A Strategic Approach for Air Pollution

Reduction in Karachi

Dieter Schwela, Gary Haq and Mohammad Aqib Uddin

2

Contents

Abbreviations and Acronyms .....................................................................................3

1 Introduction..........................................................................................................4

2 The Issue of Particulate Matter ............................................................................7

3 Impact of Particulate Matter on Health .................................................................8

4 Air Pollution in Pakistan .......................................................................................9

5 Air Quality Monitoring in Karachi........................................................................11

6 Results ..............................................................................................................13

7 Policy Recommendations ..................................................................................17

Strategies.............................................................................................................20

Industry ................................................................................................................20

Transport..............................................................................................................21

Land use...........................................................................................................21

Traffic management..........................................................................................22

Encouraging alternatives to the private motor vehicle .......................................22

Reducing motor vehicle emissions....................................................................23

Measures to reduce transport emissions in Karachi ..........................................24

Area sources ........................................................................................................26

Transboundary air pollution ..................................................................................29

Regional haze from forest fires.............................................................................30

Tropospheric ozone pollution ...............................................................................30

Measures to reduce emissions which contribute to transboundary polluton..........31

Measures All Emission Sources ...........................................................................32

World Health Organization air quality guidelines ...............................................32

Use of a simple integrated model for air quality management ...........................34

8 Implementation in Karachi……………………………………………………………35

References ..............................................................................................................38

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABC Atmospheric Brown CloudACS American Cancer SocietyAPINA Air Pollution Information Network for AfricaAP-42 Acronym for the documentation of emission factors of USEPA’s Emission

Factor and Inventory GroupAQG Air Quality GuidelineAQM Air Quality ManagementBS Black SmokeCAIP Clean Air Implementation PlanCDM Clean Development MechanismCNG Compressed Natural GasCO Carbon dioxideCORINAIR CORe INventory of AIR emissionsEC European CommissionEU European UnionGHG Greenhouse GasHC HydrocarbonHg MercuryI&M Inspection & MaintenanceISO International Standardization OrganizationIVL Swedish Environmental Research InstituteHEI Health Effects InstituteLPG Liquid Petroleum GasMSW Municipal Solid WasteNGO Non-Governmental OrganizationNO Nitrogen oxideNO2 Nitrogen dioxideNOx Nitrogen oxides, usually NO+NO2

O3 OzonePM Particulate matterPM1 Particles smaller than 1.0 µm in aerodynamic diameterPM2.5 Particles smaller than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameterPM10 Particles smaller than 10 µm in aerodynamic diameterPOPs Persistent Organic PollutantsRAPIDC Regional Air Pollution In Developing Countries programmeRIAS Rapid Inventory Assessment SystemSEI Stockholm Environment InstituteSF Strategic FrameworkSida Swedish International Development Cooperation AgencySIM-AIR Simple Integrated Model for Better Air QualitySO2 Sulphur dioxideSWM Solid Waste ManagementTSP Total Suspended Particulate matterUF Ultra Fine particlesUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUR Unit RiskUSEPA United States Environmental Protection AgencyVOC Volatile Organic CompoundsWHO World Health OrganizationWMO World Meteorological Organization

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1 Introduction

There is an urgent need to address the health and environment effects associated with

urban air pollution in Pakistan and to promote more effective frameworks to address

urban sources of air pollution. In those Pakistani cities where air quality monitoring has

been performed, levels of air pollution exceed World Health Organisation (WHO)

recommended guidelines (WHO, 2000; 2005)1. National estimates of the burden of

disease for Pakistan indicate that approximately 28,700 people die annually due to

exposure to outdoor urban air pollution, and 70,700 people are assumed to die annually

due to exposure to smoke from solid fuel use (WHO, 2006). The cost to the economy in

terms of air pollution was estimated at to range from US$ 233 to 368 million per year in

1992 (Brandon, 1995) and at Rs. 62-65 billion (US$ 1.03-1.08 billion) per year for urban

air pollution and Rs. 60-75 billion (US$ 0.998-1.25 billion) per year for indoor air

pollution (WB, 2006). The costs of air pollution were calculated in terms of premature

deaths, hospital admissions and sickness requiring medical treatment and minor

sickness, including restricted activity days and respiratory symptom days.

There is a link between air pollution and poverty since poor people are exposed to

higher concentrations of air pollutants and tend to suffer disproportionately from the

effects of deteriorating air quality. Women and children exposed to high concentrations

of air pollutants are particularly susceptible to developing respiratory ailments. Illness

due to air pollution has implications for child development, well-being and quality of life.

The burning of municipal solid waste is a significant source of air pollution which is

difficult to quantify. As of 2004 almost 55,000 tonnes of solid waste is generated each

day across Pakistan, most of which is either dumped in low-lying areas or burned

(GOV_PK, 2005). The burning of solid waste at low temperatures not only generates fine

particulate matter (PM), but also carcinogenic pollutants. Another important source of

PM is dust from both natural and anthropogenic sources. The arid conditions result in

clouds of fine dust that form a haze over many cities, compounded by dust storms in the

summer months (WB, 2006).

Health impacts of air pollution depend on the sensitivity and exposure levels of the

susceptible population to the pollutant. The worst affected are often low-income groups

– who live and work in areas with high concentration of air pollution, who may have

lower immunity, and who are likely to face a disproportionate health and opportunity

1 Baseline (Ambient Air Quality) Study of Six Major Cities of Pakistan. Pakistan Space & Upper Atmosphere ResearchCommission (SUPARCO), Karachi. http://www.suparco.gov.pk/pages/spas-project08.asp

5

cost burden due to their own or a family member’s illness. Within the vulnerable groups,

children and elderly people are thought to be particularly susceptible to the ill effects of

air pollution.

Rapid urbanization has resulted in a significant increase of the urban population of

Pakistan which is estimated to be 34.9 per cent in 2005 and projected to increase to

63.7 per cent in 2050 (UN, 2008). Pakistan is one of the most urbanized countries in

South Central Asia with strongly developed infrastructure systems.

Karachi, the capital of Sindh province, is the commercial hub and gateway of Pakistan. It

accounts for 95 per cent of Pakistan’s foreign trade and contributes 30 per cent of

Pakistan’s industrial production (ADB, 2006a). Nearly 90 per cent of the country’s head

offices of banks, financial institutions and multinational companies are located in Karachi

(ADB, 2005a). The country’s largest stock exchange is Karachi based. The city

contributes 20 per cent of the national gross domestic product, accounts for 40 per cent

of national employment in large-scale manufacturing, and contributes 25 per cent of

national and 40 per cent of provincial revenues (ADB, 2005b).

According to the 1998 census, Karachi had a population of 9.2 million in 1998, which

compares with 5.2 million in 1981. Based upon the intercensal (1981–1998) annual

growth rate of 4.5 per cent, the current population of Karachi is estimated at 12.5

million (ADB, 2006b). The population of Karachi is expected to reach 20.7 million in

2015 (ADB, 2005a). The city is made up of 18 contiguous towns. The pattern of

household income shows that approximately 9.5 per cent of the households are living in

extreme and chronic poverty while another 14 per cent are transitorily poor. The

prevalence of poverty varies in the 18 towns and cantonment areas of the city. It is

estimated that 50.5 per cent of Karachites live below the poverty line. The highest

prevalence is observed in Katchi Abadis where slum areas have informally grown and 89

per cent of the population of Katchi Abadis lives below the poverty line of Rs 748

(US$10) (ADB, 2005b; Hasan, 2007).

