%)

In 2nd

place

4

(11.11%)

In 3rd

place

3

(8.33%)

In 4th

place

1

(2.78%)

In 5th

place

1

(2.78%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

10.3923

33

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

bida sa

pelikula ang

pipiliin mo na

tularan?

Katipunero

in 1st place

8

(22.22%)

In 2nd

place

2

(5.56%)

In 3rd

place

7

(19.44%)

In 4th

place

10

(27.78%)

In 5th

place

9

(25%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

4.049691

34

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

mga dakilang

lalaki ang

iyong gustong

tularan?

Mabini in 1

st place

22

(61.11%)

In 2nd

place

3

(8.33%)

In 3rd

place

9

(25%)

In 4th

place

1

(2.78%)

In 5th

place

1

(2.78%)

No Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

8.485281

35

Halimbawang

tanungin ka ng

isang dayuhan

nito: “Sino

ka?” Alin sa

mga

sumusunod na

sagot ang

ibibigay o

sasabihin mo?

―I am a

Filipino‖ in 1

st place

26

(72.22%)

In 2nd

place

4

(11.11%)

In 3rd

place

5

(13.89%)

In 4th

place

1

(2.78%)

In 5th

place

0

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

10.10998

64

27

Alin sa mga

sumusunod ang

gagawin mo

kung ang iba

mong kaklase

ay ayaw

sumama o

sumali sa “flag

ceremony” sa

eskwela?

5 (highest)

C

23

(63.89%)

4

B

0

3

A

10

(27.78%)

2

E

2

(5.56%)

1 (lowest)

D

1

(2.78%)

No

Answer

0

Mean =

6

S.D. =

9.143304

29

Alin sa mga

sumusunod na

mga

pangungusap

ang

naglalarawan

ng isang

mabuti o

magaling na

mamamayan?

5 (highest)

E

19

(52.78%)

4

D

1

(2.78%)

3

C

2

(5.56%)

2

B

5

(13.89%)

1

A

2

(5.56%)

No

Answer

7

(19.44%)

Mean =

6

S.D. =

6.752777

*Item # 27

A= “Pababayaan ko na lang sila.”

B= “Isusumbong ko sila sa aming titser.”

C= “Kakausapin ko silang mabuti upang sumali sa

flag ceremony.”

D= “Hindi na rin ako sasali sa flag ceremony.”

E= “Sasabihin ko sa kanila na magtago sila para

hindi makita ng aming titser.”

* Item # 29

A= Ang mabuting mamamayan ay nagmamahal ng

kanyang mga magulang.

B= Ang mabuting mamamayan ay gumagalang sa

kanyang bandila.

C= Ang mabuting mamamayan ay masunurin sa

batas.

D= Ang mabuting mamamayan ay nakaaalam ng

nangyayari sa bansa lalo na sa kanyang

barangay.

E= Ang mabuting mamamayan ay tumutulong

lumutas ng mga suliranin ng kanyang bansa lalo

na ng

kanyang barangay.

Table 14 above summarizes the responses on all three orientations.

Item 16 (“preferred national flag”) shows that a primary symbol as the flag still does

evoke a strong emotional response. Unlike with the results on Doronila‟s research where the

children associated poorly with the Philippine flag (Doronila, 1989: 88), 27 students or 75

percent of the responses say that the Philippine flag is their first preference.

22 or 61.11 percent of the respondents thought that Mabini, also associated with the

Philippine Revolution, is the preferred role model for them, instead of such non-Filipinos as

Kennedy or MacArthur.

65

Items 33 (“preferred movie protagonist”) and 35 (“Who are you?” question) sought to

determine whether or not respondents would choose Filipinos as role models, role-modeling as

being a form of identification. In Item 33 (“preferred movie protagonist”), only 8 or 22.22

percent of the respondents chose a Katipunero as their best role model, preferring instead a

Japanese samurai (with 14 responses or 38.89 percent as the highest choice), Chinese kung fu

warrior (6 or 16.67 percent as the second most preferred choice) or an American cowboy (least

choice and but as second choice at 13.89 percent). This finding gives contradiction to the

students‟ preference of the significance of the Philippine Revolution as shown in a previously

reported item (Item 30 “historical event to be proud of”, Table 9) where 15 or 41.67 percent

thought that the Philippine Revolution is a war of which we should be most proud.

Item 35 (“Who are you?” question) which asked a direct question of identification had 26

or 72.22 percent of the respondents saying that they would describe themselves to a foreigner as

“Filipinos.” Again, this is response is related to an earlier finding (Item 5 “nationalities or

citizenship”, Table 4) where 18 or 50 percent of the responses chose the option “Filipino” in the

set of nationalities recalled.

Items 27 (“flag ceremony participation”) and 29 (“characteristics of a good citizen”) are

primarily addressed to questions of participation in civic affairs. 23 or 63.89 percent of the

respondents thought it was their duty to convince their classmates to attend the flag ceremony.

In Item 29 (“characteristics of a good citizen”), 19 or 52.78 percent thought that their most

important civic duty is to help solve national problems even in a small way (participant

citizenship), followed by 19.44 percent of the respondents which had nothing to say about the

question.

