2828EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250

studio & ricerca

The CoaCh-aThleTe relaTionship

in physiCal eduCaTion

A Qualitative Investigation of Female Studentsin the United Kingdom

MARtIN DIXON

Centre for Sport, Health and Exercise Research, Staffordshire University, UK

JACK bROWNett

Centre for Sport, Health and Exercise Research, Staffordshire University, UK

AbStRACt

this study investigated the importance of the coach-athlete relationship within a physical education environment.

the study aimed to explore the factors of the relationship between students and their teachers which might influ-

ence their engagement in the subject. Following semi-structured interviews with secondary school female students

(n = 6, age range 13-14 years) the data was thematically analysed. Results indicated that the relationship between

student and teacher had a strong influence on engagement within physical education. emergent themes revealed

the key factors to developing a positive relationship were approachability and trust, teacher effort and care, and

mutual respect. Findings are discussed in light of coach-athlete relationship literature, particularly Jowett’s (2007)

3 Cs model of closeness, commitment and complementarity. Practical implications to enhance the engagement of

female students in physical education are provided.

KEY WORDS: coach-athlete relationship, physical education.

This study investigated the importance of the coach-athlete relationship within a physical education environment. The study aimed to explore the

factors of the relationship between students and their teachers which might influence their engagement in the subject. Following semi-structured

= 6, age range 13-14 years) the data was thematically analysed. Results indicated that the

relationship between student and teacher had a strong influence on engagement within physical education. Emergent themes revealed the key fac-

tors to developing a positive relationship were approachability and trust, teacher effort and care, and mutual respect. Findings are discussed in

light of coach-athlete relationship literature, particularly Jowett’s (2007) 3 Cs model of closeness, commitment and complementarity. Practical impli-

Questo studio esamina l’importanza della relazione allenatore-atleta all’interno di un ambiente di educazione fisi-Lo studio intende esplorare i fattori della relazione tra gli studenti e i loro insegnanti che possono influenzare

In seguito a interviste semi-strutturate alle studentesse di scuola secondaria(n=6, età 13-14 anni) è stata fatta un’analisi tematica dei dati. I risultati indicano che la relazione tra studente einsegnante aveva una forte influenza sull’impegno nell’educazione fisica. I temi che sono emersi hanno mostratocome i fattori chiave per sviluppare una relazione positiva erano accessibilità e fiducia, impegno e attenzione del-l’insegnante e reciproco rispetto. I risultati sono discussi alla luce della letteratura allenatore-atleta, in particolare

closeness, commitment and com-Vengono fornite implicazioni pratiche per migliorare l’impegno delle studentesse in educazione fisi-

The lack of participation in sport amongst females is a growing concern in the United Kingdom (UK). By the ageof 14, only 12% of girls in the UK are achieving the recommended amount of physical activity, with 23% of womenstating that their experiences in physical education (PE) lessons deterred them from physical activity in later life(Women’s Sport and Fitness Foundation, 2013). Further research indicates that adolescent females are less like-ly to participate in physical activity than their male counterparts (Vescio, Wilde & Crosswhite, 2005), and there arehigher attrition rates among girls in school sports (Schofield, Mummery, Schofield & Walmsely). Indeed, children’smotivation, particularly girls’, to participate in sport diminishes as they progress through school (Garrett, 2004).Therefore, physical education is essential to improving and maintaining physical activity levels amongst females.

SOMMARIO

Questo studio esamina l’importanza della relazione allenatore-atleta all’interno di un ambiente di educazione fisica.

Lo studio intende esplorare i fattori della relazione tra gli studenti e i loro insegnanti che possono influenzare il loro

impegno in questo ambito. In seguito a interviste semi-strutturate alle studentesse di scuola secondaria (n=6, età

13-14 anni) è stata fatta un’analisi tematica dei dati. I risultati indicano che la relazione tra studente e insegnante

aveva una forte influenza sull’impegno nell’educazione fisica. I temi che sono emersi hanno mostrato come i fatto-

ri chiave per sviluppare una relazione positiva erano accessibilità e fiducia, impegno e attenzione dell’insegnante

e reciproco rispetto. I risultati sono discussi alla luce della letteratura allenatore-atleta, in particolare del modello

delle 3 C di Jowett (2007) vicinanza, impegno e complementarità (closeness, commitment and complementarity).

Vengono fornite implicazioni pratiche per migliorare l’impegno delle studentesse in educazione fisica.

PAROLe ChIAVe: relazione allenatore-atleta, educazione fisica.

In questo numero pubblichiamo un contributo proposto alla

Redazione di EFSS da due autori del Regno Unito. Il lavoro

viene pubblicato in lingua originale e solo il solo Sommario più le

Parole chiave vengono proposti nella traduzione in italiano.