Main sources of polluting air emissions in Karachi include motor vehicles,

uncontrolled waste burning, and uncontrolled industrial growth (ADB, 2005a)

(e.g. steel mills, chemical and engineering works, oil refineries, ship building

yards, railroad yards, jute and textile factories, printing and publishing plants,

food processing plants, and numerous small uncontrolled plants). More than

900,000 cubic metres per day of untreated domestic and industrial wastewater and over

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1,000 tons per day of uncollected solid waste finds its way directly or indirectly to the

sea, providing a constant source of marine pollution.

Karachi’s industries generate a cocktail of chemicals and toxic substances, and a

significant amount of industrial effluent is discharged into creeks, rivers, or the sea. New

development takes place within environmentally sensitive areas and reserves for critical

infrastructure, causing major environmental problems. Vehicle-generated air pollution is

severe, with high concentrations of fine and ultrafine particles in the air which can cause

respiratory problems among a large number of Karachi’s urban residents (ADB, 2005b).

The fastest growth in mobile sources has been in two-stroke delivery vehicles, but the

number of diesel trucks and buses has also increased up to three times. International

experience indicates that a major share of the emission load from motor vehicles can be

attributed to a relatively small number of smoky diesel and two-stroke vehicles (ADB,

200x).

The main sources of ambient air pollution in Karachi are old and ill-maintained vehicles,

waste burning (8,000 tonnes of waste generated/day), re-suspended dust, and small-

scale businesses using ‘dirty fuels’ for manufacturing and production purposes. Air

pollution levels in Karachi and other urban centres of Pakistan are extremely high by

international standards and rising each year (WB 2005).

Since early 1980s the main focus of Pakistan’s Transport and Communication strategy

was to construct more roads. After two decades the strategy resulted in strong

dependence of travellers on the road-based system and consequent rise in vehicle

numbers. Many vehicles are old, and new ones built locally do not use modern engine

technology and specifications, thus contributing to vehicle emissions. Engine

maintenance is generally performed by technicians who have had no formal training.

There is no established system of engine maintenance. The use of adulterated fuel and

lubricants by many private and public vehicles operators has aggravated ambient air

pollution from the transport sector (SUPARCO, 2005).

The emission of air pollutants is directly related to fuel consumption. Pakistan’s

consumption of petroleum products is growing at an annual rate of approximately 6 per

cent, almost half of which is consumed by the transport sector. The high content of

sulphur in diesel (0.5-1 per cent) and furnace oil (1-3.5 per cent) is a major contributor

to air pollution, a smaller contributor are dirty “waste” fuels, such as old tyres, paper,

wood and textile waste. Industrial emissions are further compounded by the widespread

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use of small diesel electric generators in commercial and residential areas in response to

the poor reliability of electricity supplies.

In order to augment current PM monitoring in Karachi, the International Union for

Nature Conservation (IUCN) and the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), with the

support of the Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO)

conducted a monitoring programme for fine and ultrafine PM covering the period

September 2007 to July 2008. The monitoring was conducted as part of the regional air

pollution in developing countries programme (RAPIDC) funded by the Swedish

International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).

This report outlines the contribution of PM to urban air pollution in Karachi and presents

a strategic approach to achieve PM reduction.

2 The Issue of Particulate Matter

PM is a general term used to describe a complex mixture of solid particles and liquid

droplets suspended in the ambient air which have diverse chemical and physical

characteristics. A large number of anthropogenic and natural sources contribute to

ambient airborne PM. These include: motor vehicles; power plants; smelters; quarries

and cement industries; resuspended and wind blown dust; photochemical processes

producing secondary PM, and tobacco smoke. PM is divided into two classes, primary

and secondary. Primary particles are released directly into the atmosphere. Secondary

particles are formed in the atmosphere as a result of reactions that involve gases (ADB,

2006).

The health and environmental exposure to, and effects of, particles depend strongly on

particle size. Particle size is a consequence of the process that resulted in its generation,

and thus is also dependent on the source and its characteristics. Particles are generally

classified by their aerodynamic diameters since size is a critical determinant of site of

deposition within the respiratory tract. PM10 are particles less than 10 microns in

aerodynamic diameter. They can further be divided into coarse particles (from 2.5 to 10

µm), fine particles (PM2.5, less than 2.5 µm) and ultrafine (UF) particles (particles of

diameter less than 0.1 µm). Coarse particles contain earth crustal materials, dust from

roads, industries and construction activities, and biological material, such as pollen

grains and bacterial fragments. PM2.5 contains combustion particles, the secondary

formed aerosols (gas to particle conversion), and re-condensed organic and metal

vapours. Diesel trucks emit particles primarily in the range of 0.1-0.2 µm. The

8

composition of particles varies substantially across cities around the world depending

upon local geographical, meteorological conditions and specific sources. Figure 1

illustrates the sizes of various particles in comparison with human hair.

Figure 1: The size of various particles in comparison to the width of a human hair

3 Impact of Particulate Matter on Health

Total suspended particulate matter (TSP) and black smoke (BS) were used as indicators

of airborne particles in the past, and TSP is still used as an indicator of PM in some

countries. Nowadays PM10 and PM2.5 are used as indicators for airborne particulate

matter as there are extensive measurement data of PM10 throughout the world. It

includes inhalable particles which can penetrate to the thoracic region. However, PM2.5

has a higher probability of deposition in the airways and lungs due to its size. Particles

with different aerodynamic diameters differ in their overall contributions to airborne

particle mass and in their origin, physical characteristics, chemical composition, and

health effects.

There has been evidence showing that PM exposure is linked to a variety of adverse

effects on mortality (non-accidental all-cause mortality, cardiovascular and respiratory

mortality) and morbidity (hospital admissions, out-patient and emergency visits, asthma

attacks and acute respiratory infections). Several meta-analyses have been conducted to

examine the relative risk of short-term mortality associated with a 10 µg/m3 increase of

PM10. Meta-analyses on European studies, US studies and Asian studies showed that for

each increase of 10 µg/m3 PM10 the estimates for short-term all cause mortality were

0.62 per cent, 0.46 per cent and 0.5 per cent, respectively (HEI, 2004). Evidence also

showed chronic adverse health effects associated with long-term exposure to air

pollution. Two long-term exposure studies (i.e. the US American Cancer Society (ACS)

study and Harvard Six-Cities cohort study) reported associations between long-term

exposure to PM2.5 and mortality. A 10 µg/m3 increase of PM2.5 was associated with about

9

a 4 per cent, 6 per cent and 8 per cent increase risk of all-cause, cardiopulmonary, and

lung cancer mortality, respectively.

The association between PM and adverse health effects is consistent in various cities,

both in developed and developing countries. The risk for adverse health outcomes has

been shown to increase with exposure. There is no evidence to suggest a threshold

below which no adverse health effects would be anticipated. In addition to PM10 and

PM2.5, there is considerable toxicological evidence of potential adverse effects of UF

particles on human health, but the available epidemiological evidence is insufficient to

derive an exposure-response relationship to UF particles.

4 Air Pollution in Pakistan

Due to rapid growth of the urban population, and the striving for economic growth

Pakistan faces polluting air emissions from:

industries (point sources) including the small scale uncontrolled industrial facilities;

exhaust gases from vehicles;

uncontrolled waste burning in urban areas;

poor drainage, sanitation and waste disposal system.

The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Pak-EPA) is an attached department of

the Ministry of Environment and responsible for the implementation of the Pakistan

Environmental Protection legislation in the country. Significant measures for the

improvement of air quality include the establishment of vehicle emission standards and

strengthening of inspection programmes, conversion of petrol-driven vehicles to

compressed natural gas (CNG), promotion of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and biofuels,

planning of mass rapid transit (MRT) in Pakistani cities, and implementation of industrial

emission standards (Pak-EPA, 2006; 2008). However, air quality standards have not yet

been adopted in Pakistan (Aziz, 2006). In Pakistan only unleaded gasoline is used

(PCFV, 2008a). Diesel specifications in Pakistan allow for a sulphur content of 500 ppm,

still a high value when compared to those of developed countries (PCFV, 2008b). Table

1 shows the key environmental legislation in Pakistan.