All items except Item 33 (“preferred movie protagonist”) show appreciable results

suggesting that students learn to use the identity statement “I am Filipino” more often and make

distinctions among the different forms of civic duties. Despite that, the result in Item 33

(“preferred movie protagonist”) indicates that as respondents mature and goes through the higher

years, their appreciation for the Katipunero as role model decreases.

66

Summary

Civic involvement, if interpreted as a positive manifestation of national identification,

could be an indication of personal involvement with the national community, or an identification

of national problems, interests and aspirations as one‟s own.

In our previous discussion, civic nationalism defines the nation as an association of

people with equal and shared political rights, and allegiance to similar political procedures

(Brown, 2000). According to the principles of civic nationalism, the nation is not based on

common ethnic ancestry but is a political entity, whose core is not ethnicity. This civic concept

of nationalism is demonstrated by Ernest Renan where he defined the nation as a

"daily plebiscite dependent on the will of its people to continue living together" (as cited in

Brown, 2000).

Such an involvement with the national community appears to have been internalized by

the respondents. In light of the generally „positive‟ responses on the three other value patterns

already presented and analyzed, this finding for the fourth value pattern perhaps gives light and

hope to our perceptions about us as Filipinos.

67

CONCLUSION

The process of national identity formation, as mentioned earlier, may also be viewed as

the progressive broadening of an individual‟s attachments or loyalties to include his/her national

community. This process has been pointed out by Van der Berghe as analogous to an extended

form of kin selection.

On the bases of self-identification, there are five general categories, namely: personal

qualities of Filipinos, language preference, food preferences, role models, and various modes of

self identification. The survey suggests a favorable high level of focus in the self-identification

of students. This is clearly shown in two cases, (1) the three items directly dealing with self

identification as Filipino; and (2) the two items on role models are in contrast with each other,

indicating that students do not usually choose Filipinos as role models.

Similarly, students rate the industry of the Filipinos, Filipino TV programs and food

preferences for meals positively, but not Filipino‟s mind and spirit, Filipino movies and

Philippine fruits. This last item may be accounted for by the pervasiveness and ever-presence of

the apple in the Filipino consciousness. The data on language preferences support the widely

held contention that frequent exposure to the language will increase love and appreciation for it.

On the basis of the above findings, it is probably fair to say that while respondents exhibit

a positive personal preference for things Filipino; these preferences have not yet been lifted to a

level of consciousness that would make the manifestation of such personal preferences as

expressive of their identity as Filipino, or as charters of national identity.

In discussing students’ kinship identification, the data presented confirms the widely-held

observation that close kinship ties are one of the most important and distinctively Filipino

interpersonal characteristics. Specifically, the item on family ties has the highest positive

response, while the responses on the three social-distance questions appear to be based on a

definition of psychological space which includes seatmates, affinity relations and

textmates/chatmates, in that order.

68

This finding may be an important consideration in the planning of some systematic effort

to socialize young Filipinos into greater attachment to the nation indicating that the home (and

therefore parents) is a good place to begin with and that the close kinship ties among Filipinos

should be viewed not as a constraint to but as a resource in national development processes,

including national identity formation.

On the basis of the student‟s identification with other Philippine ethnic groups, it is noted

that religious differences, personal acceptance of individuals from other ethnic groups and

commitment to the idea of national integration (specifically, an end to the Mindanao conflict)

have suggested, from the data, that these three areas, especially religion, do not appear to be

especially problematic areas in effecting national unity among the ethnic groups. Instead, it

appears that ignorance or lack of information on the cultural affinities of ethnic groups and on

their membership in the national community is the most problematic area. The rather high

degree of variation in the responses of students supports the above statement. Systematic efforts

of scholars and greater focus and contribution to the education sector are therefore called for in

this area.

Students’ identifications have been broadened to include identification with the national

community. The items are classified under five general categories, as follows: (1) national

symbols, (2) country preferences, (3) service to the country, (4) colonial domination and (5)

historical experiences.

Specifically, the flag as a national symbol is highly appreciated, but this is not the case

with the Malakas at Maganda myth which was foisted on the population during the Martial Law

period as a symbol of certain benign authoritarianism. Likewise, the Philippines is the most

appreciated as a good country to live in, despite the economic and political conflicts that our

society is dealing with. Service to the country, preferring a national over an international award,

participation in war for the defense of the nation, and performance of citizenship duties are

moderately appreciated.

69

However when it comes to perceptions of colonial domination and specific awareness

and understanding of the country‟s history, the coefficients of variation are large in

multinationals and specific historical experiences, indicating a lack of common understanding

and perspectives about these significant economic and historical features of our national life.

These points are present to the fact of neocolonial domination and the historical experiences of

the Filipino nation, precisely the points brought forth by Ernest Renan as the basis of the forging

of a nation.

With reference to Geertz‟s typology of the forms of nationalist ideologizing (the

essentialist and the epochalist), it would seem that while the data show that essentialist aspects of

national identification such as national symbols, a generalized love for country and appreciation

of its various cultural aspects may be useful starting points of identification, the more dynamic

epochalist aspects remain ill-understood and unappreciated by students both at home and in

school.

