A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY AN ...

A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA SARI

Student Number: 154214049

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS

UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA

YOGYAKARTA

2019

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA SARI

Student Number: 154214049

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS

UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA

YOGYAKARTA

2019


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Be kind to one another (Ellen DeGeneres)


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I dedicate my thesis

To my

loving parents,

dearest brother, and

wonderful best friends.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a genuine pleasure to express my gratitude to Jesus Christ for always

gives me His countless blessing of making this research.

I owe a deep sense of gratitude to Fransisca Kristanti S.Pd., M.Hum. who

is willing to be my thesis adviser. Her guidance, timely advice, meticulous

scrutiny, and assistance have helped me to accomplish this research. Additionally,

I would like to express my thanks to my co-adviser, Simon Arsa Manggala S.S.,

M.Hum. His timely suggestions and additional knowledge have enabled me to

complete my research.

I thank profusely all the English Letters lecturers and staffs of Universitas

Sanata Dharma for their help and guidance throughout my study period. Without

them, I would not be able to finish my study completely.

I am extremely thankful to my loving parents, who always support me in

everything I do, to my dearest brother, Emmanuel Ivan, who is always be an

admirable brother, to Rm. Mahar, Rm. Sani, and Rm. Tomi, who support me, and

to all my wonderful best friends, Deni, Juan, Nes, Nova, Bagas (Tayo), Aan,

Anggrid, Abeng, and Garda for helping me survive all the stress from the first

year in campus to now and for never letting me give up.

Alexandra Ira Indira Sari


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................. ii

APPROVAL PAGE ....................................................................................... iii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE .................................................................................. iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY .............................................................. v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ....................................................................... vi

MOTTO PAGE .............................................................................................. vii

DEDICATION PAGE .................................................................................... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................ x

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xii

ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................ xiii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1

A. Background of the Study .......................................................................... 1

B. Problem Formulation ................................................................................ 3

C. Objectives of the Study ............................................................................ 4

D. Definition of Terms ................................................................................. 4

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................. 6

A. Review of Related Studies ....................................................................... 6

B. Review of Related Theories ................................................................... 10

1. Corpus Study ....................................................................................... 10

2. Semantics ............................................................................................ 11

3. Semantic Features ................................................................................. 12

4. Componential Analysis ......................................................................... 13

5. Linguistic Context ................................................................................. 14

C. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................ 15

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 16

A. Object of the Study ................................................................................... 16

B. Approach of the Study .............................................................................. 16

C. Method of the Study ................................................................................. 17

1. Data Collection...................................................................................... 17

2. Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................... 20

A. The Possible Meaning of “Run” .............................................................. 20

1. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Verb ..................................................... 23

2. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Noun .................................................... 33

B. The Linguistic Context of Dominant Meanings of “Run” ....................... 38

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 50


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REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 52

APPENDICES ................................................................................................. 54

Appendix 1 : ................................................................................................. 54

Appendix 2 : ................................................................................................. 59

Appendix 3 : ................................................................................................. 60


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ABSTRACT

SARI, ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA. (2019). A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF

RUN: A CORPUS STUDY. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty

of Letters, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

The word “run” is commonly used in society within daily conversation.

Most English learners understand “run” as a quick movement of two legs and

faster than a walk. However, in practice, “run” has other meanings and the

meanings change depending on the context. The fact that “run” carries various

meanings applied in different context makes it interesting in this research focus.

This research has two objectives: (1) to analyze the possible meaning of

“run” from clauses in British National Corpus and (2) to identify the linguistic

context of the dominant meaning of “run”. To accomplish the aim, theories of

corpus study, semantics, semantic features, componential analysis, and linguistic

context are applied in this research.

Semantics approach was utilized in this research to analyze the meanings

and linguistic contexts. The methodology used in this research was qualitative

method to identify and elaborate “run” through some test of semantic features.

Then, this research grouped the results of the analysis to show the frequency of

the meaning. Later, the linguistic contexts were analyzed through the explanation

of each lexicon. All analysis was described with some examples of clauses.

The finding of this research presents several possible meanings of “run” as

verbs and nouns. Nevertheless, this research finds three dominant meanings of

“run” as verbs, and no dominant meanings of “run” as nouns. Those three

dominant meanings are “to control or manage something”, “to move with two legs

more quickly”, and “to operate a computer or program”. These three dominant

meanings reveal the linguistic context of “business”, “education”, “charity”,

“politics”, “sport”, and “technology”. “Politics” is the only linguistic context that

appears more than one times.

Keywords: semantics, run, linguistic context, corpus


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ABSTRAK

SARI, ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA. (2019). A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF

RUN: A CORPUS STUDY. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas

Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Masyarakat sering menggunakan kata “run” dalam berkomunikasi.

Mayoritas, masyarakat yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua

memahami “run” sebagai sebuah perpindahan yang lebih cepat daripada berjalan

menggunakan kedua kaki. Realitanya, kata “run” memiliki lebih dari satu arti dan

kata tersebut dapat berubah arti berdasarkan konteksnya. Mengacu pada fakta

tersebut, fenomena ini menarik untuk diteliti.

Penelitian ini memiliki dua tujuan: (1) untuk menganalisis kemungkinan

arti dari kata “run” pada klausa-klausa yang diambil dari British National Corpus

dan (2) untuk mengidentifikasi konteks bahasa dari arti kata “run” yang sering

muncul. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, penelitian ini menerapkan teori korpus,

semantik, fitur semantik, analisis komponensial, dan konteks bahasa.

Semantik merupakan pendekatan yang diterapkan untuk menganalisis arti

dan konteks bahasa. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk

mengidentifikasi dan menguraikan arti kata “run” melalui fitur semantik.

Kemudian, penelitian ini mengelompokkan hasil analisis melalui fitur semantik

tersebut untuk melihat berapa banyak arti yang muncul. Selain itu, konteks bahasa

dianalisis melalui penjelasan tiap kosakata. Semua analisis dijelaskan dengan

memaparkan beberapa contoh klausa.

Hasil penelitian menunjukkan beberapa kemungkinan arti dari kata “run”

sebagai kata kerja dan kata benda. Namun, penelitian ini menemukan tiga arti kata

“run” yang sering muncul sebagai kata kerja dan tidak ditemukannya arti kata

“run” yang sering muncul sebagai kata benda. Ketiga arti yang sering muncul

adalah “untuk mengatur sesuatu”, “untuk berpindah dengan cepat menggunakan

kaki”, dan “untuk mengoperasikan komputer atau program”. Tiga arti yang sering

muncul tersebut memperlihatkan konteks bahasa seperti “bisnis”, “pendidikan”,

“sumbangan atau amal”, “politik”, “olahraga”, dan “teknologi”. “Politik” adalah

satu-satunya konteks bahasa yang muncul lebih dari satu kali.

Keywords: semantik, “run”, konteks bahasa, korpus


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

When human beings have a conversation, they exchange their ideas

through the use of various linguistic forms, including words. Understanding the

ideas or thoughts means understanding the meaning of the words since meaning is

one of the parts of semantics because it is the idea that words, expressions, signs,

and symbols represent concepts, whether it is shown in the real word or through

imagination. Those concepts have meaning and semantics deals with meaning.

For example, the meaning of “mermaid” is a representation of a person who has

upper body as female but has a tail of fish as the legs. Human beings can

understand the word “mermaid” even though they have not seen the real word.

In their minds, human beings carry a huge vocabulary in order to deliver

their ideas and it is called lexical semantics. According to Löbner, lexical

semantics is “the investigation of expression meanings stored in the mental

lexicon (mouse, sock)” (2002, p. 16). Meaning to say, lexical semantics is a store

of vocabulary in order to show the objective meaning, therefore, human beings

can understand its meaning in general. Besides, it also shows how the lexicon has

the differences and similarities features in semantic field. By identifying the

features, lexical semantics cannot be completely understood by looking at a word,

but by looking at a set of words that is complete and related. Brinton & Brinton

also add, “the meanings of the words are interdependent” (2010, p.146).


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In short it is possible to separate the meaning of individual words.

Therefore, since lexical semantics analyzes the meaning of the word, this subfield

of linguistic is applied to answer the phenomenon that appears in society, which is

the word “run”.

The word “run” is commonly used in our society. This word is used quite

often because it is the basic vocabulary that society knows as their knowledge of

knowing English language and society knows the word “run” refers to a quick

movement of the legs and making a short jump off either foot. In practice, the

word “run” refers to an activity that can be applied not only to living things, but

also to an object or a moment. This can be concluded that the subject who does

the activity can create various meanings. Furthermore, the meanings of the word

“run” can be seen from the context of the sentence. Its context influences the

meaning of the word; “run” changes meaning when the context changes. Even

though “run” has a complex form in sentences, such as phrasal verb and

prepositional verb, this research focuses only on the basic form of “run” in order

to set the simplest analysis to be developed later by conducting further research.

In other words, this research only focuses on “run” as a verb and noun. Moreover,

in linguistics, the word “run” is one of the examples of conversion. Yule explains

that conversion is “a change in the function of a word, as for example when a

noun comes to be used as a verb (without any reduction)” (2010, p. 57). Meaning

to say, the word “run” is a kind of word formation that create a word from an

existing word without change the form of word.


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To investigate meanings of the word “run”, corpus study is used to analyze

the definition of the meaning “run”, yet it is the study of language as revealed in

corpora of real-world text. Real world texts mean that all texts are collected from

the reality in society. Corpus study is also used to strengthen investigations of

language variation and the use of language from the actual patterns of use in real

texts in society. Since it gives evidence about the variation and the use of

language, corpus study is also important to be used because the analysis using

corpus helps a lot in finding the phenomenon in the society in which the corpus

can make “the results obtained are valid and the generalizations that are made

have a solid linguistic basis” (Meyer, 2004, pg. 137).

To analyze the meaning of “run” from natural texts, British National

Corpus is used since it collects a hundred million words of samples of written and

spoken language from the world. Therefore, British National Corpus is used to be

the data source because it collects the samples from the past until present with the

result that the data source is precise to be examined. Furthermore, the word “run”

can be identified from the past until present to see the development of meanings

that appears and give the evidence about the variation and the use of language.