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Table 1: Key environmental legislation in Pakistan

Legislation Content (Date of Promulgation)

PEPO

Environmental Protection Ordinance No. XXXVII (1983)o Environmental Protection Council (PEPC) to form national

environmental policy and ensure enforcement of NationalEnvironmental Quality Standards (NEQS)

o Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) with wideranging functions including the preparation and coordination ofenvironmental policy and powers to set and enforce NEQS

o Environmental Impact Assessment

PEP

Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (1997)o Sustainable development through the protection, conservation,

rehabilitation and improvement of the environmento Reconstitution of PEPC to give more representation to

provinces, trade and industry and NGOso Set up of Environmental Tribunals in Karachi and

LahoreDesignation of environmental Magistrates in threeprovinces

o Implementation of the PEP by provincial governmentso Self-monitoring and reporting for industry with a Self Monitoring

and Reporting Tool (SMART)o Constitution of a National Coordination Committee to supervise

the implementation of environmental policies and enhance interprovincial coordination.

o Formulation of analytical methods and sampling procedures

Source: UNIDO (2000)

Due to scarcity of equipment and funding, few monitoring stations exist in Pakistani

cities, including Karachi. The challenges which have prevented progress in managing

urban air quality in Pakistan include:

capacity building in different disciplines;

public awareness about air pollution issues;

emissions from waste and urban open burning;

existence of several thousand small-scale manufacturing units especially in

Karachi producing particulate matter;

emission from vehicles and uncontrolled industries

lack of air quality standards or shortcoming in their implementation;

Lack of an effective waste management system in the cities;

Weaknesses in law enforcement;

Lack of funds to launch a fully fledged air quality monitoring program in the

five major cities of the country.

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5 Air Quality Monitoring in Karachi

In collaboration with the Government of Japan, the Pak-EPA launched the Environmental

Monitoring System project. With respect to air pollution, the project has provided

continuous monitoring stations for gaseous compounds (SO2, NO2, O3 and CO) and

particulate matter (PM10) to build up air surveillance at two sites in each city, Islamabad,

Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar and Quetta (Pak-EPA, 2006). The stations have been

operational since 2007. Three mobile monitoring stations were also provided by the

project.

Before the operation of these monitoring facilities initial campaigns for monitoring of

TSP, PM10 and the key gaseous compounds (SO2, NOx, O3, CO) were performed by

SUPARCO (2005). Figure 2 presents the results for PM10, SO2 and NOx.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Karachi Lahore Islamabad Rawalpindi Peshawar Quetta

PM

10

co

ncen

trati

on

[µg

/m3]

Cycle 1 (2003) Cycle 2 (2003) Cycle 3 (2004) Cycle 4 (2004)

Figure 2: PM10 24-hour concentrations in 2003 and 2004, averaged overmonsoon (cycle 1 and 3) and summer (cycle 2 and 4) seasons,respectively, in six Pakistani cities

Source: SUPARCO (2005)

Averaged PM10 concentrations (see Figure 2) in all six cities are above the WHO

guideline value of 50 µg/m3 by a factor of 3 to 4. This shows that practically all

individual 24-hour concentrations do not comply with the WHO guideline value.

The SO2 concentrations (see Figure 3) are all above the WHO 24-hour guideline value of

20 µg/m3 or 7 ppb. Although the 48-hour concentrations cannot be rigorously compared

12

with the 24-hour guideline value the results indicate that 24-hour SO2 concentrations

would not comply with the guideline value.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Islamabad Karachi Lahore Peshawar Quetta Rawalpindi

SO

2co

ncen

trati

on

[pp

b]

Cycle 1 (2003) Cycle 2 (2003) Cycle 3 (2004) Cycle 4 (2004)

Figure 3: SO2 48-hour concentrations in 2003 and 2004, averaged overmonsoon (cycle 1 and 3) and summer (cycle 2 and 4) seasons,respectively, in six Pakistani cities

Source: SUPARCO (2005)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Islamabad Karachi Lahore Peshawar Quetta Rawalpindi

NO

xco

ncen

trati

on

[pp

b]

Cycle 1 (2003) Cycle 2 (2003) Cycle 3 (2004) Cycle 4 (2004)

Figure 4: NOx 48-hour concentrations in 2003 and 2004, averaged overmonsoon (cycle 1 and 3) and summer (cycle 2 and 4) seasons,respectively, in six Pakistani cities

Source: SUPARCO (2005)

The NOx concentrations, if interpreted as the essentially NO2, are all below the WHO 24-

hour guideline value of 200 µg/m3 or 106 ppb. Although the 48-hour concentrations

13

cannot be rigorously compared with the 24-hour guideline value the results indicate that

the observed 24-hour NO2 concentrations would comply with the guideline value.

DustTrak™ 8520 Aerosol Monitors were used by IUCN/SUPARCO and SEI in order to

augment current PM monitoring in Karachi. The DustTrak is a portable, battery-operated

laser photometer with real-time mass concentration readout and data logging capability.

The monitor provides reliable exposure assessment by measuring particle concentrations

corresponding to respirable size, PM10, PM2.5 or PM1.0 size fractions. The DustTrak

monitoring was conducted from September 2007 to August 2008.

A training session for SUPARCO staff was conducted to explain how to use the DustTrak

This session included explain the functioning of the device, the change and preparation

of inlets for PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0 monitoring, the checks of functionality, the procedure

for regular calibration consisting of flux control and zeroing, cleaning of the devices and

main quality assurance/quality control procedures.

6 Results

Figure 5 shows the results of the monitoring exercise of PM1 and PM2.5 concentrations

using the DustTraks. The measurement was performed on from September 2007 to

June 2008. This figure is indicative of the magnitude of PM concentrations for coarse

and fine particles. Apparently most, i.e. around 80 per cent of PM2.5 is PM1, an

observation that is now often made in cities of developing countries. The figure also

shows that the average daily concentrations during this period would well exceed the

PM2.5 guideline value of the WHO (WHO, 2005) almost all the time.

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0

100

200

300

400

500

600

03/0

9/20

07

17/0

9/20

07

01/1

0/20

07

15/1

0/20

07

29/1

0/20

07

12/1

1/20

07

26/1

1/20

07

10/1

2/20

07

24/1

2/20

07

07/0

1/20

08

21/0

1/20

08

04/0

2/20

08

18/0

2/20

08

03/0

3/20

08

17/0

3/20

08

31/0

3/20

08

14/0

4/20

08

28/0

4/20

08

12/0

5/20

08

26/0

5/20

08

09/0

6/20

08

23/0

6/20

08

07/0

7/20

08

21/0

7/20

08

Date

Co

nc

en

trati

on

Ug

/m3

PM1

PM2.5

WHO Guideline 20 µg/m3

Figure 5: Daily average concentration of PM2.5 to PM1 in Karachi (September 2007 toJune 2008)

Source: SUPARCO (2008)

Figure 6 presents monthly concentrations of PM2.5 and PM1. PM concentrations were

elevated from October 2007 to March 2008, i.e. during the dry season. Concentration

values were more than 7 times above the WHO 24-hour guideline value of 20 µg/m3

(WHO, 2005). They were much lower but still above the WHO guideline value for PM2.5

during the monsoon season. If monthly values of PM2.5 are above the WHO 24-hour

guideline value this indicates that some or all 24-hour concentrations would also not

comply.