It is sufficient to say that at this point that the specific content of national identity is

closely-related at any given point to the character of the nation itself. The refusal of the majority

of the population and especially of dominant groups within the society to confront questions

within the society to confront questions of neo-colonial domination and to gain lessons from the

country‟s historical experiences will most certainly be reflected in the nature and content of

national identity formation especially through the schools. In other words, the colonial and

ethnically fragmented character of the nation finds support and is reflected in the consciousness

of its members, among others. The data and analysis given above show that this is indeed the

case.

70

RECOMMENDATIONS

The research conducted was only limited to high school students, particularly on third

year high students, with only one section of 36 students in the Baguio City National High School

was chosen to answer the given questionnaires of the National Identity Scale. For that reason,

we recommend for other studies on national identity that will be conducted in the future to have

a bigger sample size, in order to come up with much more reliable findings. The researchers also

suggest that such researches should be conducted on other schools like private schools, and to

also include out-of-school youth, for these would give a more comprehensive outcome. It is

recommended that this study should be applied on the national level: that is, a nation-wide

comprehensive study on this aspect should be considered, delving into other aspects of identity

and identity formation, such as the Nature-Nurture debate and so on.

National identity formation also involves the role of educational institutions in the

Philippines to instill on the minds of the Filipino youth the notion of Filipino identity and

nationalism. In line with this, the researchers insist on the Department of Education and the

Philippine Commission on Higher Education to assess and re-evaluate the current educational

curricula being implemented in all school levels, and enact necessary steps to further uplift the

consciousness of all students towards the achievement of a true national identity.

The theories, lessons and knowledge that we have acquired from the curriculum of Social

Sciences taught us that the concepts and beliefs we have known to be true are highly attached

with values by the society. There is no such thing as „value-neutral‟ and hence, we cannot detach

ourselves from the things, phenomena and people that we wish to study. Consequently, choosing

to study the issue of Filipino identity and nationalism must not only be aimed to contribute to the

wide pool of academic researches. Rather, our goal as social scientists working with nationalist

studies is to help and promote the advancement of Filipino identity beyond the usual stereotypes,

and also to contribute in identifying who Filipinos really are and, in turn, raise the level of honor

of Filipinos to a higher notch.

71

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United States and the Philippines [book], in The Colonial Legacy in the Philippines [MP3

format]. Retrieved March 7, 2010, from

http://www.chicagopublicradio.org/content.aspx?audioID=37498

75

APPENDIX

FIGURES

76

Figure 4. CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

77

Figure 5A. SURVEY VISUALS

78

Figure 5B. SURVEY VISUALS

79

Figure 6. N.I.S. RATING SCALE ADMINISTRATION

80

APPENDIX

NATIONAL IDENTITY SCALE

SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE

81

NATIONAL IDENTITY SCALE

BILANG #: _________ Petsa: _________________

Pangalan: ___________________________________________

Paaralan: ___________________________________________

Taon at Seksyon: _____________________________________

Adviser: ____________________________________________

Address: ____________________________________________

Bilang ng Taon ng Pag-aaral sa Hayskul: __________________

Organisasyon/Club na Kinabibilangan: ____________________

Pangalan ng Ama: ____________________________________ Trabaho: _________________

Pangalan ng Ina: _____________________________________ Trabaho: _________________

Bilang ng mga bata sa pamilya (kabilang ka): ______________

Bilang ng mga nakatira sa inyong pamamahay: _____________

Ang lahat ng mga nakasaad sa taas ay tama at aking pinatotohanan.

__________________________________________ PIRMA NG ESTUDYANTE

82

MAKINIG LAMANG PO SA MGA INSTRUKSYON NA IBIBIGAY NG MGA FACILITATOR.

1. Alin sa mga prutas na ito ang unang pipiliin mo? A. mansanas B. pinya C. saging

D. mangga E. kasuy

1 2 3 4 5

2. Alin sa mga kwentong ito ang magugustuhan mong pakinggan?

A. Ang kwento tungkol kay Malakas at Maganda B. Ang kwento tungkol kay Frog Prince C. Ang kwento tungkol kay Hanzel at Gretel D. Ang kwento tungkol kay Cinderella E. Ang kwento tungkol kay Alladin at ang Mahiwagang Ilawan

1 2 3 4 5

3. Ang sumusunod ay lista ng ilan sa mga grupo ng tao sa Pilipinas. Alin sa mga ito ang iyong kilala? (TUMINGIN LAMANG PO SA MGA LARAWAN SA HARAPAN)

___ A. Maranao ___ B. Tagalog ___ C. Tingguian

___ D. Tausug ___ E. Ilocano

4. Alin sa mga sumusunod na makasaysayang pangyayari ang alam mo?

___ A. Ang Pagdating ni MacArthur sa Leyte

___ B. Ang Labanan sa Manila Bay ___ C. Pagkatalo sa Bataan

___ D. Ang Unang Sigaw sa Pugad Lawin

___ E. Ang Pagsuko ng Maynila

83

5. Ang sumusunod ay lista ng mga mamamayan ng iba’t-ibang bansa. Sa iyong palagay, ano ang limang pipiliin o magugustuhan mo? Pakiayos ang limang ito ayon sa pagpili o gusto mo. A. Intsik B. Pranses C. Ingles D. Amerikano