B. Problem Formulation

The two research problems in this research are, as follows:

1. What are the possible meanings of the word “run” from the clauses in British

National Corpus?

2. What linguistic contexts are revealed from the identified dominant meanings of

“run”?


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C. Objectives of the Study

This research asserts on the semantic analysis and the corpus study of the

word “run”. There are two research objectives. First is to analyze the possible

meaning of the word “run” from the clauses in British National Corpus. The

finding of the first objective is used to classify the linguistic contexts of the

dominant meanings of “run” that appear from the analysis. Moreover, this

research intends to find out and classify the linguistic context of dominant

meanings of “run” that the clauses are found from British National Corpus as the

real text in daily life.

D. Definition of Terms

The first term to be defined is semantic analysis. Semantic analysis is

field of semantics that understands the language, means knowing how to use it.

This term often requires syntactic and pragmatic approach to define the meaning

of the word.

The second term to be defined is corpus. Corpus is a large collection of

spoken and written language, and those are used for studying the language.

Moreover, corpus is a collection of samples of words from different types,

including newspaper, fiction, medical information, literary work, and government

documents.

The third term to be defined is corpus study. Corpus study is a study on

corpus in which “describes language variation and use by looking at large

amounts of texts that have been produced in similar circumstances” (Crawford &


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Csomay, 2016, p. 5). In other word, corpus study deals with how researcher use

language in various contexts.

The last term to be defined is linguistic context or co-text. Linguistic

context or co-text is a set of words that strengthen the lexical item to identify its

meaning. Furthermore, linguistic context or co-text can help English learners to

determine meanings.


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter, this research provides review of some literature in order to

support this study. It covers three reviews of related studies; two of them are

undergraduate theses and the other one is an academic journal. Three reviews of

related studies are made in order to avoid plagiarism and to highlight the

differences and similarities from those literatures and this research. After finishing

the review of related studies, this research continues in making the review of

related theories. Later, those theories are applied to answer the problems of this

research. In the last part, this chapter reveals the theoretical framework that

describes how the theories are applied to solve the problems.

A. Review of Related Studies

The first thesis entitled “The Semantic Study of the English Verbs

Meaning to Speak” is about a study of semantic features of the English words

containing meaning “to speak”. It was designed to analyze the difference and how

they were used in sentences. The objectives of Novriwandinata’s thesis are to find

out the definition of each verb that has meaning “to speak” and to find the

semantic features of the English verb that has the meaning “to speak”. To answer

the problems, Novriwandinata applied theory of synonym to find the verbs that

have similar meaning with “to speak”. The theory on word meaning was also used

to define each verb based on four dictionaries. Novriwandinata also used theory of


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sentential meaning to support the definition and found addition feature that could

appear after the verb applied in sentences. Lastly, he exerted the theory of

componential analysis as his approach to analyze the semantic features of each

verb and to see the differences between them.

After summarizing the thesis, the conclusion of the first problem is the

definition of the verb can be found not only from the dictionary, but also by

analyzing the verbs when they are applied in sentences. From the analysis,

Novriwandinata can decide the feature that cannot be found in the dictionary from

analyzing sentences. Second, using the semantic features, the features of the verb

can be categorized into content, condition, and reason. There are fourteen features

on content, five features on condition, and thirteen features on reason.

Novriwanditana’s thesis uses four dictionaries to make a comparison about

the meaning of the word “to speak” to see the characteristics of the word to help

Novriwandinata finds the semantic features of the word “to speak”. Unfortunately,

Novriwandinata does not give the exact samples of data to identify the use of verb

in different contexts. Even though this research is similar to Novriwandinata’s

thesis in the use of componential analysis, there are two things that are slightly

different. This research chooses the word “run” from British National Corpus as

the data and applies semantic analysis, componential analysis, corpus study, and

linguistic context or co-text. Meanwhile, Novriwandinata’s thesis uses the word

“to speak” as his object and puts the clauses from www.nytimes.com and

www.BBC.com as the data.


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The second thesis entitled “The Semantic Features of English Words

Meaning Good-Looking” was written to provide a better definition as well as the

difference of the synonymous words in the data. This thesis examined the English

words meaning “good-looking”. There are two objectives, first is to find out the

definition of the English words meaning “good-looking” in the data and second is

to see the semantic features that present the particular meaning of the words and

differentiate the meaning to each other. To answer those problems, the main

theory of this thesis is the procedures in componential analysis proposed by Nida,

but to support the procedures, word meaning is used to reveal the definition of the

English words, meaning “good-looking” by consulting to comprehensive

dictionaries and the theory of synonym to find the adjective that have similar

meaning with “good-looking”.

After reading the whole thesis, the analysis on the definition of the

English words meaning “good-looking” proves that the definitions of the words

are overlapping the same area as the definitions of other words. For example, the

definition of the word “beautiful” is used to describe a woman and the definition

of the word “handsome” explains the look of man and also the inner beauty of the

man, such as his power or his authority.

Overall, this thesis is a study on analyzing the semantic features of

English adjectives, which have the meaning of “good-looking”. However, this

thesis uses online article to prove the meaning of the word “good-looking” and it

does not give the exact example of each definition, therefore, the comparison of

each definition is quite difficult to be analyzed.


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The last is a journal article entitled “The Contrastive and Contextual

Analysis of the Verb Run” attempts at analyzing the contrastive and contextual

analysis of the verb “run”. It focuses on the contextual analysis of the verb “run”,

which does not include the idiomatic expression. Since the object of the journal

article is the word “run”, to identify the differences meaning, the journal article

uses contrastive analysis to find out the distinctive features of the word. It also

utilizes contextual analysis to give evidence that even though the word has the

same feature, the meaning is different because of the situational context.

After summarizing the journal article, the researcher finds that the

meaning of verb “run” can be determined from the context and features. The

similar context can derive different meaning, depends on the features. The same

meanings come from different context and features. Additionally, when the verb

“run” has similar features, the meanings of verb “run” are different since the

context also takes important effects and role on deciding the meanings.

Since this journal article was basically written as the development of

Nida’s work, firstly Isti’anah works on the journal article by collecting the context

first then applies them into the sentence and the result, Isti’anah presents forty

contextual analyses of the verb “run” whereas Nida’s work presents nine

contextual analyses of the verb “run”. Meanwhile, this research will identify the

possible meaning of English word “run” which the clauses are taken from British

National Corpus.


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B. Review of Related Theories

1. Corpus Study

Corpus study is “the study of language based on examples of ‘real life’

language use” (McEnery & Wilson, 2001, p. 1). It means that corpus study is a

study of various types of language as revealed in real world text. It helps people to

identify the use of language variation. Furthermore, corpus has more than a

million samples of written and spoken texts with different genres that are

collected from many sources in the world, such as newspaper, literary work, and

fiction. Since it collects many texts, corpus study conducts in several aspects; it

can describe the lexis in semantic field, it can study the aspect of grammar in

syntax field, and it also can examine the aspect of context in pragmatic field.

Furthermore, corpus is being used in the pursuit of broader or large problems,

such as stylistic in poem, novel and other literary works.

As this research studies about lexical semantics, this theory is applied

because it helps a lot in finding the lexical meaning from the real-world text.

Moreover, “corpora have proved to be a powerful tool for the investigation of

special uses of language” (O’Keeffe & McCarthy, 2010, p. 6). Meaning that this

research can test the lexical theory by using corpus data. Likewise, corpus is

applied to determine how frequent the lexical appear in the text.

Therefore, to determine how frequent the lexical is, British National

Corpus is used to examine the problem. As Leech, Rayson, and Wilson mention,

British National Corpus is “a sample of some 100 million words of present-day

spoken and written British English” (2014, p. 1). Furthermore, British National


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Corpus as the data source is chosen to examine the problems because it collects a

lot of written text of data. Since it collects many texts, there is a process of doing

the corpus to get the data. Later, this research does the cyclical process of

collecting data, making a group of data, and working on the analysis to get depth

information about how frequent the lexical is.

2. Semantics

Semantics is an approach in linguistic that study about meaning. Griffiths

explains, “Semantics is the study of the ‘toolkit’ for meaning” (2006, p. 1). It can

be said that semantics approach is knowledge in vocabulary and each meaning

will elaborate into the next level, which are sentence, phrase, and clause. Besides

meaning is found in text, it also appears in signs, symbols, gestures, and

expressions. Those forms of meaning are used within particular context. However,

this research focuses on the meaning of the word.

Semantics deals with the meanings of word, which is called lexical

semantics. In human being’s mind, lexical semantics is the same as vocabulary,

which is a useful tool for communication within their language. Since vocabulary

is a bundle of words, knowing the lexical semantics is important because it is not

simple to use it. It depends on the speaker’s knowledge of the lexical and the

depth of knowledge of the speaker. Moreover, the speaker must know the context

of using the lexical. For example, “see” as a verb in “Can I see your book,

please?” means, “to notice or examine someone or something, using your eyes

(Longman Dictionary, 2003). The meaning appears if the context is about seeing

someone or something from certain distance. Nonetheless, the meaning of “see”


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changes when the context changes, for example in “…some figures for you and

perhaps I’ll come and see you next week, okay?” (British National Corpus, 1994).

The meaning of “see” is visiting or meeting someone in the future, since the

context is about the trainer wants to prepare something for the student and they

may meet next week.

From the example above, it can be concluded that lexical semantics is a

study of examining meaning of each word from several aspects, one of them by

seeing the context. The meaning of the lexical increases when people have depth

of knowledge in understanding the meaning by seeing the context and the

function of the lexical in the sentence, whether it is a verb or noun.

3. Semantic Features

Semantic features represent the basic component meaning from each

lexical. Lexical semantics has its characteristic and to share the characteristic,

semantic features is used. Brinton & Brinton explains that, “features can be used

to compare words and talk systematically about sense relations” (2010, p. 157).