15

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Sep-07 Oct-07 Nov-07 Dec-07 Jan-08 Feb-08 Mar-08 Apr-08 May-08 Jun-08

Month

Co

nc

en

tra

tio

n(µ

g/m

3)

PM2.5 PM1

Figure 6: Average monthly PM2.5 and PM1 concentrations in Karachi (September2007 to June 2008)

Source: SUPARCO (2008)

Figure 7 represents the PM1/PM2.5 ratio and shows that this ratio ranges between 0.7

and 1 in the dry season and around 0.5 in the monsoon season. The result reflects the

greater rain- and wash-out of PM1 particles as compared to that of PM2.5 particles.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Month Sep-07 Oct-07 Nov-07 Dec-07 Jan-08 Feb-08 Mar-08 Apr-08 May-08 Jun-08

Month

Ra

tio

PM

2.5

toP

M1

Figure 7: The ratio of PM2.5 to PM1 in Karachi (September 2007 to June 2008)

Source: SUPARCO (2008)

16

Figure 8 shows the daily variations of PM2.5 and PM1 during the monitoring period

September 2007 to January 2008. It also shows the hourly values of PM2.5 averaged

over the period September 2007 to July 2008. All three time patterns are distinguished

only by the magnitude of the concentrations while the slopes do not differ.

0

50

100

150

200

250

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Daytime

PM

co

ncen

trati

on

[µg

/m3]

PM2.5 (Sep-July) PM2.5 (Sep-Jan) PM1.0 (Sep-Jan)

Figure 8: Daily variation of PM2.5 and PM1

Source: SUPARCO (2008)

Two maxima are visible: one between 8 am and 10 am and the other one between 11

pm and 2 am. While the first maximum can be interpreted as reflection of the morning

traffic rush hours the sources responsible for the second maximum are not so clear.

Figure 9 shows the daily ratio of PM1 to PM2.5 averaged over the period September 2007

to January 2008. The values of this ratio range between 0.72 and 0.86 and indicate a

major contribution of particles below 1 µm. A distinct maximum is seen between 10 am

and 5 pm indicating the prevalence of PM1 particles during that time of the day.

17

0.70

0.72

0.74

0.76

0.78

0.80

0.82

0.84

0.86

0.88

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Daytime

PM

1/P

M2

.5

Figure 9: The daily variation of the ratio PM1/PM2.5

Source: SUPARCO (2008)

7 Policy Recommendations

The main challenges to achieving better air quality in Karachi include rapid urbanisation,

rural-urban migration, haphazard growth, unplanned settlements, vehicle emissions, and

an increase in number of vehicles, industrial emissions and mismanagement of solid

waste, and weak institutional capacity. Tools to overcome these challenges include the

implementation of a sound and rational air quality management (AQM) within the overall

policy framework, as well as in specific policies aimed at land use planning, energy,

transport and industrial development.

AQM aims to maintain the quality of the air that protects human health and welfare but

also provides protection of animals, plants (crops, forests, and natural vegetation),

ecosystems, materials and aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility. AQM is a tool

which enables governmental authorities to set objectives to achieve and maintain clean

air and reduce the impacts on human health and the environment. Governmental

authorities in collaboration with other stakeholders can determine the individual steps of

the implementation of this process according to:

- local circumstances with respect to background concentrations of air pollutants

and technological feasibilities;

- cultural and social conditions; and

- financial and human resources available.

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An effective AQM strategy is dependent on a number of factors such as emission

inventories, air quality monitoring networks, dispersion models, exposure and damage

assessments, health and environment based standards together with a range of cost-

effective pollution control measures and the legislative powers and resources to

implement and enforce them (see Table 2).

Table 2: Components of a strategic framework for air quality management

Air Quality PoliciesTo include and/or strengthen the concept of air quality, humanhealth and environment in policies, legislation and itsharmonisation and implementation in the development ofKarachi.

Air Quality GovernanceTo facilitate law enforcement and inform, educate, train andstrengthen stakeholder participation in all aspects related toair quality and the prevention and reduction of air pollutionand the corresponding health and environmental impacts.

EmissionsTo include and/or strengthen enforceable, affordable,sustainable and highly effective measures to assess andreduce emissions

Air Quality ModellingTo support and strengthen national and local air qualityestimates and allow source apportionment and estimations oftransboundary pollution

Air Quality MonitoringTo establish and/or strengthen national and local air qualitymonitoring programmes to assess compliance with national airquality standards and assess health and environmentalimpacts

Health, Environmental andEconomic RiskAssessments

To establish and/or strengthen national and local programmeswhich monitor the health, environmental and economic impactof air pollution in a harmonised way

Financing of AQMTo establish mechanisms for financial sustainability in regional,national and local air quality, environmental and healthprogrammes including financing from private sector and othersectors

AQM enables governmental authorities in collaboration with other stakeholders to:

- identify and establish appropriate policies on air quality;

- identify relevant legislative and regulatory requirements;

- identify all sources of air pollution caused by human activities;

- set appropriate objectives and targets for human and environmental health;

19

- set priorities for achieving objectives and targets;

- establish a structure and programmes to implement policies and achieve

objectives and targets;

- facilitate the monitoring of air quality and effects on human health and

environment;

- facilitate urban planning, corrective action and the prevention of adverse effects;

- ensure compliance with emission and air quality standards;

- account for changing circumstances.

A strategic approach to air pollutant reduction in Karachi will only be implemented if the

ideas developed are generally accepted by all stakeholders. It is therefore necessary to

bring the strategic approach to the attention of inter- and supranational organisations,

governments, environmental protection agencies, industry, academia, media, aid

agencies, and non-governmental organisations (SF, 2004). Clean air implementation

plans (CAIPs) are a viable means of improving air quality and are a convenient way of

reporting on activities in AQM. CAIPs contribute to public information and awareness

rising. It is necessary and advantageous to implement the CAIP in incremental steps,

tailored to the goals, policies, needs, capabilities and resources available.

Strengthening the national and local institutional set-up for AQM ensures the capability

to implement AQM policies, enforce laws and regulations and review their effectiveness.

It is necessary to ensure different organisations are equipped with physical and financial

resources to undertake their responsibilities and to avoid friction and competition among

these stakeholders. Undertaking periodic reviews of key parts of AQM assists in

measuring progress in AQM. Periodic review will determine the effectiveness of AQM

systems and the desirability and feasibility of broadening the scope of and designing its

functioning. AQM procedures become more effective if all stakeholders help consider the

need for stakeholder capacity enhancement in AQM and develop national and local

strategies to work with the mass media and strengthen their participation. Capacity for

pubic information can be used to regularly inform the general public and other

stakeholders of the importance of AQM policy and strategy. A focus upon “champions of

AQM” to convey air quality information increases the awareness in public groups and

ensures that AQM issues have a high public profile.

20

Strategies

AQM strategies to address outdoor air pollution can be implemented in five areas:

transport, industry, area sources, transboundary and climate change. The following

section briefly examines various strategies for managing air quality in each of these

areas. The key to implementation is an assessment of the priorities of the issues

associated with emissions in each area. The strategies to reduce air pollution should

address the priority issues and pollutants. In most cases, the emissions with the greatest

health effects should be targeted first.

Industry

To implement strategies to reduce urban industrial emissions, it is important to have

adequate information on the type of emissions from these industries, tendencies in

emissions and effectiveness of actions to reduce these tendencies, and priorities. Most

of this information should be available from emissions inventories. The main strategies

for addressing industrial pollution are the promotion of cleaner production, emissions

reduction by industry, land use planning and zoning.