E. Hapon F. Pilipino G. Saudi Arabian H. Koreano

I. Indonesian J. Aleman

1 2 3 4 5

6. Ang sumusunod ay lista ng limang grupo ng tao sa Pilipinas. Sa iyong palagay, alin sa mga ito ang pinakakatulad o pinakapareho sa iyong pamilya? (TUMINGIN LAMANG PO SA MGA LARAWAN SA HARAPAN) A. Yakan (Basilan) B. Bisaya

C. Maranao D. Negrito

E. Tagalog

1 2 3 4 5

7. Ang sumusunod ay lista ng limang grupo ng tao sa Pilipinas. Sa iyong palagay, alin dito ang tunay na mga Pilipino? (TUMINGIN LAMANG PO SA MGA LARAWAN SA HARAPAN) A. Bontoc B. Kapampangan

C. Tagalog D. Manobo

E. Negrito

1 2 3 4 5

8. Sinasabi ng marami na ang mga Pilipino ay katutubong tamad tulad ni Juan Tamad. Sumasang-ayon ka ba? Piliin ang isa lamang sa mga sumusunod na kasagutan. ___A. Lubos akong sumasang-ayon na karamihan sa Pilipino ay tamad ___B. Sumasang-ayon ako. ___C. Hindi ako sigurado sa aking sagot. ___D. Hindi ako sumasang-ayon. ___E. Lubos akong hindi sumasang-ayon. Karamihan ng Pilipino ay masisipag.

84

9. Sinasabi ng maraming manunulat na tayong mga Pilipino ay hindi dapat masyadong maka-pamilya upang umunlad o umasenso ang ating bansa. Sumasang-ayon ka ba? Piliin ang isang sagot lamang sa mga sumusunod: ___A. Lubos akong sumasang-ayon. Hindi tayo dapat na lubos na maka-pamilya para

tayo ay umunlad o umasenso. ___B. Sumasang-ayon ako. ___C. Hindi ako sigurado sa aking sagot. ___D. Hindi ako sumasang-ayon. ___E. Lubos ang aking hindi pagsang-ayon. Ang ating pagka-pamilya ay walang

kinalaman sa ating hindi pag-unlad o pag-asenso.

10. Naniniwala ang ibang Pilipino na iyon lamang mga Kristiyano ang dapat na tawaging Pilipino. Ganito rin ba ang paniwala mo? Piliin ang isang sagot lamang. ___A. Lubos ang paniwala ko na ang mga Kristiyano lamang ang dapat na tawaging

Pilipino. ___B. Naniniwala ako. ___C. Hindi ako sigurado. ___D. Hindi ako naniniwala. ___E. Lubos akong hindi naniniwala. Alam ko na mayroong ding mga Pilipino na hindi

Kristiyano.

11. Naniniwala ang ibang tao na kung hindi dumating sa Pilipinas ang mga dayuhan, ang ating bansa ay nanatiling huli o napag-iwanan ng sibilisasyon. Sumasang-ayon ka ba? Piliin ang isa sa mga sumusunod na kasagutan. ___A. Lubos akong sumasang-ayon na utang natin sa mga dayuhan ang ating kultura at

sibilisasyon. ___B. Sumasang-ayon ako. ___C. Hindi ako sigurado sa aking sagot. ___D. Hindi ako sumasang-ayon. ___E. Lubos akong hindi sumasang-ayon. Naniniwala akong mayroon na tayong sariling

sibilisasyon bago pa dumating ang mga dayuhan.

12. Kung papipiliin ka ng magiging textmate/chatmate, alin sa mga sumusunod ang iyong pipiliin? A. Taga-Africa B. Taga-Japan C. Taga-America

D. Taga-Mindanao E. Taga-Saudi Arabia

1 2 3 4 5

85

13. Papayagan mo ba ang isang Muslim na Pilipino na tumira o kumain sa inyong bahay? ___A. Tiyak na papayagan ko. ___B. Papayagan ko. ___C. Hindi ako sigurado sa aking

sagot.

___D. Hindi ko papayagan. ___E. Tiyak na hindi ko papayagan.

14. Alin sa mga sumusunod na programa sa telebisyon ang pipiliin mong panoorin? Piliin ang isang sagot lamang. __ A. Programa sa telebisyon sa Ingles tungkol sa buhay Pilipino __ B. Programa sa Pilipino tungkol sa ibang bansa. __ C. Programa sa Ingles tungkol sa ibang bansa. __ D. Kahit na anong programa. __ E. Programa sa Pilipino tungkol sa buhay Pilipino.

