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JAMES KILLORANSTUART ZIMMER

MARK JARRETT, Ph.D.

A QUICK REVIEW OFGLOBAL HISTORY

Everything You Need to Knowto Pass the Regents Examination

Third Edition

JP

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1:THE BASIC TOOLS OF GLOBAL HISTORY .......................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2:HOW TO ANSWER THEMATIC ESSAY QUESTIONS ........................................ 7

CHAPTER 3:HOW TO ANSWER DOCUMENT-BASED ESSAY QUESTIONS ...................... 14

CHAPTER 4:THE BIRTH OF CIVILIZATION (3500 B.C.-500 B.C).. .......................................... 19

CHAPTER 5:THE CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS (500 B.C. - 500 A.D.) ..................................... 26

CHAPTER 6:NEW CENTERS OF CULTURE IN AN AGE OF TURMOIL (500-1200) ............ 39

CHAPTER 7:WARRIORS ON HORSEBACKAND THE REVIVAL OF EUROPE (1200-1500) .................................................... 47

CHAPTER 8:THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLD (1500-1770) ........................................ 55

CHAPTER 9: NEW CURRENTS:REVOLUTION, INDUSTRY, AND NATIONALISM (1770-1900) ...................... 66

CHAPTER 10: THE WORLD AT WAR (1900-1945)........................................... 79

CHAPTER 11: FROM COLD WARTO GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE (1945-PRESENT) ........................................ 92

CHAPTER 12: GLOBAL CONCERNS ................................................................ 109

A FINAL REVIEW ................................................................................................. 118

A FINAL TEST ....................................................................................................... 137

CHAPTER 1

THE BASIC TOOLS OFGLOBAL HISTORY

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7HOW TO ANSWER THEMATIC ESSAY QUESTIONS

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16 HOW TO ANSWER DOCUMENT-BASED ESSAY QUESTIONS

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• Asia. Mongol warriors swept across the Asian mainland, uniting much of Asiaunder their rule.

• Japan. Japan developed a political and social system very similar to feudalismin Western Europe.

• Europe. Europe had a rebirth of trade and learning. These developments led tothe end of feudalism and the achievements of the Renaissance.

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CHAPTER 7

WARRIORS ON HORSEBACKAND THE REVIVAL OF EUROPE,

1200 - 1500

OVERVIEW OF THE PERIOD FROM 1200 TO 1500

48 WARRIORS ON HORSEBACK AND THE REVIVAL OF EUROPE, 1200 - 1500

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The people of Songhai later captured Timbuktu and brought the Upper Nigerregion under their control. Unlike Mali, the common people as well as its rul-ers adopted Islam. Songhai established its trading network as far as Europe.

Songhai1464-1600

Mali extended its empire by controlling the gold mines of equatorial Africa.Mali’s rulers also adopted Islam. In the 1330s, their ruler Mansa Musa madea pilgrimage to Mecca. He brought back Arab scholars and turned the capi-tal city of Timbuktu into a center of learning.

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53WARRIORS ON HORSEBACK AND THE REVIVAL OF EUROPE, 1200 - 1500

TESTING YOUR UNDERSTANDING

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109GLOBAL CONCERNS

109

CHAPTER 12

GLOBAL CONCERNS

Essay questions on the Global History Regents Examination may ask about world prob-lems or trends. This chapter provides an overview of some of these.

PROBLEMS

The world is changing rapidly. These changes have made nations more interdependentthan ever before, and have helped to “shrink” the world into a global village. As theworld has grown “smaller,” problems in one part of the world have a greater impact onother parts of the world. In studying current problems, consider steps being taken to solvethem. Also consider alternative viewpoints for attempting to resolve these problems.

OVERPOPULATIONIn 1798, Thomas Malthus wrote that growing populations would always outstrip foodsupplies, condemning humankind to a cycle of population growth and decline throughstarvation. Todaythere are six billionpeople in the world,and that numberalmost doubles everysixty years. Suchgrowth often exceedsmany developingnations’ abilities toprovide enough hous-ing, water, and food fortheir expanding popu-lations.

Possible Solutions. Many developing nations have adopted programs to limit theirgrowth rate. In the 1970s, for example, China instituted a “one-child policy” for mostfamilies.

Over 3%

2% to 2.9%

1% to 1.9%

Under 1%

GROWTH IN THE WORLD'S POPULATION, 1990

YEARLY RATEOF INCREASE

MIDDLE

EAST

CHINA

INDIA

U.S.A.