A multitude of sources exist in Karachi such as steel mills, chemical and engineering

works, oil refineries, ship building yards, railroad yards, jute and textile factories,

printing and publishing plants, food processing plants, and numerous small uncontrolled

plants. Many of these facilities are old or obsolete. For future industrial facilities in

Karachi a general low cost option is not to permit the import of obsolete technologies

from developed countries (see Table 3). Technologies imported in developing countries

should follow the same state-of-art technology as those in developed countries. Banning

the import of obsolete technologies would avoid health and environmental impact which

will be much more costly to address once the technology is installed.

Table 3: Measures to reduce industrial air emissions

Measure Description

Ban the import of

obsolete technologies

from developed countries

Technologies imported in developing countries should follow

the same state-of-the-art technology in developed countries

in order to avoid health and environmental impacts that will

be more costly to sort out once the technology is installed.

21

Transport

Motor vehicles are a main source of PM in Karachi. Air pollution from the transport

sector has important health and environmental effects. Road transport is responsible for

a significant proportion of NO2 and PM (PM10 and PM2.5), which are the pollutants most

likely to exceed air quality objectives. Therefore reducing emissions from urban motor

vehicles is a key part of local AQM.

Better traffic management reduces congestion, makes smoother driving possible and

thus reduces vehicle exhaust emissions. Traffic management measures include banning

or restricting traffic, parking restrictions, promoting bus public transport, walking and

cycling. As well as the direct pricing of road use and integrating land use and transport

planning with local air quality management strategies to improve air quality. Poor traffic

management, congestion, exposure to traffic pollution and fear of accidents are a

disincentive to people to both walk and cycle in an urban environment.

A number of measures can be adopted which address not only vehicle pollution control

but demand management. To achieve an environmentally sustainable transport system,

ensuring a minimal environmental impact both in the short- and long-term, measures

will need to be taken to reduce the overall demand for travel, and to encourage the use

of less polluting modes of transport. This requires the adoption of a combination of

measures ranging from emission standards to land use policies, in order to ensure that

the overall need to travel and vehicle pollution are reduced (Gwilliam et al., 2004).

However, none of these strategies alone will provide the optimum solution.

Combinations of strategies applied progressively over a period of time and in an

integrated manner will normally achieve the best results, although the details and

optimum mix of strategies will vary according to local circumstances. The strategies for

managing pollutants from transportation activities are discussed below.

Land use

Land use planning has important implications for energy consumption and vehicle-

related air pollution. Travel and transport developments interact to allow significant land

use changes. The result has been the development of more energy-intensive land use

and increased vehicle activity patterns. Land use planning has been shaped by the

increasing dominance of the motor vehicle as the main mode of transport. As urban

developments become more decentralised, and move to the fringe of the city, there is

22

an increase in car dependence for normal everyday travelling, to work, school, shopping

and leisure activities.

There is a need to integrate land use and transport planning within local AQM strategies

in order to improve air quality and change travel behaviour. The provision of

infrastructure in the past has shown that it exacerbates rather than solves the problem.

New roads can generate more new traffic (SACTRA, 1999).

Traffic management

Traffic management can be used to reduce vehicle emissions. Traffic management

measures have included computerised traffic light control, network and junction design,

parking controls, reducing the supply of space allocated to car parks, speed limits,

restricted access for non-essential traffic, bus priority lanes, pedestrian areas and cycling

facilities. These measures not only reduce energy use but also provide an environment

which is more people-friendly and which encourages greater walking and cycling.

Small traffic management schemes can influence air quality in their immediate vicinity,

but are likely to have a relatively small effect over a larger area. Free-flowing traffic and

smooth driving techniques usually mean lower emissions and better fuel consumption. It

should be a general objective of traffic management to reduce congestion, making

smoother driving possible, but without speeding. However, improving traffic flow and

reducing congestion may attract more vehicles and additional measures may be required

to prevent an increase in vehicle movements.

Enforcement of traffic laws and regulations can provide considerable improvement in

traffic flow (USEPA, 1998). However, improved traffic flow can also generate increased

traffic unless used in combination with management of traffic demand. This may include

measures to discourage use of vehicles in congested areas of the city during peak

periods by using parking policies, congestion charges, and electronic road pricing. Travel

demand management is attractive to Pakistani cities as it normally involves

implementation of relatively low cost actions with considerable success.

Encouraging alternatives to the private motor vehicle

Use of public transport and non-motorized transport (NMT) can help reduce transport

emissions by reducing use of private vehicles. However, efficient bus or rail systems

need to be developed by making them sufficiently attractive to induce high occupancy

rates. High standards of quality of service need to be implemented to avoid or curtail the

23

operations of informal transport providers using small, old, polluting, and poorly

maintained vehicles. Bicycle and pedestrian programmes also need to be attractive to

the public by giving emphasis to safe and efficient transport.

Reducing motor vehicle emissions

Improvements in fuel and vehicle technologies provide cost-effective options to reduce

vehicle emissions in many developing countries where there is a rapid growth in private

vehicle ownership. The Government can implement the use of cleaner fuels and tighter

emission standards for new vehicles without direct additional costs to governments. This

can be achieved by passing the costs to consumers, and amending the taxation

schedules to reduce taxes on cleaner fuels and vehicles and increasing the taxation on

polluting fuels and vehicles. However, regulations to reduce fuel adulteration and

substitution should be considered. Fuels and vehicles can be thought of as a joint

system, as cleaner vehicle technologies usually require improved fuels.

Cleaner fuels usually involve the elimination of lead, and reductions in sulphur, benzene,

vapour pressure and total aromatics in petroleum, and lowering the density, sulphur,

and polycyclic hydrocarbons in diesel. The introduction of cleaner fuels needs close

consultation with stakeholders, particularly the oil and auto industries, and usually

requires short- and medium-term strategies to enable the fuel and vehicle industries

sufficient time to adapt.

Improving fuel quality may also involve the introduction of alternative fuels to reduce

particle emissions. These alternative fuels include LPG, CNG, biofuels, hydrogen and

electricity. In addition to reducing emissions of air pollution, these fuels may diversify

energy sources and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. Vehicle technologies

being used to reduce emissions include catalytic converters, exhaust gas recirculation,

and diesel particle traps. Use of these technologies in new vehicles is largely driven by

new vehicle emission standards.

Without a balance between the emission standards for new vehicles and for in-use

vehicles, there can be adverse unintended consequences. Stringent requirements for

new vehicles can be expensive, and if standards for in-use vehicles are lax or not

effectively implemented, vehicle replacement is delayed, resulting in an ageing, high

emission vehicle fleet. Effective implementation of standards for in-use vehicles is

necessary to ensure that vehicles with high levels of emissions are repaired or retired

from the road.

24

Vehicle inspection and maintenance (I&M) programmes can successfully reduce

emissions from old vehicles and ensure that new vehicles remain in good condition.

Emissions of CO and HC can be reduced up to 25 per cent through strict I&M

programmes. Criteria pollutants commonly regulated for in-use diesel vehicles are PM,

smoke, and NO2 for petrol-fuelled vehicles, CO, HCs, and NOx and for two- and three-

wheeled vehicles, CO, HCs and smoke (ADB, 2003). These I&M programmes also

accelerate the disposal of old and inefficient cars. However, they may face financial,

political and enforcement difficulties. Different countries have had varying levels of

success with effective implementation of I&M.

Test procedures should be designed to make it difficult to cheat or avoid testing, and to

minimise differences between test centres and maximize reproducibility. Strong

independent oversight and auditing of the system is required.

If resources are limited, it is usually advisable in the initial phase of implementation to

focus resources on a limited number of vehicle categories, such as vehicles that travel a

large number of kilometres per year and are heavily polluting (such as commercial diesel

vehicles) in preference to testing every vehicle every year (Gwilliam et al., 2004).

