A resource book for students

World EnglishesJennifer Jenkins

Key topics in World Englishes

A. Introduction

A1: The historical, social and political context

English as a first language (L1)- 329,140,800 speakers (cf. Crystal 2003a)

English as an institutionalised second language (L2) - 430,614,500 speakers (cf. Crystal 2003a)

English as a foreign language (EFL)

English as a lingua franca (ELF)

A1

The two diasporas of English

First diaspora- Migrations to North America, Australia, New Zealand, South

Africa- L1 varieties of English = ‘new Englishes’

Second diaspora- Colonialisation of Asia and Africa- L2 varieties of English = ‘New Englishes’

A1

A2: The origins of pidgin and creole languages

Definition pidgin

A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one’s first language but is a contact language.

(Wardhaugh 2006: 61–3)

Definition creole

In contrast to a pidgin, a creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.

(Wardhaugh 2006: 61–3)

A2

Pidgins

- Stigmatisation as inferior, ‘bad’ languages- European expansion into Africa and Asia during

colonial period- Contact languages between ‘dominant’ European

language speakers and speakers of mutually unintelligible indigenous African and American languages

- Fulfils restricted communicative needs between people who do not share a common language

- Little need for grammatical redundancyA2

Creoles

Creolisation: development of a pidgin into a creole

A: children of pidgin speakers use their parents’ pidgin language as a mother tongue creole

B: pidgin is used as a lingua franca in multilingual areas and develops to be used for an increasing number of functions creole

- Vocabulary expands and grammar increases in complexity

Decreolisation: through extensive contact with the dominant language develops towards standard dominant language A2

Theories of origins

Three groups of theories

1 Monogenesis: pidgins have a single origin

2 Polygenesis: pidgins have an independent origin

3 Universal: pidgins derive from universal strategies

A2

Monogenesis

The theory of monogenesis and relexification: - All European-based pidgins and creoles derive

ultimately from one proto-pidgin source, a Portuguese pidgin that was used in the world’s trade routes during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries

- Evidence for this theory: many linguistic similarities between present-day Portuguese pidgins and creoles, and pidgins and creoles related to other European languages

A2

Polygenesis

The independent parallel development theory: - Pidgins and creoles arose and developed

independently, but in similar ways because they shared a common linguistic ancestor

- Pidgins and creoles were formed in similar social and physical conditions

A2

Polygenesis

The nautical jargon theory: - A nautical jargon, i.e. the European sailors’ lingua

franca, formed a nucleus for the various pidgins, which were expanded in line with their learners’ mother tongues

- Evidence for this theory: nautical element in all pidgins and creoles with European lexicons

A2

Universal

The baby talk theory: - Based on similarities between certain pidgins and

early speech of children - Also because speakers of the dominant language

use foreigner talk (simplified speech) with L2 speakers

A2

Universal

A synthesis: - Based on universal patterns of linguistic behaviour

in contact situations- Inherent universal constraints on language- Evidence for this theory: proficient as well as less

proficient speakers from different L1s and speech communities simplify their language in very similar ways; children go through the same stages in the mastery of speech

A2

A3: Who speaks English today?

Three groups of users:

Those who speak English respectively as- a native language = ENL- a second language = ESL- a foreign language = EFL

Neat classifications become increasingly difficult

A3

Who speaks English today?

English as a Native Language (ENL)- Language of those born and raised in one of the countries

where English is historically the first language to be spoken (i.e. mainly the UK, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand)

- ~ 350 million speakers

English as a Second Language (ESL)- Language spoken in a large number of territories which were

once colonised by the English (e.g., India, Nigeria, Singapore)- ~ 350 million speakers

A3

Who speaks English today?