SOUTH

AMERICA

CANADA

EUROPE

JAPAN

AFRICA

AUSTRALIA

SOVIET UNION

SOUTHEAST

ASIA

110 GLOBAL CONCERNS

INTERNATIONAL TERRORISMTerrorism is used as a weapon to draw attention to a group’s grievances and to frightengovernments into making concessions. Many radical groups in the world use terrorismfor political ends. Terrorism reached new levels of destruction when members of the alQaeda network hijacked airplanes and crashed them into the World Trade Center andthe Pentagon on September 11, 2001.

Possible Solutions. Government responses to terrorism include negotiation, force, andretaliation. In 2001, President George W. Bush declared a “War on Terrorism.” TheUnited States and its allies invaded Afghanistan and overthrew the Islamic Fundamen-talist Taliban government after it refused to surrender al Qaeda terrorists.

HUNGER AND MALNUTRITIONIn much of the world, hunger and malnutrition are common. In developing nations,millions of young children go to bed hungry every night. Each advance in producingmore food seems to be met by a corresponding increase in population.

Possible Solutions. Technological advances continue to be made for growing morefood. The Green Revolution led to new high-yield crops and better fertilizers. Control-ling population growth and protecting resources are the keys to reducing hunger.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONPopulation growth and industrialization often cause increased pollution. Pollution cre-ates such problems as acid rain, which destroys forests. Air pollution also appears to bemaking the Earth warmer. This global warming may have harmful consequences suchas causing the polar ice caps to melt, which would raise sea levels. Another threat is thethinning of the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from the sun’s radiation. Nuclearweapons and power plants pose special dangers to our environment. Nuclear waste cancontaminate an area for millions of years. In 1986 a meltdown at Chernobyl, a Sovietnuclear power plant, caused radiation sickness over a wide area.

Possible Solutions. There is an increasing global awareness of the need to protect theenvironment. In 1992, 178 nations met at Rio de Janeiro in an Earth Summit devotedto achieving industrial growth without increasing world environmental problems. Sincemuch pollution is caused by burning fossil fuels, there are increasing efforts to usealternative energy sources such as solar and wind power.

111GLOBAL CONCERNS

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND DESTRUCTION

DEFORESTATIONThe rain forests of Central and South America, Africa, and South and Southeast Asiaprovide much of the world’s oxygen. Yet somecountries in these areas have been clearing theirrain forests. Loss of the rain forests also poses athreat to many endangered species.

Possible Solutions. An international campaign istaking place to save the world’s rain forests. Mea-sures include educating farmers about soil erosion,replanting trees, and restricting cattle grazing.

DESERTIFICATIONIn some areas, especially East Africa, attempts were made to increase food productionby clearing large tracts of land. This was followed by several years of drought. In theSahel region, just south of the Sahara, these events have led to desertification, an ex-pansion of desert land. The United Nations has estimated that in Africa alone, an areahalf the size of New York State is turning into desert each year.

Possible Solutions. Ways must be found to halt the erosion of the soil. Reforestation(planting more trees), restricting cattle grazing and educating people about soil erosionare possible approaches. Some inhabitants will also have to relocate.

NATURAL DISASTERSBoth climate change caused by global warming and Earth’s random processes some-times lead to other natural disasters, such as earth-quakes, hurricanes, floods and tornadoes. For example,in 2004 an underwater earthquake occurred in the In-dian Ocean. Scientists believe the earthquake releasedthousands of times the energy of the atomic bombdropped on Hiroshima. The earthquake caused a seriesof giant tidal waves, or tsunami. Each giant wavemoved at a speed of hundreds of miles per hour. Theresulting waves slammed against the coastlines of 11countries bordering the Indian Ocean. More than150,000 people were killed, and thousands more wereleft homeless.

Deforestation in Brazil

The tsunami of 2004 was oneof the deadliest on record

FPO

112 GLOBAL CONCERNS

Possible Solutions. Natural disasters cannot be avoided, but countries can prepare forthem and cooperate to provide disaster relief. In the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami,many world relief agencies gave aid to victims.

THE NORTH / SOUTH DICHOTOMYAbout three-fourths of the world’s population live in developing nations. The gapbetween rich and poor nations is sometimes referred to as the “North/SouthDichotomy,” or division. The rich, industrialized nations are referred to as the “North”because most are in the Northern Hemisphere, while the developing nations areknown as the “South.”

Possible Solutions. Developing nations have developed a variety of strategies to pro-mote economic development, includinggovernment control. Most recently, de-veloping nations have encouraged foreigninvestment and adopted free marketeconomies. International organizationslike the World Bank help by providingloans and economic aid. Many formerlydeveloping nations, like China, India andBrazil, are now growing so fast they areconsidered “emerging economies” or“emerging markets.”

