Qualitative Research Methods: A Review of M@or Stages, Data ...
A review of research methods
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A review of research methods
COMM 420.8
Fall 2007
Nan Yu
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Quantitative research methods
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SurveysAdvantages Disadvantages
Surveys show correlational evidence
(i.e., patterns of variables in a large population).
Survey instruments rely solely on self-reported
measures. Low reliability.
Surveys are very good at discerning attitudes, beliefs
and perceptions
They are not good for studying behavior,
emotions, etc.
Have high external validity(real-world situation, large
samples)
They can hardly prove causation.
Random error is high.
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Survey design
Cross-sectional studies observation at one point of time
Longitudinal studies observation over time
establish patterns and shifts over time
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Types Longitudinal Study
Trend Cohort Panel
different samplesSamples are
subgroups from a same population.
same samples
A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined time period. (e.g. class of 1997, people that were born between 1990 to 1995. )
Sample size might be different over time (people moved, died…).
Require probability sampling from the same population, otherwise you can not compare the data collected at different times.
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Types of surveys
Watt, J. H., & van den Berg, S. A. (2002). Research methods for communication science. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, p.278, p. 290
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Sampling error and sample size
Sample size
The greater the sample size, the less the sampling error.
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Problematic questions
What are problems with the following questions? “What is your income?”
“Do you jog regularly?”
“ Does your college offer master or doctoral programs?”
What is your total family’s household income before taxes during last year?
How many times do you job per week?1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Double-barreled questions
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Techniques of asking sensitive questions
Goal: to increase truthful answers to sensitive questions:
“Foot in the door”
The researcher builds some trust and respondents are more comfortable towards the end with the researcher and the procedures.
Place sensitive questions (e.g. demographic questions) at the end.
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ExperimentsA true experiment has 4 characteristics:
Manipulated independent variables
Random assignment
Experimental conditions (other than manipulated IVs) are held constant or as similar as possible.
Dependant variabless are systematically measured.
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Internal vs. External Validity of Experimental Studies
When a true experiment (with full control by the researcher) is carried out properly, the study has high internal validity.
Changes in the DV were probably caused by (not merely related to or correlated with) the treatment.
However, experiments have lower external validity. What is the reason for this?
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Factorial design
DV:Liking toward the picture
A 2X2 factorial design4 conditions
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Random Assignment (cont.)
Why we need random assignment?
Because we want to make sure that
the differences between groups after
they were exposed to different levels of
the IV are due to the IV effect on the
DV, and not to the differences between
groups.
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Random Assignment (cont.)
Treatment A Treatment B
experimenter
• Flipping a coin• Pull names from a thoroughly shaken box.• Random numbers table
Participants come in random orders, and experimenter randomly assign them to treatment A or treatment B.
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Steps in a true (full) experiment study
Formulate a hypothesis or a research question.
Manipulate IV(s) (stimulus).
Pretest the stimulus
Recruit participants
Present to the participants a cover story
Randomly assign participants to a treatment group or to the control group.
Introduce treatment or intervention
Measure the dependent variable (s)
Debriefing
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Main effect and interaction
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Content Analysis
Systematic study of communication contents in an objective and quantitative manner.
The researcher uses objective and systematic counting and recording procedures to produce a quantitative description of the symbolic content in a text.
Why do we need content analysis?
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Applications of content analysis
Describing communication content
Testing hypothesis of message characteristics
Assessing the image of particular groups in society.
Comparing media content to “real world”
Establishing starting point for media effects research, (e.g. cultivation and agenda setting)
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Content Analysis
The content refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, any message that can be communicated, etc.
The text refers to anything written, visual, or spoken that serves as a medium for communication (e.g., books, newspapers and newspaper articles, advertisements, speeches, official documents, movies, musical lyrics, photographs, etc.)
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Coding and measurement
Measurement (coding) in content analysis uses structured observation: systematic, careful observation based on written rules.
The rules explain how to categorize and classify the observations (i.e., units).
Written rules are important in content analysis, as they improve the reliability and make the replication possible.
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Intercoder reliability
In order to improve the reliability and eliminate differences in judgments, researchers train and use more than one coder.
If they agree most of the time on what unit should be placed in which category, the reliability is high.
This type of reliability is called intercoder or interrater reliability.
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Qualitative Research Methods
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When are qualitative methods most useful?
When the research objective is:To interpret, illuminate, illustrateTo understand how or why To describe previously unstudied processes or
situationsTo get in-depth, detailed informationTo understand contextTo learn about subjects who are few or hard to
reachTo capture experience
http://www.eotu.uiuc.edu/live/index.html
University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana
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Research Questions
Research questions that seek to describe lived experience, explain meaning or offer rich, thick description should be answered using qualitative methods.
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Sampling
Generally always purposive Definition: A goal of reaching a pre-defined group
Different types of purposive sampling:Snowball, extreme case, stratified and opportunistic
No need for random sampling: the goal of qualitative research is not to generalize but to explainExample: We need people who have attended a Penn
State football game in order to study the experiences at a Penn State football game
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Two types of qualitative methods
Focus groups (p.206)Researcher (facilitator, moderator) is part of the
communication with a selected group of participants, but in control of questions being asked and the environment.
In-depth interviewOne-on-one interviews,Researcher observe the communication verbally and
nonverballyMore freedom in constructing questions
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Advantages and limitations of focus group
Richness in the dataExplanatory and descriptive
Inexpensive and quick
Quality of the research largely depends on the facilitator’s ability to direct the discussion.
Some participants may monopolizing the talk.Low external validity
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Advantages and limitations In-depth interviews
Story-tellingRichness of the data
Take long time to completePersonal perspectivesLimited ability to generalize
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Experiment SurveyContent Analysis
Focus Group
In-depth interview
Rationale
Sampling
Instrument
Study procedure
Analysis /conclusion
Overview
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Control
In-depth interview focus group survey experiment
Less rigorous Most rigorous