29

Introduction

The lack of partici-

pation in sport

amongst females is

a growing concern

in the United King-

dom (UK). By the

age of 14, only 12%

of girls in the UK are

achieving the rec-

ommended amount

of physical activity,

with 23% of women

stating that their

experiences in

physical education

(PE) lessons

deterred them from

physical activity in

later life (Women’s

Sport and Fitness Foundation, 2013). Further research

indicates that adolescent females are less likely to par-

ticipate in physical activity than their male counterparts

(Vescio, Wilde & Crosswhite, 2005), and there are

higher attrition rates among girls in school sports

(Schofield, Mummery, Schofield & Walmsely). Indeed,

children’s motivation, particularly girls’, to participate in

sport diminishes as they progress through school

(Garrett, 2004). Therefore, physical education is

essential to improving and maintaining physical activi-

ty levels amongst females.

Participation levels of adolescent girls can be

enhanced in PE through the provision of active role

modelling within the school environment (Vescio et al.

2005). Moreover, PE teachers can positively impact

the female students’ future health status, self-worth

and emotional well-being (Warner, Dixon & Schumann,

2009). Woods, Tannehill and Walsh (2012) contend

that making physical activity in the curriculum enjoy-

able is fundamental to engaging girls in PE. Physical

education teachers then, have a central role in

enhancing the engagement of females, both within the

school environment and beyond.

Research from the sports coaching domain suggests

an enhanced relationship between coach and athlete

increases athletes’ enjoyment and motivation levels

(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). The coach athlete rela-

tionship can be defined as a dynamic and complex

coaching process which enables coaches and athletes’

needs to be expressed and fulfilled (Jowett & Cockerill,

2002). The quality of this relationship influences per-

sonal traits such as, determination, leadership, confi-

dence and self-reliance (Norman & French, 2013). Fur-

ther research has demonstrated that the coach-athlete

relationship can impact team cohesion (Jowett &

Chaundy, 2004), passion (Lafrenière, Jowett,

Vallerand, Donahue & Lorimer, 2008) and satisfaction

(Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). Considering the notion that

female students who have positive experiences in PE

lessons often hold a positive perception of sport partic-

ipation later in life (Jones, 2013), a greater understand-

ing of the pedagogical relationship is warranted.

The aforementioned research has been situated in the

context of coaching rather than physical education.

Whilst the roles of coaching and teaching are strongly

linked through their objectives of teaching skills, tech-

nique and strategies (Drewe, 2000), they are also dis-

tinctly different as teaching often involves working with

larger groups to a rigid curriculum (Chelladurai &

Kuga, 1996). Furthermore, studies of this nature have

thus far focussed greatly on elite sport with limited

applicability to the physical education environment.

Moreover, the sporting environment is male dominated

and consequently coaching practices have ‘primarily

been developed by male practitioners and tailored

towards a male base’ (Mackinnon, 2011), again mak-

ing it difficult to generalise to a female population, a

group at high risk of physical inactivity. The current

study therefore, aims to investigate the characteristics

of the student-teacher relationship within physical edu-

cation, using coach-athlete relationship theory as a

theoretical framework.

29EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250

studio & ricerca

30

Materials and Methods

A qualitative method was employed to get closer to the

participants’ perspective through detailed interviews

(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Semi-structured interviews

were conducted to gain special insight into subjectivity,

voice and lived experiences (Atkinson & Silverman,

1997). In accordance with Wengraf (2001), the interview

guide was formulated by linking theoretical concepts

with the aims of the research. Specifically questions

were derived from Jowett’s (2007) 3 Cs model, which

offers an explanation of the processes and outcomes of

the coach-athlete relationship. This is comprised of

three interconnected constructs: closeness (emotions),

commitment (thoughts), and complementarity (behav-

iours). The interpersonal construct of closeness repre-

sents coaches’ and athletes’ affective ties, such as lik-

ing, respecting, trusting, and appreciating each other.

Commitment describes a cognitive attachment and a

long-term orientation toward one another. Finally, com-

plementarity reflects behavioural transactions of coop-

eration, responsiveness, and affiliation (Jowett, 2009).

Participants were secondary school female students

(n=6; age range 13-14 years) from two different

schools. A purposeful sampling technique was utilised

as the individuals studied were able to purposefully

inform an understanding of the research problem and

central phenomenon in the study (Cresswell, 2007).

This method leads to data saturation being achieved

more quickly than alternative techniques (Hesse-Biber

& Leavy, 2006). Parental consent and institutional eth-

ical approval was obtained prior to data collection.