Where centres conduct both testing and maintenance it is difficult to supervise and audit

the test and repair systems to provide quality control and prevent corruption. Outcomes

are better where the testing and repair functions are clearly separated with centralised,

test-only I&M centres (ADB, 2003).

Measures to reduce transport emissions in Karachi

Table 4 presents the key low cost measures that can be taken to reduce motor vehicle

emissions n Karachi.

Many vehicles in Karachi are older than 14 years. Obsolete vehicles which would not be

licensed anymore in their countries of origin emit 10 times more air pollutants than

newer vehicles. Pakistan should not allow the import of obsolete vehicles and to phase-

out old vehicles already in circulation.

The use of low sulphur fuels in vehicles, particularly diesel-driven vehicles, reduces the

emission of ultra fine sulphates which are a serious threat to human health because they

can be carcinogenic.

Smoothing traffic flow and reducing speed, banning or restricting traffic, or particular

types of vehicles, working with business and public to raise awareness of implications of

25

Table 4: Measures to reduce motor vehicle emissions in Karachi

Measures Description

Traffic management Traffic management measures include computerised traffic light

control, network and junction design, parking controls, reducing

the supply of space allocated to car parks, speed limits, avoiding

obstacles leading to acceleration- and deceleration driving,

restricted access for non-essential traffic, bus priority lanes,

pedestrian areas and cycling facilities.

Regulation and

control of public bus

transport

Use of efficient and comfortable public transport systems can

help reduce transport emissions by reducing use of private

vehicles. High standards of quality of service need to be

implemented.

Segregated lanes Segregated lanes can help smooth the traffic flow thus reducing

emissions.

Non-motorized

transport (NMT)

NMT is cycling and walking and serves to reduce short-distance

car trips which are most polluting. Segregated lanes for

motorized and NMT are necessary.

Ban the import of

obsolete vehicles and

phase-out old vehicles

still circulation.

Many vehicle fleets in SSA cities are older than 14 years.

Obsolete vehicles which would not be licensed anymore in their

countries of origin emit 10 times more air pollutants than newer

vehicles. A low cost option is to not allow the import of obsolete

vehicles and phase-out old vehicles already in circulation.

Physical restraint Physical restraints on vehicle use may take the form of limiting

use of vehicles on specific days or in specific areas provided

public transport facilities exist.

Parking policies Parking policies including Park and Ride Systems are likely to

reduce both congestion and the demand for individual motorized

transport. Effective enforcement of parking restrictions is

necessary.

Road pricing Tolls on roads and motorways and congestion charges for the

access to urban areas help limit car movement provided viable

alternatives exist and under pricing is avoided.

Use of low sulphur

fuels in vehicles

The use of low sulphur fuels in vehicles, particularly diesel-driven

ones reduces the emission of ultra fine sulphates which are a

serious threat to human health because due to their carcinogenic

properties.

26

transport choice. Stop-and-start driving, typical of congested traffic, increases total

emissions of PM for the same distance travelled. Traffic management can smooth out

speeds on existing traffic volumes and reduce emissions. CO, hydrocarbons, and PM

emission levels tend to fall and NOx emissions rise, with increasing vehicle speed.

A general low cost option to reduce motor vehicle pollution is better traffic management

which reduces congestion and makes smoother driving possible. Measures include

banning or restricting traffic, parking restrictions, promoting bus public transport,

walking and cycling. As well as the direct pricing of road use and integrating land use

and transport planning with local air quality management strategies to improve air

quality. Poor traffic management, congestion, exposure to traffic pollution and fear of

accidents are a disincentive to people to both walk and cycle in an urban environment.

Figure 9 presents recommendations to reduce emissions from the transport sector

ordered according to increasing level of cost.

Area sources

Burning of biomass and open burning of waste are major contributors to poor air quality

in Karachi. It is therefore necessary to implement strategies to reduce urban emissions

from areas sources such as forest fires, burning of biomass and open burning of waste.

Prevention and control strategies may include enforcement of bans on burning of

materials or waste, and promotion of alternatives to burning. These may also include

paving roads, establishing re-vegetation programmes in dust control areas and use of

street sweeping equipment. Education strategies may involve informing the community

about sources of emissions, and the impact of these practices on health and the

environment (WHO, 2000).

Open burning of waste can produce toxic emissions. To address this issue it is necessary

to identify areas where this occurs, assess the extent of the problem; then assess the

adequacy of the city’s provision of disposal means in these areas and, if necessary,

improve the facilities and capacities for solid waste management (SWM). The present

SWM situation in Karachi can be characterised as sub-standard, inefficient and

hampered by serious organisational and technical deficiencies, resulting in various

dysfunctional systems and many related negative effects on the environment and public

health. Household, industrial and medical waste is sometimes deposited in the same

landfill sites. Used car accumulators generated in Pakistan are not collected and usually

27

end up at illegal dumps or are mixed with the municipal solid waste (MSW) and disposed

at municipal landfills. No incineration facilities for the disposal of SWM exist in Karachi.

Figure 9: Options to reduce motor vehicle emissions based on increasing cost

SWM strategic objectives and targets include:

SWM policy and legislative framework development;

Institutional/organisational arrangements;

Human resources and capacity enhancement;

Final disposal facilities;

Waste separation, storage, collection and transport systems;

Financing and cost recovery instruments;

Stakeholder awareness and communication;

IncreasingCost

Ban the Importation of Old Second-

Hand Motor Vehicles

Reduce Sulphur Content in Diesel

Traffic Management Measures to

Ensure Free Flowing Traffic

Transport Demand Management

Replace Diesel Driven Bus Fleet by

CNG-LPG/CNG

Inspection And Maintenance System

28

Data availability and reporting requirements;

Waste avoidance and reduction targets;

Waste recovery and recycling systems;

Waste treatment and processing facilities.

Recycling is presently not financially feasible in Pakistan since the net costs are

considerably higher than the costs of land filling. This is mainly due to the high costs of

the required separate collection, limited volumes and lack of proper processing facilities.

In order to stimulate and increase the recycling rates, the introduction of specific

product charges and taxes would be necessary. The required extensive organisational

capabilities at national and local level however are not considered adequate yet to

handle such complicated systems. Therefore the introduction of “producers’

responsibility” is strongly recommended as a low cost option; an approach that is

increasingly applied in other countries.

Measures to reduce area source emissions in Karachi

Table 5 presents the key low cost measures that can be taken to reduce polluting air

emissions from areas sources in Karachi.

Table 5: Measures to reduce polluting air emissions in Karachi

Measure Description

Ban deliberate open burning in

urban areas and at municipal waste

deposits.

A ban of open burning in urban areas helps reduce

pollutant emissions. A collection, expert deposition

and/or treatment must exist in order to enforce the

ban

Burn municipal and industrial

hazardous wastes in existing

cement plants at high

temperatures.

Hazardous wastes must be treated before

deposition of their residues. Municipal waste

incinerators are expensive due to the high

temperatures of incineration needed. Cement

plants use incinerating temperatures high enough

to burn most hazardous wastes and produce non-

hazardous ashes and residues.

Collection and use of used tyres as

fuel in cement kilns.

Open burning of used tyres in urban areas and on

waste deposits leads to high emissions of PM and

should therefore be avoided. Their incineration in

tar and lime production facilities or cement kiln

avoids this problem.