Moreover, semantic features share the specific distinction to get further

explanation about the component that represent the distinctive and similarities of

the word. For example, the words below:

Eagle: [+fly], [+carnivore], [-swim]

Penguin: [-fly], [+carnivore], [+swim]

Owl: [+fly], [+carnivore], [-swim]

Ostrich: [-fly], [-carnivore], [-swim]

From the example above, even though those animals are birds’ species,

they have an element that shows distinctive features. For example, penguin is a


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bird species, but it cannot fly; it only can walk and swim. The same as ostrich that

cannot fly; it only can walk and run. The example above explains that semantic

features appear from many sides of the lexical. Those animals are birds’ species,

meaning that the semantic features can appear from how the animals move from

one place to another place and what group of animals they are in eating

something. Therefore, semantic features are used to compare the features and to

identify further about the specific elements of the lexical.

4. Componential Analysis

Componential analysis is part of semantic features, which explain the

features of the word meaning. This theory is a method of structural semantics,

which analyzes the elements of a word’s meaning. It can be used to enrich the

understanding of other languages or enrich students’ vocabularies. Componential

analysis is usually applied to explain the conceptual content, like gender, family,

and kinship terms. For example, the word “mother” and “girl” can be compared

and the result, the distinctive feature of those words is [-mature] and the similarity

is [+female]. Componential analysis uses binary features to identify the features

of the word, like the example below:

Walk: [+verb], [-mental], [+activity],

[-stative], [+physical], [+dynamic]

Binary features are used to highlight the difference of each word.

Componential analysis from the example above proves that semantic enables

linguistics to explain how words may share certain features of the same semantic


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domain. Moreover, the symbol /+/ and /-/ are also important to convince that the

word is distinctive features or similar with other words.

Even though componential analysis and semantic feature are different,

they relate to each other. The componential analysis explains whether the features

are distinctive or similar, while semantic features explain the comparison element

between the lexical.

5. Linguistic Context

Linguistic context is part of pragmatics, since pragmatic is the study of

context. Based on The Study of Language book, there are two kinds of context in

pragmatics; those are linguistic context and physical context. In this case, the

research applies linguistic context to identify the context one by one. However, to

reveal the linguistic context, semantic analysis is utilized, which is lexical

analysis. Yule explains that linguistic context or co-text is “the set of other words

used in the same phrase or sentence” (2010, p. 129). It means that the context is

identified based on the surrounding words that have a strong effect. Moreover,

these words support the phrase or sentence to analyze the context.

For example, the word “book” can be identified as “something to read”

and “the activity of making a reservation”. It can be identified as “something to

read” if the sentence is “I read a book in library”. It is obviously a book is a thing

to read because there are “read” and “library”, which means both words are the

strong clues to identify what book is. “Read” is an action of someone who is

doing something and “library” is a place where someone does the action. On the

other hand, book is the activity of making a reservation if the sentence is “I have


15

already booked the hotel for next week”. There is a word “hotel” that supports the

meaning, which someone has been making a reservation to the hotel.

C. Theoretical Framework

Since the objectives of this research are to identify the possible meanings

of “run” and to find out the linguistic context of the dominant meanings of “run”

from British National Corpus, theories of corpus study, semantics, semantic

features, componential analysis, and linguistic context are applied in solving the

problems.

In answering the first problem, this research applies corpus study,

semantics, semantic features, and componential analysis to identify the possible

meaning of “run” based on the features of “run” by doing some test on basic

features and the additional features, then doing cyclical process in agglomerating

the word “run”, which is the word “run” that stand as verb and noun.

In answering the second problem, this research employs linguistic

context to describe the context of dominant meanings of “run” by identifying the

meaning of each strong word within each clause and make a conclusion of it.


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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents object of the study, approach of the study, and

method of the study. Firstly, the object of the study explains how “run” is used in

the real-world text. Secondly, the approach of the study discusses the tool to

examine the problems of this research. Finally, the method of the study describes

the processes in which the data were collected and analyzed.

A. Object of the Study

The objet of this research was 40 clauses that were taken from British

National Corpus at https://www.english-corpora.org/bnc/. Those clauses were

collected on November 2, 2018. British National Corpus is a collection of written

and spoken world text, which contains more than a hundred million clauses that

are published in this corpus. Because it contained lot of clauses, these objects

were collected from many sources, which those sources collected from

newspapers, fictions, politics, laws, and educations. Therefore, the use of “run” in

real world application is wider and gets various data.

B. Approach of the Study

The approach of this research is semantics. Lyons explains, “semantics is

traditionally defined as the study of meaning” (2006, p.3). In other word, it

focuses on how the listeners understand the meaning of the word and how the

speakers and listeners share meanings of the word. Therefore, semantics is


17

considered suitable to be used in the analysis for the identification of the possible

meaning of “run”.

Additionally, this research applied linguistic context or co-text. However,

the research utilized lexical analysis to identify the context. The goal of using

linguistic context is to understand how the speakers or users employ the language

in proper situation to avoid ambiguity. Thus, it is appropriate to reveal the

linguistic context of the dominant meanings of “run”.

C. Method of the Study

In process of conducting the research, two steps were executed. First was

collecting the data and second was analyzing the data. Those steps were presented

below.

1. Data Collection

This research applied qualitative method on several samples. The clauses

from British National Corpus were filtered and selected to analyze. The steps of

data collection were as followed.

First step to do was collecting the first 100 clauses containing the word

“run” that were taken from British National Corpus on November 2, 2018. Using

a computer, the researcher wrote the word “run” as a keyword at

https://www.english-corpora.org/bnc/. From the first 100 clauses, only the clauses

that used the word “run” as a verb and noun were selected. The clauses containing

“run” in phrasal verb and prepositional verb were eliminated and were not used as

the data. After the filtering, 60 clauses remained and were used as the data of this


18

research. Additionally, this research used 60 clauses which contained of spoken

and written texts.

2. Data Analysis

Since there were 60 clauses as the data, this research divided them into

three in order to be able to analyze them in cycles. In each cycle, the steps to

analyze the data analysis were doing some test of semantic features, analyzing the

result of the test, and identifying the context of the meanings. Cycles were applied

to identify repeating or contrasting pattern from each. Below is the illustration of

cyclical process of the data described.

From the illustration above, the cyclical process was conducted two times.

Each cycle analyzed 20 clauses to identify the feature. In results, there were 9

times of the appearance of the first dominant meaning from the first cycle. In

cycle two, the findings supported cycle one because there were 7 times of the

appearance of the first dominant meaning, 3 times of the appearance of the second


19

dominant meaning, and 2 times of the appearance of the third dominant meaning.

There was similar pattern as in cycle one. Therefore, since two cycles had similar

pattern, this research stopped the analysis after cycle two. Furthermore, the

findings in cycle one and two were enough to identify the possible meanings of

“run”.

The second step was grouping the result of the test to see the frequency of

the meaning. There were three dominant meanings of “run” as verbs and seven

meanings of “run” as nouns. After grouping, the research described three

dominant meanings of “run” as verbs and seven meanings of “run” as nouns with

several examples of clauses.

To attain the second research objective, the next step to do was analyzing

the linguistic context of three dominant meanings of “run” as verbs since the

identified meanings of seven meanings of “run” as nouns were not too significant.

To identify the linguistic context, this research selected lexicons from the clauses,

which could reveal the context. After that, this research grouped the result of the

analysis to present the frequency of the linguistic context. Last step to do was

describing the linguistic context of three dominant meanings with some examples

of clauses.


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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The discussion and the elaboration of the data analysis will be done in two

parts. First is to answer the possible meanings of “run” from the clauses in British

National Corpus. In this part, all of the possible meanings that are found from the

part of speech, verb and noun, will be discussed by providing the semantic

features to see the distinctions and similarities. The second part is examining the

context of those possible meaning based on their linguistic contexts.

A. The Possible Meanings of “Run”

After analyzing and examining “run” from the clauses in British National

Corpus, there are several meanings that appear. The result of the analysis, the

word “run” has two functions, which are “run” stands as verb and “run” stands as

noun. Moreover, the word “run” changes the meaning depends on the sentences

and the part of speech with various meanings. The analysis identifies eleven

possible meanings as verbs and seven possible meanings as nouns. The table

below explains the distribution of categories and meanings of “run”

Table 1. Percentage of the Meaning of the Word “Run”

Part of

Speech Meaning Frequency Percentage

Verb

To control or manage

something 16 40%

To move with two legs more

quickly 4 10%

To operate the computer or

program 3 7.5%

To broadcast or print 2 5%


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something in media

To gain knowledge or learn

something important 2 5%

To take someone

somewhere in someone’s

car

1 2.5%

To produce something from

factory or company 1 2.5%

To leave a situation or

arrangement as soon as

things go away

1 2.5%

To add something or

someone in order to get

advantage

1 2.5%

To build something 1 2.5%

To take care of someone 1 2.5%

Noun

Something happening for a

short period of time 1 2.5%

An experiment or a trial 1 2.5%

A quick movement of the

legs to escape from

something dangerous or to

reach a destination quickly

1 2.5%

Having a score in baseball

game 1 2.5%

The usual type of something

or someone that usually

happen

1 2.5%

A challenge to be as good at

something as someone who

is extremely good

1 2.5%

Something happens at a

time that is far away in the

future

1 2.5%

From the table above, this research finds out that there are three dominant

meanings of “run”. Those three dominant meanings are found from “run” as

verbs. It can be seen that the frequency of “run” as verbs is commonly used in

daily conversation. The finding shows that “run” as verbs with the meaning “to

control or manage something” has the biggest percentage with 40%. The second


22

dominant meaning is “to move with two legs more quickly” with 10%. The last

dominant meaning is “to operate the computer or program” with 7.5%.

Since this research relies on the semantic features, to identify the meaning

of “run” in each clause, the analysis found several shared features of the word

within the verb category. Those shared semantic features [+verb], [+activity],

[+transitive], [+physical]. Later, in analyzing the sentences, some features are

added in order to have deeper information about the distinctive features, which

become crucial in differentiating its meaning and the similarity of each meaning

of the lexical. To make this analysis clear, the basic distinctive features that are

found from these findings are [-mental], [-stative], and [-intransitive], even though

one of the dominant meanings carries [+intransitive].