Interviews were transcribed verbatim and then themati-

cally analysed to provide rich and detailed data (Braun

& Clarke, 2006). In line with Auerbach and Silverstein,

(2003), several phases of analysis included familiarisa-

tion, generating initial codes, developing themes,

reviewing themes,

naming themes and

the production of a

final report. This

method is appropri-

ate when studying

subjective human

experiences and the

participant’s percep-

tions and feelings

are of paramount

importance (Guest,

Mcqueen & Namey,

2011).

Results

Thematic analysis of the transcribed interview data

elicited three key themes which characterised the

teacher-student relationship. These are presented

below with example quotations from students.

Approachability and trust

Approachability and trust emerged as key issues as stu-

dents outlined the importance of feeling comfortable in

the presence of their physical education teachers.

“Even though I don’t really like PE I do feel like I can

talk to the teachers honestly. Mrs **** is a good listen-

er… She talks to me more like she’s a student as well

which makes it a lot easier to ask or tell her things.”

“It’s important to be able to trust your PE teachers

because school is difficult sometimes and it would be

nice to be able to have a teacher who will listen.”

Participants highlighted why they felt trust was so

important with teachers and how it relates to their

experience in lessons. However, students felt the lack

of time in PE lessons restricted the development of

relationships.

“PE teachers don’t get to spend as much time with us

students so it’s quite difficult for them to build a good

relationship with them.”

Teacher effort and care

Interlinked with the development of a trusting rela-

tionship was students’ perceptions of teacher effort

and care.

“Teachers ask about how we’re getting on in other sub-

jects which is nice… because that shows how much

they care about us because they don’t just talk to us

about PE… When my teacher congratulated me about

getting an award in assembly it made me feel great and

gave me a bit of motivation to carry on trying hard.”30EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250

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31

“Mr **** gives us nicknames which is funny and the

lesson is just more relaxed. He tries to make bonds

with the girls around the school, not just in PE, like if

he sees us around he has a laugh with us.”

Students felt valued when teachers interacted with

them on a more holistic level, rather than restricting the

relationship to the physical education environment.

Mutual Respect

The development of mutual respect between students

and teachers was emphasised by participants to

establish and maintain a positive relationship.

“It’s really important that there is a respect between

students and the teachers in PE. …Mrs **** always

says that respect that is a two way thing and it is

important that you earn it.”

“It makes us feel more motivated in PE. He makes us

feel more comfortable, like he feels more like a friend

than a teacher. He’s like a really good friend, but

knows where the line is when it comes to getting

work done.”

Participants respected their teachers if a traditional

hierarchical relationship was relaxed, yet there was an

understanding of the relative roles of students and

teachers. As part of a mutually respectful relationship,

collaboration between teachers and students emerged

as a sub-theme in increasing engagement.

“It is definitely better when we work together. Some-

times lessons get boring and he asks us what we

could do to have more fun or make us work harder…

Recently they’ve given us the chance to choose a

new sport to practice in lessons like stuff that we’ve

never done before… It’s just nice to know we get a

say in what we do in some lessons.”

Discussion and Conclusions

The results indicate some salient features of the

teacher-student relationship within physical education.

Emergent themes revealed three key characteristics of

the teacher-student relationship which influence learn-

ers’ engagement within the subject: approachability

and trust, teacher effort and care, and mutual respect.

Here, these results are discussed in light of the coach-

athlete relationship literature with specific reference to

Jowett’s (2007) 3 Cs model. Limitations of the study

are addressed and implications for practice are given.

Participants emphasised the importance of the

approachability of teachers in physical education. In

particular, students valued opportunities to talk to their

teachers and the relationship was strengthened when

teachers empathised and listened to students.

Through approachability and trust, students implied

that they were more likely to engage in PE, even if they

previously disliked the subject. This resonates with

Jowett’s (2007) construct of ‘closeness’ which repre-

sents coaches’ and athletes’ affective ties, such as lik-

ing, trusting, and appreciating each other. Closeness

may improve the coach-athlete relationship and con-

sequently enhance team cohesion (Jowett & Chaundy,

2004), passion (Lafrenière et al. 2008) and satisfaction

(Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). In corroboration, Salminen

and Liukkonen (1996) emphasise the significance hav-

ing closeness and emotional connection with a coach

can have on satisfaction levels. Therefore teachers

should provide opportunities for dedicated ‘one to one’

time with students and ensure they create a safe, sup-

portive climate in which students feel comfortable to

discuss any issues.