29

A ban of open burning in urban areas helps reduce pollutant emissions. A collection,

expert disposal and/or treatment must exist in order to enforce the ban. Facilities for

waste treatment such as waste incineration plants are expensive. A low cost option for

air pollution caused by area sources would be to ban deliberate open burning in urban

areas and at municipal waste deposits. However, two challenges occur as a

consequence of such a ban:

Open burning of wastes in urban areas are banned and the ban enforced, a

viable collection, disposal and/or treatment system of SWM must be available.

Due to the high ambient temperatures experienced in Pakistan accidental

burning of waste deposits also occurs, in particular if municipal and industrial

wastes are deposited together.

Hazardous wastes must be treated before deposition of their residues. Municipal waste

incinerators are expensive due to the high temperatures of incineration needed. Cement

plants use incinerating temperatures high enough to burn most hazardous wastes and

produce non-hazardous ashes and residues. Provided that transport facilities for wastes

exist, a low cost option to treat municipal and industrial hazardous wastes would be

burning the wastes in existing cement plants at the high temperatures that are used

there.

In Pakistan most used tyres from motor vehicles are currently sent to landfill or are

burned in the open air. Open burning of used tyres in urban areas and on waste

deposits leads to high emissions of PM and should therefore be avoided. Their

incineration in a cement kiln avoids this problem.

Transboundary air pollution

The transboundary movement of air pollution across borders may cause adverse effects

in countries other than the country of origin. With advanced monitoring and modelling

technology there is more evidence that pollution emitted in one part of the world can

create adverse effects in other parts. Pollutants with a potential for regional and

intercontinental transport include: fine particles; acidifying substances (SO2, NOx); O3

and its precursors (VOC and NOx); heavy metals (mercury); and persistent organic

pollutants (POPs).

Pollutant levels at a location are determined by a combination of processes, including

the intensity of local source emissions, the atmospheric capacity to dilute the emission,

30

the natural removal processes, the physical and chemical transformation of pollutants,

and the amount transported from upwind regions. Dust from the Sahara regularly

causes a number of high PM events in Europe and even reaches Central and South

America, and occasionally the State of Florida. Emissions from human activities in

populated cities may be transported over large distances.

Within Southern Asia, the major transboundary air pollution issues of concern include:

regional haze from forest fires, atmospheric brown cloud (ABC), acid deposition and

regional dust. In addition, trace elements from coal combustion, particularly mercury

(Hg), have a high potential for long-range transport (UNEP and C4 2002; UNEP 2002;

Pottinger et al., 2004).

Regional haze from forest fires

Haze is the suspension of extremely small (dry) particles in the atmosphere which are

invisible to the naked eye. However, they are numerous enough to give the atmosphere

an appearance of opalescence together with reduced visibility (ISO, 1994). Sub-micron

particles effectively scatter and absorb sunlight and affect cloud formation, which may

introduce a range of effects from visibility reduction to climate change.

Smog is fog which has a high content of air pollutants (WMO, 1992). Smoke is an

aerosol originating from combustion, thermal decomposition or thermal evaporation. Its

particles may be solid (magnesium oxide smoke) or liquid (tobacco smoke) (IUPAC,

1997). The International Standard definition of smoke is that of a visible aerosol usually

resulting from combustion (ISO, 1994) or as a suspension in the atmosphere of small

particles produced by combustion (WMO, 1992).

Urban and other emissions observed in the IndoEx campaign (UNEP and C4, 2002) led to

massive thick aerosol layers covering much of Southern Asia and the Indian Ocean.

Tropospheric ozone pollution

Tropospheric ozone pollution is a transboundary in nature. Available data shows that

ambient concentrations of O3 are causing both visible injury and economic damage to

crops, forests and natural ecosystems (Heck et al., 1998; Emberson et al., 2003). It is

also clear that injurious effects of O3 on vegetation frequently occur as a result of

cumulative exposures over many days, weeks and months rather than during a few

hours of peak ozone days (Heck et al., 1999). O3 concentrations in the South Asian

region are currently unknown but modelling suggests that O3 can be at levels in Pakistan

31

that can cause crop yield reductions. O3 actually damages plants by inhibiting their

ability to open the microscopic pores (stomata) on their leaves and breathe (Roach,

1999).

Ozone pollution originating in urban areas can extend into surrounding rural and

forested areas that are hundreds of kilometres downwind. Episodes of elevated ozone

concentrations are associated with warm, slow moving high pressure systems and have

concentrations between 60 and 100 µg/m3. O3 is a powerful photochemical oxidant that

damages rubber, plastic, and all plant and animal life. O3 impacts on human health

include a number of morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung inflammation.

Other respiratory ailments including asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis represent the

primary health problems associated with human exposure to ground level ozone (WHO,

2000). Children are especially susceptible to O3 related illnesses because on average

they spend more time outdoors than adults and their airways are narrower than adults.

It also reacts with hydrocarbons from automobile exhaust and evaporated gasoline to

form secondary organic pollutants such as peroxyacyl nitrates that are very irritating to

the eyes and throat (WHO, 2000; 2005).

The only solution to reduce O3 concentrations is to reduce its precursor air pollutants

NO, NO2 and hydrocarbons.

Measures to reduce emissions which contribute to transboundary pollution

AQM strategies need to consider air emissions which contribute transboundary air

pollution and global climate change. Transbounday air pollution includes regional haze

from forest fires, atmospheric brown cloud (ABC), acid deposition, regional dust and

importation of hazardous waste. Measures will be in addition to and complement

measures to reduce sectoral emissions. Table 6 presents key measures that can be

taken to reduce the contribution to transboundary air pollution.

32

Table 6: Measures to reduce transboundary air pollution

Measure Description

Use of low-sulphur fossil

fuels (low sulphur coal

and oil, and natural gas).

Combustion of low sulphur fuels in industries and motor

vehicles reduces the emission of ultra fine sulphates which

are a serious threat to human health.

Use of low excess air NOx

burners in industries can

help to reduce NOx

emissions during

combustion.

This is a cost-effective method to reduce NOx emissions in

existing gas- or oil-fired plants and is essentially a change in

operating procedures. The polluter pays principle should

always apply but in the case of transboundary pollution

agreements among countries are needed.

Implement measures to

achieve co-benefits in the

reduction of urban air

pollutants and GHG

emissions

Many measures of air pollution reduction also reduce GHG

emissions. Such measures include cleaner production

technologies, cleaner fuels and vehicles, and demand

management of goods and services.

Use the Clean

Development Mechanism

(CDM) as an instrument

to implement co-benefit

measures

The use of the CDM can lead to increased energy efficiency

and conservation; transfer of technologies and financial

resources; local environmental and human health benefits.

Subsequent benefits will include sustainable energy

production; private and public sector capacity development;

and poverty alleviation and equity realisation through

income and employment generation.

Measures all emission sources

Table 7 presents the key low cost measures that can be taken to reduce polluting air

emissions from all sources in Karachi.

World Health Organization air quality guidelines

The World Health Organization (WHO) has derived air quality guideline (AQG) values

and exposure times for approximately 50 non-carcinogenic compounds and unit risk

(UR) values for approximately 30 carcinogenic pollutants (WHO, 2000). A few of these

AQG values – for SO2, O3 and PM - have been recently updated (WHO, 2005). The AQG

values of WHO are derived in expert consultations in which the globally available

literature on air pollution induced adverse health impacts is compiled, reviewed,

evaluated and AQG and UR values developed on the basis of the exposure-response

relationships reported in the literature.

33

Table 7: Measures to reduce polluting air emissions from all sources in Karachi

Measure Description

Using WHO air quality

guidelines to set air

quality standards.

The WHO air quality guidelines(AQG) can be utilized for

setting air quality standards (AQS) in a country because the

criteria for the derivation of AQG values are also valid for

setting AQS. Use of the WHO AQG values to set AQS is a low

cost option for developing countries in SSA.