The table also presents seven possible meanings of “run” as nouns. Those

seven meanings are equally divided, which each meaning presents 2.5%. Similar

with the verbs, the analysis found two shared features of the word within the noun

category. “Run” as noun shares [+noun] and [+count]. The basic distinctive

features that are found from noun are [-uncountable], [-compound], and [-mass],

although one of the possible meanings of “run” as noun carries [+mass].

As it is mentioned in the verbs, in analyzing the sentences, some features

are added. Thereafter, those semantic features help a lot in comparing each

meaning of the lexical. To get further explanation about “run” as verb and noun,

this research conducts in analyzing the three dominant meanings of verb and

seven meanings of noun.


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1. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Verbs

a. To control or manage something

This meaning is the first dominant meaning that appears based on British

National Corpus; therefore, several sentences are described to see the distinction

and the similarity. “To control or manage something” means an activity refers to

someone that he or she is able to organize and have responsibility to control

something. The shared semantic features of this meaning are [+verb], [+activity],

[+transitive], [+organize], [+in charge]. What makes this meaning different from

the other is because there are [+organize], [+in charge] and [+telic]. As Brinton &

Brinton mentioned, [+telic] “recognizes whether the situation has an endpoint or

goal which is necessary for the situation” (2010, p. 161). Below are some

examples of the clause.

(C1) “…such as retail, library, and garden stores. The aim will be to run

most order/purchasing and payment systems without paper except

for unusual times. We need to…”

(C2) “…even if he had wished it, he would not really have been able to

run the estates himself. It was something which Morton itched to do

-- perhaps only…”

(C3) “…this Worcester storage centre. They were donated to the local

Kurdish Refugee Association, run by Ruth Hilali. But she hasn't

been in touch with her colleagues for…”


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Semantic features of (C1) are [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+telic],

[+organize], [+in charge]. The word “run” in this clause is an active verb because

it explains that something or someone will organize the order/purchasing and

payment systems. Automatically, something or someone is physically doing the

job to control the order/purchasing and payment systems. The word “run” in this

clause is transitive. The phrase “most order/purchasing and payment systems

without paper except for unusual times” is the direct object of the word “run”,

thus, that phrase receives the action from the verb.

Next, the word “run” is [+telic] because there is a sentence that explains

the goal, which is “The aim will be to run…” Based on semantics, the words “the

aim” are something or someone has an endpoint. Moreover, based on syntax, the

words “will be to” are used to express the future. Therefore, since the sentence

talk about the aim, which is controlling most order/purchasing and payment

systems, it has a goal in the future.

The word “run” in this clause has additional features, which are

[+organize] and [+in charge]. Those features bring the word “run” into the first

dominant meaning, which is to control something. “Organize” means to manage

something or some people to do their job. Likewise, “in charge” means someone

is having the responsibility. Hence, the word “run” in this clause is to manage the

payment systems. Moreover, someone or something has the responsibility to

manage the most order/purchasing and payment systems without paper except for

unusual times.


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Second is (C2) which has [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+voluntary],

[+organize], [+in charge] as the semantic features. The word “run” in this clause

is an active verb because it describes that someone is doing an action to achieve

something. In this case, the subject “himself” wishes that he would run the estates,

means that the subject has a wish to manage the estates by himself. Therefore,

something that receives the action is the phrase “the estates himself”.

The word “run” explains that the subject is willfully doing the action. It

can be seen from the clause, “even if he had wished it”. The clause describes that

the subject has a wish to manage the estates. If the subject has a wish, it means

that the subject offers to manage the estates without expecting any reward.

Therefore, the verb “run” here is [+voluntary].

Since this verb has the meaning to control or manage something, the

additional features are [+organize] and [+in charge]. Similar to the explanation in

(C1) “organize” means to manage something or to arrange something. In this

clause, someone is trying to arrange the estates himself. Furthermore, “in charge”

means something is in control with all of the responsibilities. As a result, the word

“run” in this clause, means someone is volunteering himself or herself to manage

or control the estates.

Last is (C3) which shares [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+voluntary],

[+organize], and [+in charge]. Similar with the explanation above, the word “run”

here is an active verb because the subject is doing things. “Run” in this sentence

shares [+transitive]. It has a direct object that is explained before “run”, since it is

a passive voice.


26

The word “run” in (C3) describes that the subject, Ruth Hilali, freely

offers to take part in the association. It is shown from the word “by” after the

word “run”. If it is seen from the structural, the word “by” is a preposition since it

is used especially with a passive verb to say who does something. Based on

semantic, the word “by” identifies that the person is presenting some actions.

Hence, the word “run” explains that the subject is volunteering herself to take part

in the Kurdish Refugee Association, which shares the semantic features

[+voluntary].

Similar with (C1) and (C2), (C3) has two additional features, which are

[+organize] and [+in charge]. Since “organize” means to manage or coordinate

group of people or something and “in charge” means responsible for something,

thus, the word “run” here means the subject, Ruth Hilali, is having the

responsibility and is willfully taking part in Kurdish Refugee Association to

control it.

From the three clauses above, it can be concluded that the first dominant

meaning, which is to control or manage something, of the verb “run” has the

distinction and similarity in semantic features. The distinctive features that occur

in those clauses are [+telic] in (C1) and [+voluntary] in (C2) and (C3). From these

distinctive features, it is found that a verb has some types that occur from any

clauses and depend on the sentence.

b. To move with two legs more quickly

“To move with two legs more quickly” is the second dominant meaning

that is identified. This second dominant meanings show an activity of someone


27

who is using his or her legs to move from one place to another. In some cases, this

meaning presents an activity of someone who is moving with his or her legs in a

competition. It shares the semantic features of [+verb], [+transitive], [+physical],

[+dynamic]. There are some additional features that appear, which are

[+durative], [+distance], and [+compete]. Some examples are given below.

(C4) “…on a Sunday, he would have to think long and hard before

deciding to run the 400m. In today's world he would probably

choose to run only the…”

(C5) “…would have been fewer qualifying runs. In Barcelona, Eric

Liddell would have to run two rounds of the 200m, followed by the

semi-final and the final the next…”

(C6) “…not hop, skip or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to

run, for they have only soft ballooning tubes to serve as stumpy

legs. These…”

Semantic features of (C4) are [+verb], [+physical], [+transitive],

[+dynamic], [+distance] and [+compete]. The verb “run” here is [+physical]

because the subject physically moves his or her body to finish the aim. Usually,

the word “run” in this meaning is not followed by a direct object. However, in this

clause, the word “run” is [+transitive] because it is followed by direct object,

which is “the 400m”. It can be described that the subject has to run as far as

400m.


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The word “run” is [+dynamic]. This clause explains that the subject has to

think hard before he or she decides to run the 400m. “Run” here is about finishing

the running competition, which he or she has to run the 400m. In this case, the

subject has to move about in hurry to complete the aim. Therefore, “run” is

[+dynamic].

This meaning has three additional features that are found from the finding.

There are [+distance], and [+compete]. The word “run” in (C4) is [+compete]

because the word “400m” is related to one of the sprint events in track and field.

In this clause, the word “run” is described as someone will take part in the 400m-

sprint event.

Another finding is [+distance]. It can be seen from the word “400m”.

Distance means the length of a race. Meaning that the subject has to run in a

competition, which the length of a race is 400m. Therefore, the word “run” shares

[+distance], and [+compete].

In (C5), there are [+verb], [+transitive], [+physical], [+dynamic],

[+distance], and [+compete] as the semantic features. Similar with (C4), the word

“run” is [+transitive] because it is followed by direct object, which is “two rounds

of the 200 m, followed by the semifinal and the final the next…” Based on

semantics, the word “run” explains that Eric Liddell has to move faster than a

walk two rounds of the 200m. Because the subject has to move faster, the subject

is physically using his or her body to move faster. Therefore, [+physical] is

reflected from this type of “run”.


29

The word “run” in (C5) is [+dynamic]. Here, the word “run” explains that

the subject has to do an action in the semifinal and the final, which is running in

running competition. In this clause, the subject is continuously moving with their

body faster than a walk, therefore, “run” is [+dynamic].

Similar with (C4), the word “run” describes that the additional semantic

features are [+distance], and [+compete]. The feature [+compete] means the word

“run” here explains that the subject joins a competition, which is running

competition. In this clause, Eric Liddell has to run two rounds of the 200m,

meaning that Eric Liddell has to move his body faster than a walk two rounds of

the 200m. Moreover, “the semifinal” explains a round comes near to final and

“the final” explains the last game in a tournament or sport. Moreover, the word

“run” is [+distance] because the direct object explains that Eric Liddell has to run

the 200m. Meaning that the subject has to finish running in competition of 200m.

Another aspect that explains “run” is about running in competition is the

word “the 200m” after the word “run”. Based on syntax, the word “the” marks

someone or something that is already mentioned and it is an important thing in a

sentence. The phrase “the 200m” explains that Eric Liddell has to run in the 200m

sprint event. Therefore, from three additional features, it can be seen that the word

“run” in this clause is about someone who is moving his or her body faster than a

walk and is joining a competition.

Last is (C6) that shares [+verb], [+physical], [+intransitive], [+dynamic],

[+durative], and [+distance]. This clause explains that the word “run” is a physical

verb because it is relating to the body as the body is moving. Likewise, the word


30

“run” in this meaning is an intransitive verb because it is not followed by direct

object.

The word “run” here is [+dynamic]. Based on syntax, dynamic verb is a

verb that can be used in the simple tense, past tense, and progressive tense.

Dynamic refers to an action that the subject can take. There are three types of

dynamic verb; activity, progress, and momentary action. In this clause, the word

“run” is an activity, which the subject is using their body to move with two legs.

Therefore, “run” is [+dynamic].

Since “run” here is about moving with two legs more quickly, the

additional feature is [+durative]. The word “run” is [+durative] because this

clause explains that the subject is performing a continuous action.