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) - Language of those for whom it serves no purposes within their

own countries- Historically, EFL was learned to use the language with its

native speakers in the US and UK - ~ 1 billion speakers with ‘reasonable competence’

A3

Difficulties with the three-way categorisation

ENL is not a single variety of English Pidgins and creoles do not fit into the categorisation. There are large groups of ENL speakers in ESL

territories and vice versa. It is based on the concept of monolingualism, but bi-

or multilingualism is the norm. It is based on the basic distinction between native

speakers and non-native speakers, with the first group being considered superior regardless of the quality of their language. (cf. McArthur 1998)

A3

Models of the spread of English

Strevens (1980): World map of English Kachru (1985/1988): Three-circle model of World

Englishes McArthur (1987): Circle of World English Görlach (1988): Circle model of English Modiano (1999): The centripetal circles of

international English

A3

Three circle model of World Englishes

Kachru (1992: 356) Most useful and influential model World Englishes divided into three concentric circles:

1 Inner Circle:

~ ENL countries, ‘norm-providing’

2 Outer Circle:~ ESL countries, ‘norm-developing’

3 Expanding Circle: ~EFL countries, ‘norm-dependent’

A3

Limitations with Kachru’s model

Based on geography and history, rather than the speakers’ use of English.

Grey area between Inner and Outer Circles as well as Outer and Expanding Circles.

The world’s bilingual or multilingual speakers are not taken into account.

Difficulty of using the model to define speakers in terms of their proficiency in English.

Does not account for the linguistic diversity within and between countries of a particular circle.

The term Inner Circle implies that speakers from ENL countries are central, and may thus be interpreted as superior. A3

A4: Variation across Outer Circle Englishes

New Englishes

Four defining criteria by Platt, Weber and Ho (1984)1. It has developed through the education system.

2. It has developed in an area where a native variety of English was not the language spoken by most of the population.

3. It is used for a range of functions among those who speak or write it in the region where it is used.

4. It has become ‘localised’ or ‘nativised’ by adopting some language features of its own (e.g., sounds, intonation patterns, sentence structures, words, expressions).

A4

Innovation in English

Five internal factors to decide the status of an innovation (Bamgbose 1998):

1 Demographic factor (how many speakers use it?)

2 Geographical factor (how widely dispersed is it?)

3 Authoritative factor (where is its use sanctioned?)

4 Codification (does it appear in reference books?)

5 Acceptability factor (what is the attitude towards it?)

A4

Levels of variation

Main levels of variation: pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary/idiom, discourse style

Pronunciation- Consonant sounds, e.g., dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/- Vowel sounds: vary across the New Englishes in

terms of both quality and quantity

A4

Levels of variation

Grammar- a tendency not to mark nouns for plural- a tendency to use a specific/non-specific system for nouns

rather than a definite/indefinite system, or to use the two systems side by side

- a tendency to change the form of quantifiers- a tendency not to make a distinction between the third person

pronouns he and she- a tendency to change the word order within the noun phrase

(cf. Platt, Weber and Ho 1984)

A4

Levels of variation

Grammar limited marking of the third person singular present tense form limited marking of verbs for the past tense a tendency to use an aspect system (which shows whether an

action is finished or still going on) rather than tense system (which shows the time an action takes place)

a tendency to extend the use of be + verb + ing constructions to stative verbs

the formation of different phrasal and prepositional verb constructions

(cf. Platt, Weber and Ho 1984)A4

Levels of variation

Vocabulary/Idiom Locally coined words/expressions

Prefixation (e.g., enstool, destool)

Suffixation (e.g., teacheress, spacy)

Compounding (e.g., key-bunch, high hat) Borrowings from indigenous languages Idioms

Direct translations from indigenous idioms (e.g., to shake legs)

Variation on native speaker idioms (e.g., to eat your cake and have it)

Combination of English and indigenous forms (e.g., to put sand in someone’s gari)

A4

Levels of variation

Discourse style- Formal character- Complex vocabulary and grammatical structure- Specific expressions of thanks, deferential vocabulary and the

use of blessings- Greeting and leave-taking

A4

A5: Standard language ideology in the Inner Circle

Standard language Term used for that variety of a language which is

considered to be the norm. Prestige variety: spoken by a minority of those

occupying positions of power within a society Yardstick against which other varieties of the

language are measured Held up as optimum for educational purposes

A5

Standard language and language standards

Language standards- Prescriptive language rules which constitute the

standard to which all members of a language community are exposed and urged to conform during education.

- Reverse side of the standard language coin- Because natural languages are dynamic, these rules

are subject to change over time.- During earlier and transitional stages, language

change is regarded as error by promoters of standard language ideology.

A5

Standard language and language standards

‘[…] standard languages are the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society’ (Hudson 1996: 32)

Four stages of this process of intervention

1 Selection

2 Codification

3 Elaboration of function

4 Acceptance

A5

What is Standard English?