15. Aling manyika and pipiliin mo? Paki-ayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa pili mo. (TUMINGIN LAMANG PO SA MGA LARAWAN SA HARAPAN) A. Manyikang Amerikano B. Manyikang Pilipina C. Manyikang Pranses

D. Manyikang Haponesa E. Manyikang Espanyol

1 2 3 4 5

16. Aling bandila ang pipiliin mo? Ayusin ang mga ito ayon sa pili mo. (TUMINGIN LAMANG PO SA MGA LARAWAN SA HARAPAN) A. Bandila ng Hapon B. Bandila ng Pilipino C. Bandila ng Saudi Arabia

D. Bandila ng America E. Bandila ng Korea

1 2 3 4 5

86

17. Alin sa mga sumusunod na mga bata ang kakaibiganin mo o pipiliing maging kaibigan mo? Pakiayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa pipiliin mo. A. Batang Hapon B. Batang Pilipino C. Batang Saudi Arabian

D. Batang Amerikano E. Batang Koreano

1 2 3 4 5

18. Alin sa mga sumusunod na binata/dalaga ang maluwag o malugod mong tatanggapin para maging asawa mo? Pakiayos ang mga titik ayon sa pili mo. A. Russian B. Pilipino

C. Espanyol D. Amerikano

E. Koreano

1 2 3 4 5

19. Alin sa mga sumusunod na tao ang iyong lubos na hinahangaan? Isaayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa iyong pagkagusto. A. Koreano B. Hapon C. Pilipino

D. Amerikano E. Intsik

1 2 3 4 5

20. Aling bansa ang pinakamahusay na lugar para tirahan o manirahan? Pakiayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa iyong pili. A. Amerika o Estados Unidos B. Saudi Arabia C. Pilipinas

D. Korea E. Hapon

1 2 3 4 5

87

21. Kung ikaw ay bibigyan ng pagkakataon, alin sa mga sumusunod na bansa ang iyong pipiliin na ikaw ay maging mamamayan o citizen? Ihanay o iayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa iyong pili. A. Mamamayan ng Hapon o Japan B. Mamamayan ng Saudi Arabia C. Mamamayan ng Estados Unidos o Amerika D. Mamamayan ng Korea E. Mamamayan ng Pilipinas

1 2 3 4 5

22. Sa iyong palagay, alin sa mga sumusunod na labanan ang pinakaalam mo? Pakiayos ang mga pangyayari ayon sa pipiliin mo. A. Labanan ng Pilipinas at Hapon noong Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig B. Labanan ng Amerika at Afghanistan (War on Terror against Al Qaeda) C. Labanan ng Amerika at Iraq (War on Iraq) D. Labanan ng Aleman at mga magkasanib na Lakas (America, Inglatera, etc.) noong

Ikalawang Digmaan Pandaigdig (World War II) E. Labanan sa Israel (Israel-Palestine Conflict)

1 2 3 4 5

23. Alin sa mga sumusunod na klase ng pelikula ang iyong panonoorin? Magbigay ng isang sagot lamang. ___A. Pelikulang Pilipino tungkol sa buhay Pilipino ___B. Pelikulang Pilipino tungkol sa buhay sa ibang bansa ___C. Pelikulang Amerikano o Ingles tungkol sa buhay Pilipino ___D. Pelikulang Amerikano o Ingles tungkol sa buhay sa ibang bansa ___E. Pelikulang Amerikano o Ingles na may mga artistang Pilipino

88

24. Alin sa mga sumusunod na mga balita ang gustong mapakinggan o marinig ng mga Pilipino? Pakiayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa pagkagusto. A. Nakahiram ulit ng Pera ang Pilipinas sa World Bank B. Nagwakas na ang Labanan sa Mindanao C. Isang Pilipina ang Nagwagi sa Miss Universe Contest D. Kukuha pa ang Amerika ng mga Pilipinong Nars E. Isang Pilipino ang Nahalal na Presidente ng United Nations General Assembly

1 2 3 4 5

25. Alin sa mga sumusunod na pagkain ang pinakabagay o pinakamabuting ihain sa isang bisitang dayuhan? Pakiayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa iyong opinyon. A. Lutong Amerikano B. Lutong Pilipino C. Lutong Intsik

D. Lutong Hapon E. Lutong Pranses

1 2 3 4 5

26. Alin sa mga sumusunod na gantimpala ang magugustuhan mong tanggapin o makamit? Pakiayos ang mga pangalan ayon sa iyong pipiliin. A. Siya ang pinakadakilang pangulo ng Pilipinas. B. Siya ang pinakamabuting mamamayan sa buong daigdig. C. Siya ang pinakamahusay na nagtatrabaho sa United Nations. D. Siya ang pangunahing tagapagtanggol ng demokrasya. E. Siya ang kampeon ng mga bansang demokratiko.

1 2 3 4 5

27. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang gagawin mo kung ang iba mong kaklase ay ayaw sumama o sumali sa “flag ceremony” sa eskwela? ___A. Pababayaan ko na lang sila. ___B. Isusumbong ko sila sa aming titser. ___C. Kakausapin ko silang mabuti upang sumali sa flag ceremony. ___D. Hindi na rin ako sasali sa flag ceremony. ___E. Sasabihin ko sa kanila na magtago sila para hindi makita ng aming titser.

89

28. Alin sa mga sumusunod na pangungusap ang pinakamagaling na naglalarawan ng mga

Pilipino? Pakiayos ang mga pangungusap ayon sa iyong pili. A. Mahusay makisama ang mga Pilipino. B. Marunong tumingin ng utang na loob ang mga Pilipino. C. Marunong makiramdam ang mga Pilipino. D. Madaling mapahiya ang mga Pilipino. E. May sariling isip at bait ang mga Pilipino.