From those three clauses, it can be seen that the distinctive semantic

features which are [+intransitive] and [+durative] found in (C6). Both clauses,

(C4) and (C5), do not share the two features that are found in (C6). Even though

they share the same meaning, (C6) explains that “run” is only about moving faster

with two legs, not as much detailed as (C4) and (C5) that explain “run” is about

moving faster with two legs in a competition with some distances. On the

contrary, this meaning shares several similarities. The word “run” shares [+verb],

[+physical], and [+dynamic] which bring “run” into the verb that has meaning to

move with two legs more quickly. Hence, although they share the same meaning,

they can share different additional features, depend on the several aspects in each

clause that are sometimes determined by the context of the utterance.


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c. To operate the computer or program

This meaning is the last dominant meaning that is identified in the verb

“run”. It presents an activity of someone that is able to operate a computer or

program. This meaning shares several semantic features with other verb “run”;

[+verb], [+activity], and [+transitive]. The additional features from this meaning

are [+operate] and [+execute].

(C7) “…industrial action. Livingston and Norcross are two of four area

computer centers, which will run the social security and pensions

systems. A third, at Washington, Tyne and…”

(C8) “…both groups a little because they realized that the gap is growing

between those who run computers and those who don't. The

occasion was the New York Academy of…”

(C9) “…of Windows applications because while software emulation is

feasible, the only efficient way to run Mac applications would be

to include a 68000 co-processor. At next month's Apple…”

In (C7), the semantic features that occur are [+verb], [+activity],

[+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute]. “Run” in this clause is [+activity]

because the subject is doing an action, which is operating the social security and

pensions systems. Furthermore, the word “run” is [+transitive] because it is

followed by a direct object. The direct object of this sentence is “the social

security and pensions systems” which can be found after the word “run”.


32

The word “run” in this meaning has two additional features, which are

[+operate] and [+execute]. Those additional features describe that “run” in this

clause means the subject is using and controlling the social security and pensions

systems. The word “run” shares those additional features because there is a word

that explains about an operating program, which is the word “computer” that is

written before the word “run” and the word “systems” after the word “run”. It can

be explained that “computer” and “systems” are the clue of this meaning that

shares [+operate] and [+execute].

Comes to (C8) that shares [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+operate],

and [+execute]. The word “run” here defines that the verb is an active verb

because the subject is showing an action, which is operating the computer. The

subject in this clause is the word “those” in “those who run computers and those

who don’t”. Because there is a direct object after the word “run”, therefore, “run”

is [+transitive]. The direct object of this clause is “computers”.

Similar with (C7), this verb has two additional features that shares

[+operate] and [+execute]. Besides [+operate] and [+execute] mean someone is

controlling the machine, there is a word that defines those additional features,

which is the word “computers”. A computer is a machine that is controlled by

someone. In this clause, the word “those” defines that they operate a computer.

Therefore, the additional features are [+operate] and [+execute].

Last is (C9) that has [+verb], [+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute].

Here, the word “run” is [+transitive] because there is a direct object that comes


33

after “run”, which is “Mac applications”. This means that the only efficient way to

operate Mac applications would be to include a 68000 co-processor.

Based on the finding, there are two additional features of the word “run” in

this meaning, which are [+operate] and [+execute]. Both additional features

explain that the word “run” is about operating a system or program. In (C9), the

word “run” explains the efficient way to operate Mac applications. Application is

a computer software and Mac is a computer series, therefore, the word “run” is

described to an action to operate a program or system which makes it share the

features of [+operate] and [+execute].

After analyzing those three clauses, there is a distinctive feature that is

found, which is [-activity] in (C9). In (C9), it shares [-activity] because the clause

does not explain the subject is doing an action, but it explains the efficient way to

operate Mac applications. Based on syntax, the word “efficient” is an adjective.

Based on semantics, “efficient” means doing well or not wasting time or energy

or money. Therefore, (C9) is [-activity].

Meanwhile, three clauses here share similarities which are [+verb],

[+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute]. Those similarities bring “run” into “to

operate a computer or program” meaning. As a result, even though they share the

same meaning, they can share different semantic features, depend on the aspect of

each clause.

2. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Nouns

After describing the word “run” as verbs with all three dominant

meanings, this research identifies “run” as noun. From the finding, there are seven


34

possible meaning of “run” as nouns. Different from “run” as verbs, “run” as a

noun does not have dominant meaning, considering there are only seven meanings

that occur based on the British National Corpus. Below, those meanings are

described.

(C10) “…n't (SP: KBWPSUGP) (unclear) (SP: KBWPSUNK) everywhere

I go (SP:PS087) (laugh) oh (pause) you can have a run if you want

to (SP:PS088) No (SP:PS087) No (pause) I hope it stays like

this…”

The first meaning that is found is about “an experiment or a trial”. (C10)

carries [+noun], [+count], [+trial], and [+experiment]. The word “run” here is

[+noun] because the word “run” in this clause is the object of “you can have…”.

The word “can have” is the verb of this clause. Therefore, it is [+noun]. However,

since the clause does not explain the detail context about what is going on in the

clause, this research cannot give the exact explanation about the meaning “run”.

(C11) “…on the spot who could hit Kirov? Take him out before he makes

a run for safe ground?' Manville shook his head.' Nobody big

enough,…”

The second meaning of the word “run” as noun is “A quick movement of

the legs to escape from something dangerous or to reach a destination quickly”.

The word “run” in (C11) is a part of an idiom “makes a run for safe ground”.

Therefore, this meaning carries [+noun], [+count], [+distance], [+voluntary], and


35

[+escape]. It is a countable noun because there is an article “a” before the word

“run”. Moreover, someone can volunteer himself or herself in order to escape

from something or reach something quickly. If someone escapes from something

or reaches a destination, it must be a distance of how far apart the objects are.

Likewise, the additional features of word “run” in this meaning carries [+escape]

since the word “run” here is about escaping from something.

(C12) “…n't in competition with Barry Norman, but we do want to give

him a run for his money.' Author Salmon Rushdie has been busy

Christmas shopping. The…”

The third meaning of the word “run” as noun is “A challenge to be as good

at something as someone who is extremely good”. Similar with the second

meaning, (C12) is an idiom from the phrase “give him a run for his money”. In

this case, the word “run” carries [+noun], [+count], [+challenge], and

[+achievement]. “Run” is a countable noun because there is an article “a” before

the word “run”. The additional features of this meaning are [+challenge] and

[+achievement]. The feature [+challenge] is expressed because this meaning

describes that someone needs to be as good as other good person to reach the

target. It is also [+achievement] since it is a thing done by effort and courage.

(C13) “…and where it is heading over the subsequent 24 months.' In the

short run, it is possible that inflation will exceed the top of the

target range during…”


36

The fourth meaning is “something happening for a short period of time”.

This meaning can be found in (C13). It carries [+noun], [+count], [+time], and

[+period]. This is a noun because there are two words before the word “run”,

which is “the short”. Likewise, this meaning has two additional features, which

are [+time] and [+period]. The feature [+time] is identified because “run” in this

clause defines that the idiom talks about a point of time as measured in hours,

days, months, or years and [+period] because this meaning defines a length of

time, which the length of this meaning is short time or in the near future.

(C14) “…then run out needlessly when failing to react to Emburey's call

for a third run, and Paul Jarvis was lbw to his first ball. Tufnell

was also adjudged…”

The fifth meaning of the word “run” stands as noun can be found in (C14).

It carries the meaning of “Having a score in baseball game”. This meaning carries

[+noun], [+count], [+accomplish], [+baseball], [+point], and [+score]. The word

“run” here is [+noun] and [+countable] because there is an article “a” before the

word “run”, and “third” indicates that “run” can be counted by numeral.

Furthermore, this meaning has some additional features, which are [+accomplish],

[+baseball], [+point], and [+score]. Different from several meanings identified in

the previously explained clauses, this meaning is not an idiom. However, this

meaning can be found in baseball game since there are several clues that are

defined in this clause. Those clues are “third” and “ball”. Base on Official

Baseball Rules book, a “run” in baseball game means “the score made by an


37

offensive player who advances from batter to runner and touches first, second,

third and home bases in that order” (Gaski, 2018, p. 149). From the explanation of

the book, it can be concluded that “run” as a noun is a score in baseball game.

(C15) “…the Invincible Sun God, with its undertones of the Emperor

Commodus. The normal run of classical cults such as Mars,

Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Apollo and…”

The sixth meaning that can be found from the finding is “the usual type of

something or someone that usually happen”. This meaning share [+noun],

[+mass], [+usual], and [+common type]. “Run” in (C15) is noun because there is

an article “the” before the word “run”. However, this noun is a mass noun because

usual type cannot be counted by numeral. Additional features of this meaning are

[+usual] and [+common type]. Those two additional features define that the word

“run” in this clause is a characteristic of something, which is the characteristic of

classical cults.

(C16) “…the agreed punisher can be overwhelming. This must be resisted.

In the long run it does not work; if it did, the parents would not be

asking…”

The last meaning of “run” is “something happens at a time that is far away

in the future”. This meaning can be found in (C16) that carries [+noun], [+count],

[+time], and [+period]. Those semantic features are similar with (C13), however,

the meaning between (C13) and (C16) are different. In (C16), the word “run” is a


38

noun because there is the article “the” before the word “run”. Since the meaning

talks about a period of time, the word “run” is countable because the period of

time can be counted by numeral. The additional features in this meaning are

[+time] and [+period]. Similar with (C13), this meaning is an idiom, which

discusses about a point of time as measured in days, weeks, or months and a

length of time, however, which in this clause, the length of time is long time or in

the future.

From the explanation above, the conclusion is there are several distinctive

features that occur from the word “run” as a noun. Even though they share similar

features, the meanings are different. Those meanings depend on the context of the

clause. There is also [+mass] that is found in (C15), apart from the other clauses

which share [+count].

B. The Linguistic Context of Dominant Meanings of “Run”

After describing the possible meaning of “run”, it can be found that there

are three dominant meanings of “run” that occur. Those three dominant meanings

are identified as verbs. It can be concluded that “run” is used as verbs in daily life.