THE FINANCIAL CRISIS OF 2008-2009Because countries are now very economically interdependent, a crisis in one countrycan have serious impact on its neighbors and trading partners. In 2008, a large bank-ing and investment crisis quickly spread from the United States to the rest of the world.

Roots of the Crisis. Low interest rates and a lack of government regulation had led toover-lending and a housing “bubble” in the United States. In 2008, the bubble burst ashouse prices sank. Loans lost their value and banks and investment firms holding thesemortgages started to fail. Soon, banks stopped lending money, even to each other. Thisaction led to an economic crisis. Consumers stopped spending, and businesses foundthey had fewer customers.

The Recession Spreads. The events in the United States soon triggered a worldwiderecession. In October 2008, shipping volume between nations fell by 50% in one week,

Many people rely on the World Bankfor aid to improve their economy

113GLOBAL CONCERNS

as the credit crisis made it difficult for exportersto obtain credit. In early 2009, there was a sharpdecline in industrial production in nations thatexport goods. Developing countries that soldproducts to richer countries saw their trade dryup. Throughout the world’s economies, millionsof jobs were lost. In 2009, worldwide unemploy-ment went above 200 million for the first time.

Possible Solutions. The world’s leading nationshave been cooperating to deal with this crisis.The United States has increased its deficitspending to provide a stimulus to its economy. European nations have refused to pro-vide quite as large a stimulus as the United States. The United States is also increas-ing government regulation of banks and investment firms. China has proposed the cre-ating of a new international currency, so that countries will be less dependent on thedollar.

WORLD HEALTH PROBLEMSMore than 40 million people are now infected with AIDS virus. The majority of thesecases are in Africa, where many receive inadequate medical treatment. Mosquito-bornWest Nile Virus is now spreading to countries like the U.S. Millions also suffer or dieeach year from older preventable diseases, like polio or Guinea worm disease.

Possible Solutions. Using computers and new knowledge about viruses and DNA, sci-entists can determine the causes of some diseases and design helpful treatments morerapidly than ever before. Nevertheless, the rising cost of new drugs often prevents ef-fective treatment for poor people in many developing nations.

THE STATUS OF WOMENTraditionally, many societies barred women from holding property or participating ingovernment. With the Industrial Revolution, many more women entered the workforce. After World War I, women in industrialized countries achieved the right to voteand other rights. Nevertheless, women still suffer inferior status in many parts of theworld. In Africa and Asia, they suffer from mutilation of their bodies when they reachadolescence. In some Islamic countries, women must wear veils, must refrain from pub-lic appearances, and cannot drive cars. Even in Western countries, women are under-represented in politics and business and on average earn less than men.

Financial markets plunged as thecrisis spread around the globe

114 GLOBAL CONCERNS

Possible Solutions. More women now attend college and enter professions such asmedicine and law than ever before. Today, international organizations attempt to pre-vent the worst abuses of women in the developing world — such as female mutilationand the murder of infant girls.

GLOBAL MIGRATIONAfter World War II large numbers of foreign workers entered Western Europe, wherethey filled low-paying jobs. Turks and Italians migrated to Germany, North Africans toFrance, and Pakistanis to Great Britain. Many of these “guest workers” were Muslimsand were not accepted by Europeans as equals. Latin Americans and Asians have simi-larly migrated to the United States. In times of high unemployment, these workers areoften resented and attacked by local groups.

Possible Solutions. In industrialized countries, many concerned citizens have con-demned acts of violence against immigrants and reaffirmed the principles of equalrights for all. These countries have also taken steps to limit the number of refugees andother immigrants to a more manageable level.

TRENDS

A trend is a pattern of change. Several patterns of change point the way to our futureas a global community.

URBANIZATION AND MODERNIZATIONUrbanization means the movement of people into cities. Poverty in the Third Worldhas driven millions of people to moveto cities in search of jobs and educa-tion. Rising populations in cities re-quire more food, heat, water, electric-ity, schools, and medical services thancities can provide. Rural newcomersalso face modernization — the shed-ding of traditional beliefs in favor ofmodern ideas. Often cities are centersof modernization, creating social and psychological conflicts. Citizens in developingcountries struggle to combine their traditional beliefs and values with modern ideas.