1 2 3 4 5

29. Alin sa mga sumusunod na mga pangungusap ang naglalarawan ng isang mabuti o magaling na mamamayan?

___A. Ang mabuting mamamayan ay nagmamahal ng kanyang mga magulang. ___B. Ang mabuting mamamayan ay gumagalang sa kanyang bandila. ___C. Ang mabuting mamamayan ay masunurin sa batas. ___D. Ang mabuting mamamayan ay nakaaalam ng nangyayari sa bansa lalo na sa

kanyang barangay. ___E. Ang mabuting mamamayan ay tumutulong lumutas ng mga suliranin ng kanyang

bansa lalo na ng kanyang barangay.

30. Alin sa mga sumusunod na makasaysayang pangyayari ang dapat na ipagmalaki ng mga Pilipino? Pakiayos ang mga sagot ayon sa iyong opinyon. A. Ang labanan ng mga Pilipino at

Hapon. B. Ang labanan sa Korea.

C. Ang Rebolusyong Pilipino noong 1896.

D. Ang labanan sa Vietnam E. Ang labanan sa Mindanao

1 2 3 4 5

90

31. Alin sa mga sumusunod na makasaysayang pangyayari ang dapat na ipagmalaki ng mga Pilipino? Pakiayos ang mga sagot sa hanay. A. Ang Pagdating ni MacArthur sa Leyte. B. Ang Labanan sa Manila Bay. C. Ang Pagkatalo sa Bataan. D. Ang Unang Sigaw sa Pugad Lawin. E. Ang Pagsuko ng Maynila sa Hapon.

1 2 3 4 5

32. Sa iyong palagay alin sa mga sumusunod ang pinakamabigat o maselang suliranin o problema ngayon ng ating bansa? Pakiayos ang mga sagot sa hanay. A. Ang pag-strike o pagwelga ng mga manggagawa. B. Ang dumaraming kumpanyang dayuhan dito sa Pilipinas. C. Kaunti lamang ang magagaling na manggagawa dito sa Pilipinas. D. Mga tamad na manggagawa. E. Kakulangan ng puhunan o kapital upang makapagtayo ng mga bagong industriya.

1 2 3 4 5

33. Alin sa mga sumusunod na bida sa pelikula ang pipiliin mo na tularan? Pakiayos ng mga sagot sa hanay ayon sa iyong pipiliin. (TUMINGIN LAMANG PO SA MGA LARAWAN SA HARAPAN) A. American Indian B. Kung-fu warrior C. Samurai

D. Katipunero E. American Cowboy

1 2 3 4 5

91

34. Alin sa mga sumusunod na mga dakilang lalaki ang iyong gustong tularan? Pakiayos

ang mga sagot sa hanay ayon sa iyong gusto. A. John Kennedy B. Douglas MacArthur C. Apolinario Mabini

D. Anwar Sadat E. Mao ZeDong

1 2 3 4 5

35. Halimbawang tanungin ka ng isang dayuhan nito: “Sino ka?” Alin sa mga sumusunod na sagot ang ibibigay o sasabihin mo? A. Ako’y isang batang may ______ taong gulang. B. Ako’y isang mag-aaral sa ______ Year High School. C. Ako’y isang Pilipino. D. Ako’y isang mag-aaral sa ____________________________________ High School. E. Ako’y isang Tagalog/Ilocano/Muslim etc.