Interlinked with the theme of approachability and trust,

participants revealed how relationships are developed

through teacher effort and care. In particular, students

perceived greater teacher effort and care when staff

showed an interest in them outside of the PE environ-

ment. Students suggested the relationship strength-

ened when PE teachers interacted with them outside

of lesson time, often informally, but also within lessons

when the topic of conversation was not necessarily

about PE. The application of effort to build a positive

relationship aligns with Jowett’s (2007) concept of

‘commitment’, a cognitive attachment and long term

orientation to one another. In support, Bloom, Durand-

Bush, Schinke, & Salmela (1998) asserted that coach-

es with a genuine commitment to athlete development

can help enhance the trust and respect between them

and ultimately improve their motivation levels, where-

as a lack of social support negatively impacts athlete

satisfaction levels (Gould & Bridges, 1997). This is

reflected in the current study as participants made spe-

cific references to the interest PE teachers showed

regarding their academic progress in general, showing

a holistic approach to student development. Physical

education teachers should ensure they connect with

students across a range of school activities. Through

greater perceptions of effort and care, teachers

demonstrate more commitment to students, which can

subsequently impact students’ commitment towards

and engagement within physical education.

Mutual respect emerged as another pertinent charac-

teristic of the pedagogical relationship between

teacher and student. Data suggests that whilst stu-

dents enjoyed a personal, jovial element to the rela-

tionship, they also valued the discipline instilled by

31EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250

studio & ricerca

32

teachers. Respect was established with clear roles

and an understanding of learning objectives. This is

echoed in the coach-athlete relationship literature as

Poczwardowski, Barrot and Henschen (2002) empha-

sise the importance of respect, mutual needs, goals

and shared knowledge in building a positive relation-

ship. Students felt respect was mutual when they were

able to collaborate with their teachers. Specifically, stu-

dents provided input into learning activities and the

physical education curriculum, indicating a balance of

power incongruent to traditional hierarchical relation-

ships. This reflects the latest review of the national cur-

riculum, which emphasises the new freedom schools

have to create a ‘local curriculum’ that is most benefi-

cial to their students (Department of Education, 2013)

and is underpinned by further links to Jowett’s (2007)

3Cs model. The concept of ‘complementarity’ repre-

sents coaches’ and athletes’ behavioural transactions

of cooperation, responsiveness, and affiliation. In this

case behaviours indicate the relative roles of teachers

and students whilst cooperation is present when stu-

dents have input into the PE curriculum. It is recom-

mended therefore, that schools and teachers have a

degree of flexibility when planning lessons and the

wider curriculum to engage female students through

enhanced cooperation.

Whilst the key themes emphasise characteristics of a

positive relationship, participants also highlighted the

lack of time teachers spend with students, with inter-

actions restricted by the minimal hours of PE lessons

per week. As a result, the potential for developing a

good relationship is often compromised. This problem

is also evident in coaching as Jowett and Ntoumanis

(2004) suggest that due to competitive environments,

coaches spend less time with their athletes and the

relationship suffers. This demonstrates the difficulties

PE teachers encounter when building relationships

with students, further emphasising the need for a flex-

ible curriculum and greater interaction across wider

school activities.

The findings of this study provide useful insight into the

student-teacher relationship within a physical education

environment, however, the limitations of this study must

be addressed. The unrepresentative nature of the sam-

ple may limit the extent to which findings can be gener-

alised. However, the purpose of qualitative research is

to generate ‘rich’ data from a small sample (Gratton &

Jones, 2004) and therefore provide a platform for further

research. Another limitation is the comparison between

teaching and coaching, which have some important dif-

ferences. Indeed, they are distinctly different as teach-

ing often involves working with larger groups to a rigid

curriculum (Chelladurai & Kuga, 1996). Although coach-

athlete relationship theory provides a framework for bet-

ter understanding the teacher-student relationship,

practitioners should be aware of these key differences

when applying the findings.

In conclusion, this study has revealed three key charac-

teristics of the teacher-student relationship within physi-

cal education: approachability and trust, teacher effort

and care, and mutual respect. Practical implications for

teachers and schools include opportunities for ‘one on

one’ time to promote trust and a comfortable environ-

ment for students to interact with their teachers. Staff

should also show a holistic interest in student develop-

ment and interact with learners through a range of

cross-school activities not limited to the PE setting. Fur-

thermore, schools should encourage cooperation and

collaboration by enabling students input into their own

learning activities and curriculum. The concepts of

approachability and trust,

teacher effort and care, and

mutual respect reflect those

of Jowett’s (2007) 3Cs

model of closeness, com-

mitment and complemen-

tarity, and the wider body of

coach-athlete relationship

literature. Whilst there are

some important differences

between coaching and

teaching roles, this

research extends the body

of knowledge into pedagog-

ical relationships, which

can lead to greater engage-

ment within physical educa-

tion and sport. 32EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250

studio & ricerca

33

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