URBANIZATION OF THE WORLD’S POPULATION

86.4%

12% 1.6%

56.7%

27.5%

15.8%

37.5% 35.4%

27.1%

1900 1985 2020

People living inrural areas

People living in citiesof 1,000,000 or more

People living in citiesof less than 1,000,000

1.6 BILLION PEOPLE 4.9 BILLION PEOPLE 8.1 BILLION PEOPLE

115GLOBAL CONCERNS

Third World governments are improving conditions in the countryside to slow thetide of migration, while providing more services, housing, and education in the cities.Population control can also help prevent further urban congestion.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGEWe live in a time of constant scientific and technological change, which often createssocial problems and cultural conflicts. We must make these new technologies servegenuine human needs, and provide people with support in adjusting to rapid change.

✦ The Computer Revolution. Today, computers that can perform millions of calcu-lations in a few seconds are small enough to hold on one’s lap. Some people havehad problems adjusting to the computer revolution. Others fear that informationstored in computers might lead to invasions of personal privacy.

✦ Automation. Computer-controlled robots work in factories that once neededskilled workers. This change provides cheaper products, but also reduces factoryjobs. Some economists believe new jobs are created just as quickly as the old onesare eliminated, but in many fields workers find it hard to adjust.

✦ Medical Advances. Vaccines and antibiotics have wiped out many diseases. Majormedical advances seem to occur almost on a daily basis. But medical costs are ris-ing at an alarming rate. Many societies cannot afford modern health care.

✦ Transportation. Cars allow people to reach places in a short time that once tookdays to reach. However, the vast increase in the use of cars has caused smog, pol-lution, and clogged highways in cities throughout the world.

✦ Communications. Instant global communications among peoples has turned ourworld into a “global village.” The Internet, a global network allowing computer us-ers to exchange information quickly and cheaply, is increasing the information ex-plosion still further. People are better informed today, but find it difficult to copewith ever-increasing amounts of information.

✦ Space Exploration. In 1957, the Soviets launched a satellite, Sputnik I, startingthe “space race” between the Soviet Union and the U.S. The first men landed onthe moon in 1969. Space exploration carries great national prestige, military advan-tages, and increased communication capabilities, but costs a vast amount of money.

116 GLOBAL CONCERNS

TESTING YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1 The global problems of uneven economic development, environmental pollution, andhunger reflect the need for1 a return to policies of economic mercantilism2 increased military spending3 a reduction in the foreign aid provided by industrialized nations4 increased international cooperation

2 A valid statement about technology in the 20th century is that it has1 eliminated famine and disease throughout the world2 delayed economic progress in developing countries3 reduced the destructiveness of war4 accelerated the pace of cultural diffusion

3 Technological changes in developing countries have most often resulted in1 migrations from urban to rural areas 3 a weakening of traditional values2 fewer educational opportunities 4 a decreased use of natural resources

4 A study of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine and the se-vere air pollution in Mexico City would lead to the conclusion that1 technology can cause problems throughout the world2 international trade is more profitable than domestic commerce3 modern science cannot solve most political problems4 agricultural progress has caused major world environmental problems

5 Acid rain damage, contamination from nuclear accidents, and deterioration of theEarth’s ozone layer indicate a need for1 the elimination of fossil fuels2 international cooperation and communication3 high tariffs and a favorable balance of trade4 nationalization of major industries

6 A major cause of the high birth rates in many developing nations has been1 the need for a large urban workforce2 a desire to counteract an increasing death rate3 a need to replace people killed during civil wars4 traditional beliefs and the economic need to have large families

117GLOBAL CONCERNS

7 One main concern regarding the destruction of rain forests in Latin America, South-east Asia and sub-Saharan Africa is that1 cities will become seriously overcrowded2 it will lead to a decrease in the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere3 the per capita income in economically developing nations may increase4 water supplies in these areas will increase

8 The results of the destruction of rain forests in Brazil and the effects of acid rain on theforests of North America and Europe demonstrate that1 the nations of the world have been successful in protecting the environment2 activities in one region can adversely affect another region’s environment3 each nation must act alone to solve its environmental problems4 natural resources are scarce throughout the world

9 Many scientists believe that global warming is the result of1 overgrazing on land in developing nations2 burning large amounts of gasoline, oil, and coal in developed nations3 testing nuclear weapons in violation of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty4 using new fertilizers to increase crop production

THEMATIC ESSAY QUESTION

Directions: Write a well-organized essay that includes an introduction, several para-graphs explaining your position, and a conclusion.

Theme: Interdependence

Global concerns pose challenges for both national and international efforts.

Task:

Choose two global concerns from your study of global history and geography.

For each global concern:• Describe why it is considered to be a problem.• Show how the problem might be resolved.

You may use any example from your study of global history and geography. Some sug-gestions you may wish to consider include: pollution, terrorism, desertification, over-population, and hunger.

You are not limited to these suggestions.

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