1 2 3 4 5

92

APPENDIX

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

93

ORIENTATION 1

ITEM # 5

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 18

Mean 6

2 5

Standard Error 2.476557

3 1

Median 4.5

4 3

Mode 5

5 4

Standard Deviation 6.0663 no

answer 5

Sample Variance 36.8

Kurtosis 4.842569

Skewness 2.104463

Range 17

Minimum 1

Maximum 18

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 6.366192

ITEM # 15

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 9

Mean 6

2 8

Standard Error 1.591645

3 11

Median 6

4 3

Mode #N/A

5 4

Standard Deviation 3.898718 no

answer 1

Sample Variance 15.2

Kurtosis -1.875

Skewness 0

Range 10

Minimum 1

Maximum 11

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.091453

94

ITEM # 17

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 27

Mean 6

2 2

Standard Error 4.211096

3 3

Median 2

4 1

Mode 2

5 1

Standard Deviation 10.31504 no

answer 2

Sample Variance 106.4

Kurtosis 5.889147

Skewness 2.42073

Range 26

Minimum 1

Maximum 27

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 10.82497

ITEM # 21

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 20

Mean 6

2 7

Standard Error 2.988868

3 3

Median 4

4 5

Mode #N/A

5 1

Standard Deviation 7.321202 no

answer 0

Sample Variance 53.6

Kurtosis 3.598379

Skewness 1.816438

Range 20

Minimum 0

Maximum 20

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 7.68313

95

ORIENTATION 2

ITEM # 19

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 20

Mean 6

2 7

Standard Error 2.955221

3 3

Median 3.5

4 2

Mode #N/A

5 4

Standard Deviation 7.238784 no answer 0

Sample Variance 52.4

Kurtosis 3.964367

Skewness 1.921899

Range 20

Minimum 0

Maximum 20

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 7.596638

ITEM # 20

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 8

Mean 6

2 7

Standard Error 1.238278

3 7

Median 7

4 6

Mode 8

5 8

Standard Deviation 3.03315 no answer 0

Sample Variance 9.2

Kurtosis 4.749527

Skewness -2.12865

Range 8

Minimum 0

Maximum 8

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 3.183096

96

ITEM # 22

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 28

Mean 6

2 8

Standard Error 4.589844

3 0

Median 0

4 0

Mode 0

5 0

Standard Deviation 11.24278 no answer 0

Sample Variance 126.4

Kurtosis 4.241307

Skewness 2.06715

Range 28

Minimum 0

Maximum 28

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 11.79857

ORIENTATION 3 AND 4

ITEM # 26

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 10

Mean 6

2 8

Standard Error 1.390444

3 5

Median 6.5

4 6

Mode #N/A

5 7

Standard Deviation 3.405877 no answer 0

Sample Variance 11.6

Kurtosis 1.91736

Skewness -1.09344

Range 10

Minimum 0

Maximum 10

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 3.574249

97

ITEM # 32

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 3

Mean 6

2 7

Standard Error 1.591645

3 8

Median 7

4 7

Mode 7

5 11

Standard Deviation 3.898718 no answer 0

Sample Variance 15.2

Kurtosis -0.12985

Skewness -0.54674

Range 11

Minimum 0

Maximum 11

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.091453

ORIENTATION 5

ITEM # 8

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 4

Mean 6

2 4

Standard Error 1.693123

3 7

Median 5.5

4 10

Mode 4

5 11

Standard Deviation 4.147288 no answer 0

Sample Variance 17.2

Kurtosis -1.02082

Skewness -0.17664

Range 11

Minimum 0

Maximum 11

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.352312

98

ITEM # 28

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 2

Mean 6

2 5

Standard Error 1.807392

3 8

Median 6.5

4 10

Mode #N/A

5 11

Standard Deviation 4.427189 no answer 0

Sample Variance 19.6

Kurtosis -1.78571

Skewness -0.29041

Range 11

Minimum 0

Maximum 11

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.64605

ORIENTATION 6

ITEM # 1

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 13

Mean 6

2 14

Standard Error 2.476557

3 5

Median 4

4 3

Mode #N/A

5 0

Standard Deviation 6.0663 no answer 1

Sample Variance 36.8

Kurtosis -1.85639

Skewness 0.653109

Range 14

Minimum 0

Maximum 14

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 6.366192

99

ITEM # 9

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 3

Mean 6

2 7

Standard Error 1.75119

3 5

Median 6

4 9

Mode #N/A

5 12

Standard Deviation 4.289522 no answer 0

Sample Variance 18.4

Kurtosis -0.55175

Skewness 0

Range 12

Minimum 0

Maximum 12

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.501577

ITEM # 25

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 27

Mean 6

2 5

Standard Error 4.258325

3 2

Median 1.5

4 1

Mode 1

5 1

Standard Deviation 10.43072 no answer 0

Sample Variance 108.8

Kurtosis 5.416272

Skewness 2.307768

Range 27

Minimum 0

Maximum 27

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 10.94637

100

ORIENTATION 7

ITEM # 4

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 7

Mean 6

2 6

Standard Error 1.632993

3 11

Median 6.5

4 3

Mode #N/A

5 9

Standard Deviation 4 no answer 0

Sample Variance 16

Kurtosis -0.55156

Skewness -0.42188

Range 11

Minimum 0

Maximum 11

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.197743

ITEM # 11

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 8

Mean 6

2 9

Standard Error 1.341641

3 8

Median 7

4 6

Mode 8

5 5

Standard Deviation 3.286335 no answer 0

Sample Variance 10.8

Kurtosis 2.211934

Skewness -1.47074

Range 9

Minimum 0

Maximum 9

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 3.448797

101

ITEM # 11

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 8

Mean 6

2 9

Standard Error 1.341641

3 8

Median 7

4 6

Mode 8

5 5

Standard Deviation 3.286335 no answer 0

Sample Variance 10.8

Kurtosis 2.211934

Skewness -1.47074

Range 9

Minimum 0

Maximum 9

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 3.448797

ITEM # 31

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 19

Mean 6

2 6

Standard Error 2.828427

3 1

Median 4.5