Nevertheless, this research only describes three dominant meanings of “run” as

verb since the appearance of seven meanings of nouns are not too significant.

Therefore, in this part, this research conducts the linguistic context of three

dominant meanings to see further about the use of “run”. Below, some linguistic

contexts are described based on the dominant meanings.


39

Table 2. Linguistic context of Three Dominant Meanings of “Run”

Meanings Linguistic Context Frequency Percentage

To control or

manage

something

Business 6 15%

Education 2 5%

Charity 2 5%

Politic 2 5%

Unclassified 4 10%

To move with

two legs more

quickly

Sport 2 5%

Unclassified 2 5%

To operate a

computer or

program

Politic 1 2.5%

Technology 1 2.5%

Unclassified 1 2.5%

The table shows that in “to control or manage something”, business

appears three times more often than charity, education, and politic. It means that

controlling or managing something is usually about controlling some businesses.

However, the distributions of the linguistic context in the second and third

dominant meanings are equally divided. Additionally, there is an unclassified

linguistic context since those clauses do not give clear explanation.

Besides those things, it can be seen from the first and third meaning,

which they share similar linguistic context. It is politic linguistic context.

However, it seems unique because “to control or manage something” and “to

operate a computer or program” almost share similar features. The difference is

only on the additional features and in the [+transitive] features. Below, the further

explanations are given.

1. To control or manage something

The first dominant linguistic context that appears from this meaning is

business. There are several types of business, those are private business which is


40

run by family or group of people, government business which is run by

administration, and trade between countries. Here some clauses are explained.

(C17) “…lowering the taxes (SP: KDMPSUGP) (unclear) (SP:PS0PN)

Everybody come here, this is the place to run a big business

(SP:PS0RD) Yeah (SP:PS0PN) cheap labour (SP:PS0RD) Yeah

(SP:PS0PN) you can fiddle all…”

It is obvious that (C17) is about business because there are some

supporting words about it. Those are “taxes”, “business”, and “cheap labour”.

“Tax” is about an amount of money that someone must pay to the government.

“Tax” and “business” are related to each other. Moreover, “business” is an

activity of making money and someone must pay the money according to the

income. Therefore, this clause is about someone asks his or her friends to manage

a business. Furthermore, there is “cheap labour” which means someone works

hard to get very little money. A business needs employee to work for the business,

therefore, “cheap labour” is a strong word to get the information about the

linguistic context. Thus, this clause shows that to manage or control something is

usually appeared in business.

(C18) “…campaign would continue into 1990. The closing of a total of

2,651 business enterprises run by government ministries and party

organs was reported in November 1989 and January 1990…”


41

In (C18), the words “business” and “enterprises” are strong enough to

classify this clause into business linguistic context. “Enterprise” means a company

or business. It can be seen that a person who is controlling the enterprise is

government ministries and party organs. Even though this clause does not explain

what kind of business the government controls, but both words are understandable

to see the linguistic context. This clause seems unique since it also can be

categorized as political linguistic context. However, the focus is on “business

enterprises”.

The second distribution linguistic context in this meaning is education.

There are two clauses that explain the linguistic context. Below the examples are

given.

(C19) “…The clergy daughters' school at Cowan Bridge (pause) run by

the Reverend William (-----). Charles and Emily followed a

couple of months later…”

Clause (C19) explains about the next distribution linguistic context of

“run” in this meaning, which is education. This linguistic context has “school” as

the strong word. “School” is an educational institution is used to provide the

learning of student in order to get knowledge and skill under the direction of

teacher. In this clause, the school is controlled by Reverend William, which

perhaps, the school is about religious school or something. Furthermore, the

person who learns in that school is the “clergy daughter”. This also can be the

strong word to identify the education linguistic context of this clause.


42

(C20) “…man -- can buy such a place, set himself up as headmaster, and

run it as he likes. Indeed, that is precisely what Edward

Crumwallis had done…”

Clause (C20) explains about school as well because there is a word

“headmaster”. Even though this clause does not explain more about the condition

or place, but “headmaster” is the clue of school. “Headmaster” is the principal in

education system, usually they can be found in school and university. However,

this clause is also unclear in explaining the linguistic context.

The third distribution linguistic context that appears from the finding is

charity. This linguistic context has two examples to get further information about

the linguistic context.

(C21) “…this Worcester storage centre. They were donated to the local

Kurdish Refugee Association, run by Ruth Hilali. But she hasn't

been in touch with her colleagues for…”

The clause above explains about charity. It can be seen from the word

“donated” and “refugee”. Semantically, “donated” means giving money or goods

to support people who need them, while “refugee” is “someone who has been

forced to leave their country, especially during a war, or for political or religious

reasons” (Longman Dictionary, 2003). From both strong words, it can be

concluded that this clause presents people who has been forced to leave their


43

country are given a help to get their place for living their life, which the

association is managed by Ruth Hilali. Therefore, this clause is about charity.

(C22) “…built by local youngsters with the help of public subscriptions,

continues to be run by the Fairbridge Drake charity, but it is now

sponsored by Scottish Nuclear Fuels…”

Clause (C22) has “charity” as the strong word. Even though this clause

only has one strong word, this clause is a part of charity linguistic context since

“charity” is about an organization or voluntary who helps other and raise money.

Perhaps, the organization is built by local youngsters and after that, it continues to

be controlled by Fairbridge Drake.

The fourth linguistic context that is identified is politic. This linguistic

context has two clauses to be described.

(C23) “…Maquis, no risorgimento fighting British Imperialism? Well, the

wartime resistance movement was run by the Communists, who

stood almost single-handed against the Nazi menace, and

suffered…”

In clause (C23), there are “fighting”, “imperialism”, “wartime”,

“movement”, “communist”, “resistance” and “menace” as the strong words.

Politic is not only about government, a war can be categorized politic in order to

get power. Semantically, “fighting” is the action of conflict. “Imperialism” is a


44

political system where one country rules other countries. “Wartime” is a period of

time during the war. “Resistance” is fighting someone who is attacking the other.

Moreover, “movement” is a group of people who are working together to

get the aim. “Menace” is the act of threatening. From those meanings of word, it

can be concluded that this linguistic context is a politic because each word

explains about the fight to get power to control other country. Therefore, this

clause is identified as politic.

(C24) “…were regarded as acceptable to the Army and to the business

elite which had effectively run the country since the military

coup of 1954 see pp. 13677-81. None emerged with…”

In clause (C24), it has “army”, “country”, and “military coup” as the

strong words. Those words indicate political situation. Based on semantics,

“army” is the governmental organization in charge of state’s army. “Country” is a

land or district. Last is “military coup” which means a coup carried out by armed

groups that consist of military or soldier who were dissatisfied with traditional

government policies. From those three strong words, it can be concluded that the

clause talks about something that is acceptable to the Army and to the business

elite which is effectively controlled the military coup in 1954. Therefore, the

clause is identified as politic.

The last linguistic context of this meaning is unclassified. This linguistic

context gives unclear information. Two clauses are described below.


45

(C25) “…Having decided how long the intervention is to last, ask the

parents to run it for that time and then immediately return to the

baseline condition. If,…”

This clause above does not give the clear information about the situation

and condition. The clause does not explain about what kind of intervention, since

there are some conditions of intervention, such as medical or political aspect. It is

to general to conclude the linguistic context, therefore, this clause is unclassified.

(C26) “…return to the baseline condition. If, for example, the intervention

is to run for six weeks, the parents should stop after that time and

then repeat the…”

Clause (C26) is s continuation of (C25). Even though both clauses are

related, the linguistic context still does not appear. This clause does not have a

strong word to identify the linguistic context. Similar with (C25), this clause is

also too general to be concluded.

2. To move with two legs more quickly

The second dominant meaning of “run” has two linguistic contexts, which

are sport and unclassified. Both linguistic contexts have equal distribution in this

meaning. Below, the explanations are presented.

(C27) “…on a Sunday, he would have to think long and hard before

deciding to run the 400m. In today's world he would probably

choose to run only the…”


46

This clause presents “run” and “the 400m”. As it is explained in the first

part, “run” is about to move with two legs faster than a walk. Since this clause

talks about someone thinks before decides to race the 400m, the word “400m” is

also a strong word to explain the linguistic context. “400m” is a kind of sprint

events. It is an athletics, track, and field that races over short distances. Usually,

there are three sprints that are currently held at these events, those are 100m,

200m, and 400m. From the distance, it can be concluded that this clause is about

sport.

(C28) “…would have been fewer qualifying runs. In Barcelona, Eric

Liddell would have to run two rounds of the 200m, followed by

the semi-final and the final the next…”

This clause (C28) has “two rounds of the 200m”, “semi-final”, and “final”

as the supporting word to see the linguistic context. “Two rounds of the 200m” is

about someone has to run in a track with 200m length and this person has to run

two times. This phrase shows that this clause is about running in a sprint event.

Moreover, there are “semi-final” and “final” that support the linguistic context.

Semantically, “semi-final” is similar with last four, means that there are only four

contestants left to compete through final. Furthermore, after the contestants win

the semi-final, they compete in “final”. It means the last game in a tournament

which decides the winner of the game. As the result, this clause is about Eric

Liddell runs in sprint events. Thus, the linguistic context of this clause is sport.


47

The next linguistic context is about unclassified. This linguistic context is

similar with the previous linguistic context since the clause shows unclear

situation.

(C29) “…Not too small. (SP:PS0H8) (unclear) (SP:PS0H8) What was

that? You were going to run and er jump were you? (unclear)

(SP:PS12C) I I stopped. (SP:PS0H8) You missed…”

This clause does not give the clear information about what is going on

there. This clause seems like a conversation; however, the clue of the situation is

not explained here. Based on the clause, it is a conversation between two people

who want to move his or her legs more quickly and jump. Therefore, this clause is

identified as unclassified linguistic context.