1 The dialect of educated people throughout the British Isles. It is the dialect normally used in writing, for teaching in schools and universities, and heard on radio and television (Hughes and Trudgill 1979, repeated in the 2nd ed., 1996)

2 The variety of the English language which is normally employed in writing and normally spoken by ‘educated’ speakers of the language. It is also, of course, the variety of the language that students of English as a Foreign or Second Language (EFL/ESL) are taught when receiving formal instruction. The term Standard English refers to grammar and vocabulary (dialect) but not to pronunciation (accent). (Trudgill and Hannah 1982, and repeated in the 4th ed., 2002).

A5

What is Standard English?

3 Standard English can be characterized by saying that it is that set of grammatical and lexical forms which is typically used in speech and writing by educated native speakers. It … includes the use of colloquial and slang vocabulary as well as swear-words and taboo expressions (Trudgill 1984).

4 (The term) ‘Standard English’ is potentially misleading for at least two reasons. First, in order to be self-explanatory, it really ought to be called ‘the grammar and the core vocabulary of educated usage in English’. That would make plain the fact that it is not the whole of English, and above all, it is not pronunciation that can in any way be labelled ‘Standard’, but only one part of English: its grammar and vocabulary (Strevens 1985). A5

What is Standard English?

5 Since the 1980s, the notion of ‘standard’ has come to the fore in public debate about the English language … We may define the Standard English of an English-speaking country as a minority variety (identified chiefly by its vocabulary, grammar and orthography) which carries most prestige and is most widely understood. (Crystal 1995, repeated in the 2nd ed., 2003).

6 Traditionally the medium of the upper and (especially professional) middle class, and by and large of education […] Although not limited to one accent (most notably in recent decades), it has been associated since at least the 19th century with the accent that, since the 1920s, has been called Received Pronunciation (RP), and with the phrases the Queen’s English, the King’s English, Oxford English, and BBC English (McArthur 2002). A5

Standard English: what it isn’t

It is not a language: it is only one variety of a given English. It is not an accent: in Britain it is spoken by 12–15% of the

population, of whom 9–12% speak it with a regional accent. It is not a style: it can be spoken in formal, neutral and informal

styles, respectively. It is not a register: given that a register is largely a matter of

lexis in relation to subject matter (e.g. the register of medicine, of cricket, or of knitting), there is no necessary connection between register and Standard English

It is not a set of prescriptive rules: it can tolerate certain features which, because many of their rules are grounded in Latin, prescriptive grammarians do not allow. (cf. Trudgill 1999)A5

Standard English

A dialect That differs from other dialects in that it has greater

prestige That does not have an associated accent That does not form part of a geographical

continuum. It is a purely social dialect.

(Trudgill 1999)

A5

Non-standard Englishes

Non-standard native English varieties New Englishes: standard and non-standard varieties Implicit belief that New Englishes are result of fossilisation

A5

A6: The spread of English as an international lingua franca

Ambivalent attitude towards English as an international lingua franca

Reasons for the international status of English:- Historical reasons- Internal political reasons- External economic reasons- Practical reasons- Intellectual reasons- Entertainment reasons - Personal advantage/prestige (Crystal

1997)

A6

Mutual intelligibility and group identity

Intelligibility and identity: two opposing forces

Mutual intelligibility: accent differences decrease

Identity: accent differences increase

A6

A7: The roles of English in Asia and Europe

Europe AsiaExpanding Circle Outer Circle

Emerging Euro-English Asian Englishes

Bi- and multilingual contexts

‘Linguistic orphans’ (Kachru 1992)

A7

English as an Asian language

Regional categorisation- South Asian varieties- Southeast Asian and Pacific varieties- East Asian varieties

Functional categorisation- Institutionalised varieties (Outer Circle)- Non-institutionalised varieties (Expanding Circle)

A7

English in Europe

European Union (EU):- 23 official languages- 3 dominant languages: English, French, German- English = the de facto European lingua franca- Emerging features (Seidlhofer, Breiteneder, Pitzl 2006)- Nativisation processes

A7

A8: The future of World Englishes

Language distribution vs. language spread (Widdowson 1997)

Difficulties inherent in the English language: - Orthographic- Phonological- Grammatical

Spanish as the principal world language: - Increasing influence in the EU and America- Simpler pronunciation, spelling and verb system

A8