Use of a simple

integrated model for air

quality management.

The Simple Integrated Model for Better Air Quality (SIM-AIR)

is a relatively new interactive model to examine emissions,

ambient air quality and health.

Non-carcinogenic AQG values reflect a low risk of incidence of adverse health effects if

the AQG values are complied with. If the AQG values are exceeded this does not

necessarily mean that adverse effects occur in a population but only that the risk for

such effects increases. The AQG can be utilised for setting national air quality standards.

Experience from developed countries may be used to collect information on the

acceptable number of times standards are exceeded. A participatory approach in setting

standards which involves stakeholders (e.g. industry, local authorities, NGOs, media and

the general public) assures - as far as possible - social equity or fairness to the parties

involved. The provision of sufficient information and transparency in standard setting

procedures ensures that stakeholders understand the environmental, health and socio-

economic impacts of such standards.

Setting air quality standards on the basis of WHO AQG values does not mean that the

adopted standards have to have the same WHO values. Rather air quality standards

have to be set considering the prevailing exposure levels and the environmental, socio-

cultural and economic conditions in a country. WHO’s AQG values, therefore, should be

considered as target values, only to be implemented stepwise. Presently, in most

countries air quality standards are above the WHO AQG values. For PM the WHO has

developed a procedure of setting intermediate air quality standard values which can be

implemented in the medium- to long-term (WHO, 2005).

Use of the WHO AQG values to set air quality standards is a low cost option for Pakistan.

34

Use of a simple integrated model for air quality management

The Simple Integrated Model for Better Air Quality (SIM-AIR) is a relatively new

interactive model to examine emissions, ambient air quality, and health. While it relies

on some of the basic approaches and emission factors contained in AP-42, CORINAIR,

and RIAS, it is based on an integrated AQM approach and provides a user-friendly

visualisation of rapid assessment of pollution data and control options. The SIM-AIR

integrated approach has a number of advantages:

allows definition of all major types of urban emission sources, such as point,

mobile, and area;

provides default emission factors where available (users can change these

factors based on local context, or use CORINAIR, AP-42 or RIAS emission

factors);

interfaces an emission computation model with key technology and management

options (e.g. fuel change, conversion of two stroke to four stroke engines etc.);

links emissions to ambient air quality through an externally created or supplied

source-receptor matrix (this allows user to apply an urban air quality model of

their choice. SIM-AIR is thus independent of the air quality model);

allows estimation of economic impacts on health. The user can edit exposure-

damage relationships according to local knowledge;

allows input of cost data for a broad range of AQM options;

encourages rapid assessment of management options in terms of cost

effectiveness;

provides an optimisation scheme to identify most cost-effective option

combinations.

SIM-AIR uses a “main” worksheet and eight other “theme” worksheets to display the

output in Excel format. The eight themes include emission distribution of non-transport

sources, vehicle data, emissions inventory, a menu of options, health impacts, transfer

coefficients to compute ambient concentrations, ambient concentrations, and, finally, a

help worksheet. The result is that for any grid of the study area, the input data contains

information on emission distribution, ambient concentration, health impacts, and

management options.

35

The SIM-AIR model is primarily a training tool and should not be used as the only

support system for decision making. However, as a training tool, it helps to understand

how different management options can influence health impacts.

8 Implementation in Karachi

A good overall environmental policy, supported by all responsible government

departments, can lead to sound and rational AQM in Karachi. AQM should be seen as an

objective for sustainable development. The implementation of a sound and rational AQM

within the overall policy framework, as well as in specific policies such as land use

planning, energy, transport and industrial development, will reduce the adverse impacts

of air pollution on human health and the environment. An integrated AQM process can

inform, educate and train all stakeholders and strengthen stakeholder participation in all

aspects related to air quality, e.g. adverse health and environmental impacts, prevention

and reduction of air pollution.

There should be an increased commitment to AQM and its enforcement from all

stakeholders, strengthening the legal basis of AQM in national laws and regulations and

strengthening the capacity of responsible agencies to effectively enforce AQM policies.

Existing international and regional guidelines, conventions and treaties related to AQM,

transboundary air pollution and global climate change should be adopted and

implemented. These will reduce the threats emerging from air pollution (e.g. the

adoption of WHO Air Quality Guidelines as a long-term goal and interim ambient

standards based on local conditions, experience and capabilities). Strengthening regional

cooperation and sharing information on all aspects of air quality will help to solve both

national and supranational challenges.

Setting of targets and establishing indicators for acceptable air quality in Pakistan can

improve the quality of the air, thereby reducing impacts on human health and the

environment. WHO AQG may be used in setting standards and averaging times. The

criteria for the derivation of air quality guidelines set by WHO are also valid for setting

standards. Experience from developed countries may be used to collect information on

the number of standard exceeding values not leading to adverse health or

environmental effects.

The provision of sufficient information and transparency in standard setting procedures

ensures that stakeholders understand the environmental, health and socio-economic

impacts of such standards. A participatory approach in setting standards which involves

36

stakeholders (e.g. industry, local authorities, NGOs, media and the general public) will

ensure assures social equity or fairness to all the parties involved. Strengthening the

commitment and role of the media can assist in identifying air quality-related problems

at an early stage. They can assist in communicating this information to the general

public and outlining the necessary action required.

Regulations on emission standards for mobile and stationary sources, air quality

standards, viable dispersion models and reliable monitoring procedures will ensure

rational and sound AQM. This includes, where appropriate, the adoption of emission

standards based on developed countries’ experiences. Best available control technology

avoids the problem of inequities among countries and prevents ‘social dumping’.

A regular review of AQM policies and legislation such as updating emission and air

quality standards and assessing the success and efficiency of AQM measures is

recommended. The establishment of an accredited body for evaluation of the efficiency

of programmes related to AQM can help in this assessment.

Regulations for frequent reporting of policy enforcement of AQM will give politicians and

managers responsibility for the implementation of the necessary information to define

the next steps in AQM.

Establishing national and regional accredited agencies for verification of data on

emissions, dispersion models (and their outputs), air pollutant concentrations and health

and environmental parameters will lead to data of known quality and enhanced reliability

of information. While collaboration and information sharing in AQM issues among all

responsible agencies is the best means to achieve the AQM goals at minimal cost.

A Clean Air Implementation Plan (CAIP) is a means of improving urban air quality in

Karachi and a convenient way of reporting on the different activities in AQM, such as:

estimating and/or monitoring emissions;

dispersion modelling;

air quality monitoring;

testing compliance with emission and air quality standards;

outlining measures to reduce emissions from mobile, stationary and area

sources; and

surveillance of health and environmental impacts.

37

The adoption of a CAIP as an instrument for implementing effective environmental

policy can assist in achieving policy goals in a structured and transparent manner. CAIPs

have been adopted and successfully implemented in developed countries

Tailored CAIP for Karachi could include:

a rapid assessment of the most important sources;

monitoring results from a minimal set of air pollutant concentration monitors;

simulation of the spatial distribution of air pollutant concentrations, using simple

dispersion models;

comparison with air quality standards;

assessment of adverse health and environmental impacts;

control measures to address pollution from mobile, stationary and area sources

and their costs; and

assessment of the internal and external costs and benefits of AQM.

CAIPs contribute to public information and awareness raising. CAIPs with rapid

assessment procedures are especially suited for countries and cities with relatively little

AQM capacity and where no established procedure exists for AQM. It is advantageous

to:

implement the CAIPs in incremental steps, tailored to the goals, policies, needs,

capabilities and resources available in the country;

validate the data for CAIPs through a national accredited body;

make information from CAIPs widely available; and

select an air quality champion for the dissemination of AQM information.

38

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