(C30) “…not hop, skip or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to

run, for they have only soft ballooning tubes to serve as stumpy

legs. These…”

Similar with the previous clause, (C30) gives confused linguistic context,

since there is “ballooning” word. Semantically, “ballooning” has several

meanings in different linguistic context. In biology, “ballooning” means the

process which is used by spider and other invertebrates to travel through the air.

In sport, “ballooning” means the sport of flying in a balloon. In this case, both

linguistic contexts are related to legs. However, the strong word does not appear


48

in this clause and makes this clause confusing. Thus, this clause is identified as

unclassified linguistic context.

3. To operate a computer or program

This meaning is the last dominant meaning of “run”. As it is mentioned

above, this meaning only has three linguistic contexts with equal distribution. The

first linguistic context to be described is politic. Here the example is given.

(C31) “…industrial action. Livingston and Norcross are two of four area

computer centres which will run the social security and pensions

systems. A third, at Washington, Tyne and…”

The clause of (C31) presents “social security” and “pensions systems” as

the strong words. Both words present the political condition, since “social

security” means government systems that provide various benefits to help people

with no income. Moreover, “pension systems” means an annuity that paid

regularly to a retired employee, serviceman, and veteran. Based on both

meanings, it can be concluded that this clause discusses about Livingston and

Norcross are two cities whereby both are the computer areas to operate the

government systems to provide benefits and paid the retired employee regularly.

As a result, this clause is identified as political linguistic context.

(C32) “…of Windows applications because while software emulation is

feasible, the only efficient way to run Mac applications would be

to include a 68000 co-processor. At next month's Apple…”


49

Different from the previous clause, (C32) presents “applications”,

“software”, and “co-processor”. Based on semantics, “application” is about a

program of software to do particular job. In the clause, there are “Windows

applications” and “Mac applications”. Those mean that the program of software

only can be operated in Windows system or Mac system. Furthermore, “software”

means “the sets of programs that tell a computer how to do a particular job”

(Longman Dictionary, 2003). Moreover, “co-processor” means an additional

computer processor used to supplement the functionality of the central processing

unit. From those meanings, (C32) is identified as technology linguistic context,

since the strong words explains about machines and computer program.

(C33) “…both groups a little because they realised that the gap is growing

between those who run computers and those who don't. The

occasion was the New York Academy of…”

In clause (C33), it shows blurry condition because this clause does not

give the clue about the situation. There is no path on deciding what gap that is

growing between those people or group, what occasion at New York Academy,

and what groups are about. As a result, this clause is identified as unclassified

linguistic context.


50

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

After analyzing and examining the data, this research concludes that in the

first research objective, the result presents eleven possible meanings of “run” as

verbs, moreover, this research finds that there are three dominant meanings of

“run” as verbs, which are “to control or manage something”, “to move with two

legs more quickly”, and “to operate a computer or program”. The finding also

presents seven meanings of “run” as nouns, which are “something happening for a

short period of time”, “an experiment or a trial”, “a quick movement of the legs to

escape from something dangerous or to reach a destination quickly”, “having a

score in baseball game”, “the usual type of something or someone that usually

happen”, “a challenge to be as good at something as someone who is extremely

good”, and “something happens at a time that is far away in the future”.

As a result, the meanings of “run” as verbs are more identified than the

meanings of “run” as nouns. In the meaning of “run” as nouns, the difference

meanings are not significant, however, in the meaning of “run” as verbs, the

difference meanings are significant.

Furthermore, this research concludes that there are ten linguistic contexts

of three dominant meanings of “run”. Those are “business”, “education”,

“charity”, “politics”, and “unclassified” in the first dominant meaning, which is

“to control or manage something”. There are “sport” and “unclassified” in the

second dominant meaning, which is “to move with two legs more quickly”.


51

Last, there are “politics”, “technology”, and “unclassified” in the last dominant

meaning, which is “to operate a computer or program”. For the unidentified, the

linguistic context cannot be identified as one of those linguistic contexts.

The finding presents one shared linguistic context between the first

meaning and the third meaning, which is “politics”. Nevertheless, other meanings

do not share similar linguistic contexts. In the end, this research finds that two

meanings share similar linguistic context, even though they share several

distinctive features.

After analyzing the word “run” from corpus, it can be seen that the use of

corpus study in this research is helpful and fruitful. As it is mentioned in previous

chapter, corpus study is used to identify the use of language variations in real

world text. From the corpus, this research can identify how often the word “run”

is applied in daily use.

Additionally, to improve semantic analysis, this research suggests the

future researcher to examine “run” as phrasal and prepositional verb. Besides, the

future researcher can identify other lexicons to help the learners enrich their

knowledge of English vocabulary.


52

REFERENCES

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Looking” (Undergraduate Thesis). Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.

Brinton, L. J., & Donna M. Brinton. (2010). The Linguistic Structure of Modern

English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

British National Corpus. (1994). Retrieved from https://www.english-

corpora.org/bnc/

Crawford, William J., Eniko Csomay. (2016). Doing Corpus Linguistics.

Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group

Griffiths, Patrick. (2006). Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Isti’anah, Arina. (2016). The Contrastive and Contextual Analysis of the Verb

Run. Journal of Language and Literature, (16)1, 45-54. Retrieved from

http://e-journal.usd.ac.id/index.php/JOLL/article/view/150

Lepperd, Tom. (Ed.). (2018). Official Baseball Rules. USA: Commissioner of

Baseball.

Leech, Geoffrey., Paul Rayson., Andrew Wilson. (2014). Word Frequencies in

Written and Spoken English Based on the British National Corpus.

Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group

Löbner, Sebastian. (2013). Understanding Semantics. New York: Routledge.

Lyons, John. (2006). Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

McEnery, Tony., Andrew Wilson. (2001). Corpus Linguistics, An Introduction.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Meyer, Charles F. (2004). English Corpus Linguistics, An Introduction. UK:

Cambridge University Press.

Novriwandinata, Advendri. (2011). The Semantic Study of the English Verbs

Meaning to Speak (Undergraduate Thesis). Universitas Sanata Dharma,

Yogyakarta.

O’Keeffe, Anne., Michael McCarthy. (2010). The Routledge Handbook of Corpus

Linguistics. Abingdon: Routledge.


53

Refugee [Def. 1]. (n.d). In Longman Dictionary Online. Retrieved March 14,

2019, from https://www.ldoceonline.com/.

See [Def. 1]. (n.d). In Longman Dictionary Online. Retrieved March 14, 2019,

from https://www.ldoceonline.com/.

Software [Def. 1.]. (n.d). In Longman Dictionary Online. Retrieved March 14,

2019, from https://www.ldoceonline.com/.

Yule, George. (2010). (4th ed.). The Study of Language. New York: Cambridge

University Press.


54

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Semantic Features Test of Possible Meaning of Verbs

NO SENTENCES SEMANTIC

FEATURES MEANING

1

Not too small. (SP: PS0H8)

(Unclear) (SP: PS0H8) What

was that? You were going to

run and er jump were you?

(Unclear) (SP: PS12C) I I

stopped. (SP: PS0H8) You

missed

[+verb], [+physical],

[+intransitive],

[+dynamic],

[+durative],

[+distance]

To move with two

legs more quickly

2

lowering the taxes (SP:

KDMPSUGP) (unclear)

(SP:PS0PN) Everybody come

here, this is the place to run a

big business (SP:PS0RD)

Yeah (SP:PS0PN) cheap

labour (SP:PS0RD) Yeah

(SP:PS0PN) you can fiddle

all

[+verb], [+activity],

[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+control]

To control or

manage something

3

The clergy daughters' school

at Cowan Bridge (pause) run

by the Reverend William (----

-). Charles and Emily

followed a couple of months

later


[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+control]

To control or

manage something

4

appraisal skills er level one

level two, various others,

other courses that we run.

There's your job (pause) the

first thing I should do is say

well


[+intransitive],

[+learn]

To gain

knowledge or

learn something

important

5

up and I protested about it, on

the grounds that if they

couldn't run a great big pop

hall for, and I wholly agreed

with the idea,


[+intransitive],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

6

even if he had wished it, he

would not really have been

able to run the estates

himself. It was something

which Morton itched to do --

perhaps only


[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something


55


FEATURES MEANING

7

out to make up for his

disabilities. She had declared

that Edwin must

henceforward run the

Ashwell estates, as if he had

already come into his

inheritance. His


[+transitive],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

8

And when I do, will all this

get easier?' I'll run Donald

home!' Elinor was saying,'

you get Maisie to bed!


[+transitive],

[+achieve],

[+transport]

To take someone

somewhere in

someone’s car

9

for Dinah. Robert Asshe

watched from the wings,

satisfied. This production

would run for six months, if

not a year. After that, Dinah

should disappear


[+transitive],

[+produce]

To produce

something from

factory or

company

10

Maquis, no risorgimento

fighting British Imperialism?

Well, the wartime resistance

movement was run by the

Communists, who stood

almost single-handed against

the Nazi menace, and suffered


[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+action], [+organize]

To control or

manage something

11

man -- can buy such a place,

set himself up as headmaster,

and run it as he likes. Indeed,

that is precisely what Edward

Crumwallis had done


[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+control]

To control or

manage something

12

usual signs of old Shallot

beginning to wonder whether

it is time to cut and run. My

elation of the previous day

began to evaporate until I

remembered Agnes,

[+verb],

[+intransitive],

[+escape], [+clear

out], [+leave]

To leave a

situation or

arrangement as

soon as things go

away

13

this Worcester storage centre.

They were donated to the

local Kurdish Refugee

Association, run by Ruth

Hilali. But she hasn't been in

touch with her colleagues for


[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+control],

[+organize]

To control or

manage something


56


FEATURES MEANING

14

tins of food alone each week.