4 7

Mode #N/A

5 3

Standard Deviation 6.928203 no answer 0

Sample Variance 48

Kurtosis 3.035938

Skewness 1.650861

Range 19

Minimum 0

Maximum 19

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 7.270703

102

ORIENTATION 8

ITEM # 2

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 3

Mean 6

2 7

Standard Error 2.175623

3 2

Median 5

4 10

Mode #N/A

5 14

Standard Deviation 5.329165 no answer 0

Sample Variance 28.4

Kurtosis -1.05485

Skewness 0.535189

Range 14

Minimum 0

Maximum 14

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 5.592616

ITEM # 14

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 8

Mean 6

2 3

Standard Error 2.265686

3 1

Median 5.5

4 14

Mode #N/A

5 10

Standard Deviation 5.549775 no answer 0

Sample Variance 30.8

Kurtosis -1.54959

Skewness 0.379096

Range 14

Minimum 0

Maximum 14

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 5.824131

103

ITEM # 23

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 11

Mean 6

2 5

Standard Error 2.221111

3 7

Median 6

4 0

Mode 0

5 13

Standard Deviation 5.440588 no answer 0

Sample Variance 29.6

Kurtosis -1.75995

Skewness 0.067063

Range 13

Minimum 0

Maximum 13

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 5.709547

ORIENTATION 9

ITEM # 3

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 2

Mean 6

2 6

Standard Error 2.394438

3 3

Median 4.5

4 17

Mode #N/A

5 7

Standard Deviation 5.865151 no answer 1

Sample Variance 34.4

Kurtosis 2.980327

Skewness 1.659387

Range 16

Minimum 1

Maximum 17

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 6.155099

104

ITEM # 7

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 10

Mean 6

2 2

Standard Error 2.955221

3 19

Median 2.5

4 2

Mode 2

5 3

Standard Deviation 7.238784 no answer 0

Sample Variance 52.4

Kurtosis 1.578142

Skewness 1.49481

Range 19

Minimum 0

Maximum 19

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 7.596638

ORIENTATION 10

ITEM # 12

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 2

Mean 6

2 2

Standard Error 2.016598

3 5

Median 4

4 10

Mode 2

5 14

Standard Deviation 4.939636 no answer 3

Sample Variance 24.4

Kurtosis -0.43469

Skewness 1.045408

Range 12

Minimum 2

Maximum 14

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 5.18383

105

ITEM # 13

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 12

Mean 6

2 12

Standard Error 2.113449

3 6

Median 5.5

4 5

Mode 12

5 1

Standard Deviation 5.176872 no answer 0

Sample Variance 26.8

Kurtosis -1.85063

Skewness 0.194608

Range 12

Minimum 0

Maximum 12

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 5.432794

ITEM # 18

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 23

Mean 6

2 4

Standard Error 3.454466

3 4

Median 3.5

4 2

Mode 4

5 3

Standard Deviation 8.461678 no answer 0

Sample Variance 71.6

Kurtosis 5.38162

Skewness 2.272817

Range 23

Minimum 0

Maximum 23

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 8.879987

106

ORIENTATION 11, 12, AND 13

ITEM # 6

Column1

Rank Responses 1 0

Mean 6

2 6

Standard Error 4.312772

3 3

Median 1.5

4 0

Mode 0

5 27

Standard Deviation 10.56409 no answer 0

Sample Variance 111.6

Kurtosis 4.903746

Skewness 2.184821

Range 27

Minimum 0

Maximum 27

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 11.08633

ITEM # 10

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 1

Mean 6

2 1

Standard Error 3.924283

3 0

Median 1

4 10

Mode 1

5 24

Standard Deviation 9.612492 no answer 0

Sample Variance 92.4

Kurtosis 2.692837

Skewness 1.761101

Range 24

Minimum 0

Maximum 24

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 10.08769

107

ITEM # 24

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 14

Mean 6

2 9

Standard Error 2.04939

3 6

Median 5.5

4 5

Mode #N/A

5 2

Standard Deviation 5.01996 no answer 0

Sample Variance 25.2

Kurtosis 0.066138

Skewness 0.611843

Range 14

Minimum 0

Maximum 14

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 5.268125

ORIENTATION 14, 15, AND 16

ITEM # 16

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 27

Mean 6

2 4

Standard Error 4.242641

3 3

Median 2

4 1

Mode 1

5 1

Standard Deviation 10.3923 no answer 0

Sample Variance 108

Kurtosis 5.580144

Skewness 2.341476

Range 27

Minimum 0

Maximum 27

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 10.90606

108

ITEM # 33

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 8

Mean 6

2 2

Standard Error 1.65328

3 7

Median 7.5

4 10

Mode #N/A

5 9

Standard Deviation 4.049691 no answer 0

Sample Variance 16.4

Kurtosis -1.28941

Skewness -0.81307

Range 10

Minimum 0

Maximum 10

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 4.24989

ITEM # 34

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 22

Mean 6

2 3

Standard Error 3.464102

3 9

Median 2

4 1

Mode 1

5 1

Standard Deviation 8.485281 no answer 0

Sample Variance 72

Kurtosis 2.965046

Skewness 1.782498

Range 22

Minimum 0

Maximum 22

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 8.904757

109

ITEM # 35

Statistics

Rank Responses 1 26

Mean 6

2 4

Standard Error 4.09064

3 5

Median 2.5

4 1

Mode 0

5 0

Standard Deviation 10.01998 no answer 0

Sample Variance 100.4

Kurtosis 5.085515

Skewness 2.216885

Range 26

Minimum 0

Maximum 26

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 10.51532

ITEM # 27

Statistics

Rank Responses C

(highest) 23

Mean 6

B 0

Standard Error 3.732738

A 10

Median 1.5

E 2

Mode 0 D (lowest) 1

Standard Deviation 9.143304

no answer 0

Sample Variance 83.6

Kurtosis 2.488782

Skewness 1.70962

Range 23

Minimum 0

Maximum 23

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 9.595309

110

ITEM # 29

Statistics

Rank Responses E

(highest) 19

Mean 6

D 1

Standard Error 2.75681

C 2

Median 3.5

B 5

Mode 2 A (lowest) 2

Standard Deviation 6.752777

no answer 7

Sample Variance 45.6

Kurtosis 3.748269

Skewness 1.893958

Range 18

Minimum 1

Maximum 19

Sum 36

Count 6

Confidence Level (95.0%) 7.086605