It costs about a 1,000 a month

to run the centre. Staff here

are desperate for donations of

both food and money to

[+verb], [+transitive],

[+establish], [+build]

To build

something

15

industrial action. Livingston

and Norcross are two of four

area computer centres which

will run the social security

and pensions systems. A

third, at Washington, Tyne

and


[+transitive],

[+operate], [+execute]

To operate the

computer or

program

16

than expected and the

company has bought a new

aircraft which will enable it to

run extra flights. The new

plane, a British Aerospace

146' whisper jet'


[+voluntary], [+add],

[+increase]

To add something

or someone in

order to get

advantage

17

built by local youngsters with

the help of public

subscriptions, continues to be

run by the Fairbridge Drake

charity, but it is now

sponsored by Scottish

Nuclear Fuels


[+transitive],

[+voluntary],

[+control],

[+organize]

To control or

manage something

18

after the Chancellor sits

down. IG Index, bookmakers

to the City, now run a book

on how many minutes the

Chancellor will take. Since

the war


[+transitive], [+print]

To broadcast or

print something in

media

19

do not make administrative

sense in smaller areas. So ad

hoc multi-council boards, run

by officials accountable to

nobody in particular, had to

be set up in the


[+transitive], [+print]

To broadcast or

print something in

media

20

there are a number of well-

established and successful

regionally validated schemes,

such as those run by the East

Anglian, Northern and

Southern RACs, leading to

the award of


[+transitive],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something


57


FEATURES MEANING

21

the personal relations of

clientelism. SIAM is a large

Argentine industrial-

commercial complex which

was run, by Torcuato Di

Tella, as a family business.

Those at the top


[+transitive],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

22

on a Sunday, he would have

to think long and hard before

deciding to run the 400m. In

today's world he would

probably choose to run only

the


[+physical],

[+distance],

[+dynamic],

[+compete]

To move with two

legs more quickly

in race

23

would have been fewer

qualifying runs. In Barcelona,

Eric Liddell would have to

run two rounds of the 200m,

followed by the semi-final

and the final the next


[+physical],

[+dynamic],

[+distance],

[+compete]

To move with two

legs more quickly

in race

24

was world champion at poker.

She retired before her

husband, but continued to run

her household according to

her strict routine, while

enjoying more of her own

social


[+organize], [+take

care]

To take care of

someone

25

know of your interest while a

course is in preparation. Some

employers may not run

courses for groups of

returners but instead offer to

help you plan a personal

programme


[+transitive], [+learn]

To gain

knowledge or

learn something

important

26

both groups a little because

they realised that the gap is

growing between those who

run computers and those who

don't. The occasion was the

New York Academy of


[+transitive],


To operate the

computer or

program

27

not hop, skip or jump. Indeed,

they can barely manage even

to run, for they have only soft

ballooning tubes to serve as

stumpy legs. These

[+verb], [+physical],

[+intransitive],

[+dynamic],

[+durative],

[+distance]

To move with two

legs more quickly


58


FEATURES MEANING

28

campaign would continue into

1990. The closing of a total of

2,651 business enterprises

run by government ministries

and party organs was reported

in November 1989 and

January 1990


[+transitive],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

29

were regarded as acceptable

to the Army and to the

business elite which had

effectively run the country

since the military coup of

1954 see pp. 13677-81. None

emerged with


[+transitive],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

30

Having decided how long the

intervention is to last, ask the

parents to run it for that time

and then immediately return

to the baseline condition. If,


[+transitive], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

31

return to the baseline

condition. If, for example, the

intervention is to run for six

weeks, the parents should

stop after that time and then

repeat the


[+transitive], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

32

such as retail, library, and

garden stores. The aim will be

to run most order/purchasing

and payment systems without

paper except for unusual

times. We need to


[+transitive], [+telic],

[+organize], [+in

charge]

To control or

manage something

33

of Windows applications

because while software

emulation is feasible, the only

efficient way to run Mac

applications would be to

include a 68000 co-processor.

At next month's Apple



To operate the

computer or

program


59

Appendix 2: Semantic Features Test of Possible Meaning of Nouns


FEATURES MEANING

1

n't (SP:KBWPSUGP)

(unclear) (SP:KBWPSUNK)

everywhere I go (SP:PS087)

(laugh) oh (pause) you can

have a run if you want to

(SP:PS088) No (SP:PS087)

No (pause) I hope it stays like

this

[+noun], [+count],

[+trial], [+experiment]

An experiment or

a trial

2

on the spot who could hit

Kirov? Take him out before

he makes a run for safe

ground?' Manville shook his

head.' Nobody big enough,

[+noun], [+count],

[+distance],

[+voluntary],

[+escape]

A quick

movement of the

legs to escape

from something

dangerous or to

reach a destination

quickly

3

n't in competition with Barry

Norman, but we do want to

give him a run for his

money.' Author Salmon

Rushdie has been busy

Christmas shopping. The

[+noun], [+count],

[+challenge], and

[+achievement]

A challenge to be

as good at

something as

someone who is

extremely good

4

and where it is heading over

the subsequent 24 months.' In

the short run, it is possible

that inflation will exceed the

top of the target range during

[+noun], [+count],

[+time], [+period]

Something

happening for a

short period of

time

5

then run out needlessly when

failing to react to Emburey's

call for a third run, and Paul

Jarvis was lbw to his first ball.

Tufnell was also adjudged

[+noun], [+count],

[+accomplish],

[+baseball], [+point],

[+score]

Having a score in

baseball game

6

the Invincible Sun God, with

its undertones of the Emperor

Commodus. The normal run

of classical cults such as

Mars, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva,

Apollo and

[+noun], [+mass],

[+usual], [+common

type]

The usual type of

something or

someone that

usually happen

7

the agreed punisher can be

overwhelming. This must be

resisted. In the long run it

does not work; if it did, the

parents would not be asking

[+noun], [+count],

[+time], [+period]

Something

happens at a time

that is far away in

the future


60

Appendix 3: Linguistic Context of Three Dominant Meanings of “Run”

NO SENTENCES THEMATIC

WORD(S)

LINGUISTIC

CONTEXT

To control or manage something

1

lowering the taxes

(SP:KDMPSUGP) (unclear)

(SP:PS0PN) Everybody come

here, this is the place to run a

big business (SP:PS0RD)

Yeah (SP:PS0PN) cheap

labour (SP:PS0RD) Yeah

(SP:PS0PN) you can fiddle

all

Taxes, business, cheap

labour Business

2

even if he had wished it, he

would not really have been

able to run the estates

himself. It was something

which Morton itched to do --

perhaps only

Estates Business

3

out to make up for his

disabilities. She had declared

that Edwin must

henceforward run the

Ashwell estates, as if he had

already come into his

inheritance. His

Estates Business

4

the personal relations of

clientelism. SIAM is a large

Argentine industrial-

commercial complex which

was run, by Torcuato Di

Tella, as a family business.

Those at the top

SIAM, industrial

commercial, business Business

5

campaign would continue

into 1990. The closing of a

total of 2,651 business

enterprises run by

government ministries and

party organs was reported in

November 1989 and January

1990

Business, enterprises Business


61


WORD(S)

LINGUISTIC

CONTEXT

6

such as retail, library, and

garden stores. The aim will

be to run most

order/purchasing and

payment systems without

paper except for unusual

times. We need to

Retail, stores,

purchasing, payment

systems.

Business

7

The clergy daughters' school

at Cowan Bridge (pause) run

by the Reverend William (----

-). Charles and Emily

followed a couple of months

later

School Education

8

man -- can buy such a place,

set himself up as headmaster,

and run it as he likes. Indeed,

that is precisely what Edward

Crumwallis had done

Headmaster Education

9

this Worcester storage centre.

They were donated to the

local Kurdish Refugee

Association, run by Ruth

Hilali. But she hasn't been in

touch with her colleagues for

Donated, refugee Charity

10

built by local youngsters with

the help of public

subscriptions, continues to be

run by the Fairbridge Drake

charity, but it is now

sponsored by Scottish

Nuclear Fuels

Charity Charity

11

Maquis, no risorgimento

fighting British Imperialism?

Well, the wartime resistance

movement was run by the

Communists, who stood

almost single-handed against

the Nazi menace, and

suffered

Fighting, imperialism,

wartime, movement,

communist, resistance,

menace

Politic


62


WORD(S)

LINGUISTIC

CONTEXT

12

were regarded as acceptable

to the Army and to the

business elite which had

effectively run the country

since the military coup of

1954 see pp. 13677-81. None

emerged with

Army, country,

military coup Politic

13

up and I protested about it, on

the grounds that if they

couldn't run a great big pop

hall for, and I wholly agreed

with the idea,

- Unclassified

14

there are a number of well-

established and successful

regionally validated schemes,

such as those run by the East

Anglian, Northern and

Southern RACs, leading to

the award of

- Unclassified

15

Having decided how long the

intervention is to last, ask the

parents to run it for that time

and then immediately return

to the baseline condition. If,

- Unclassified

16

return to the baseline

condition. If, for example, the

intervention is to run for six

weeks, the parents should

stop after that time and then

repeat the

- Unclassified

To move with two legs more quickly

17

on a Sunday, he would have

to think long and hard before

deciding to run the 400m. In

today's world he would

probably choose to run only

the

Run, 400m Sport

18

would have been fewer

qualifying runs. In Barcelona,

Eric Liddell would have to

run two rounds of the 200m,

followed by the semi-final

and the final the next

Two rounds of the

200m, semi-final, and

final

Sport


63


WORD(S)

LINGUSTIC

CONTEXT

19

Not too small. (SP:PS0H8)

(unclear) (SP:PS0H8) What

was that? You were going to

run and er jump were you?

(unclear) (SP:PS12C) I I

stopped. (SP:PS0H8) You

missed

- Unclassified

20

not hop, skip or jump.

Indeed, they can barely

manage even to run, for they

have only soft ballooning

tubes to serve as stumpy legs.

These

- Unclassified

To operate a computer or program

21

industrial action. Livingston

and Norcross are two of four

area computer centres which

will run the social security

and pensions systems. A

third, at Washington, Tyne

and

Social security,

pensions systems Politic

22

of Windows applications

because while software

emulation is feasible, the

only efficient way to run

Mac applications would be to

include a 68000 co-processor.

At next month's Apple

Applications,

software, co-processor Technology

23

both groups a little because

they realised that the gap is

growing between those who

run computers and those who

don't. The occasion was the

New York Academy of

- Unclassified


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