A A proceduralprocedural model of languagemodel of language

based on encoding and selection based on encoding and selection out of a communicative fieldout of a communicative field

Dorota ZielińskaDorota ZielińskaKraków, Kraków, PolandPoland

DorotaZielinska@yahoo.co.ukDorotaZielinska@yahoo.co.uk

A developmental A developmental perspective on languageperspective on language

Languages regarded as abstract semiotic Languages regarded as abstract semiotic systems do not change by themselves - systems do not change by themselves - only speakers do, and consequently, only speakers do, and consequently, speakers change their linguistic speakers change their linguistic performance. performance. (after Bunge, 2003)(after Bunge, 2003)

Explanatory models of language cannot Explanatory models of language cannot concern abstract structures alone. concern abstract structures alone.

Given the functioning of the brain, models of Given the functioning of the brain, models of languagelanguage must have a developmental must have a developmental character.character.

Encoding and selecting in Encoding and selecting in language use and language use and

constitutionconstitutionEncodingEncoding: When a speaker identifies the referent : When a speaker identifies the referent

of a linguistic symbol, an existing correlation of a linguistic symbol, an existing correlation between a form and a potential referencebetween a form and a potential reference ( (its its representationrepresentation)) is strengthened (and possibly is strengthened (and possibly modified) by strengthening the relevant synapses modified) by strengthening the relevant synapses (Hebb’s model of memory).(Hebb’s model of memory).

SelectingSelecting:: A A speaker uses the espeaker uses the enncoded content coded content related to the symbol being interpreted to select related to the symbol being interpreted to select out of the set of representations ofout of the set of representations of viable viable itemsitems, the one that resembles the encoded item , the one that resembles the encoded item best. The representation of the item selected is best. The representation of the item selected is added to the current representation of the given added to the current representation of the given symbolsymbol through through strengtheningstrengthening relevant synapses. relevant synapses. The set of viable items is called a communicative The set of viable items is called a communicative field.field.

Communicative fieldCommunicative field (c- (c-field)field)

C-field: a set of C-field: a set of ””expectationsexpectations, associations, associations”” (eventually verbalized), each with assigned (eventually verbalized), each with assigned probability of its occurrenceprobability of its occurrence..

The fridge is empty. I am going to |……. |The fridge is empty. I am going to |……. |

PPragmemragmem11: shopping for food buy/get/bring : shopping for food buy/get/bring bread, butter, milk, meat, etc. at (possible shops bread, butter, milk, meat, etc. at (possible shops typical for that person, for the given community, typical for that person, for the given community, in a given situation). Verbal expressions of that in a given situation). Verbal expressions of that content, Pragmemcontent, Pragmem22: eating out: eating out

C-field nC-field needs a formal model, eeds a formal model, perhapsperhaps Peter Bruza Peter Bruza’s?’s?

SSelectionelection

Selection – can be modelled by a type of Selection – can be modelled by a type of supervised learning technique, e.g.supervised learning technique, e.g.,, analogical modelling (Skousen, 1992). It analogical modelling (Skousen, 1992). It should depend on the number of the tokens should depend on the number of the tokens of a given type used recently, the total of a given type used recently, the total similarity of tokens to the token considered, similarity of tokens to the token considered, the probability of recalling a given typethe probability of recalling a given type in a in a given context.given context.

Selecting can be compared to using 2 points Selecting can be compared to using 2 points to select exactly one among a set of linesto select exactly one among a set of lines

SelectionSelection The task is to categorize item A as either The task is to categorize item A as either

category category Y or Y or categorycategory X (find the distance X (find the distance between A and the sets Y and X, respectively)between A and the sets Y and X, respectively)

YX

XX

X

X XY

YY

A x

XX

The axes represent two selected parameters describing the items X, Y, A

Selected problems of truth -Selected problems of truth -conditional models of conditional models of

linguistic meaninglinguistic meaning Basic encodings cannot be transferred Basic encodings cannot be transferred

between individuals. (due to postulatingbetween individuals. (due to postulating selection there is no need to share a selection there is no need to share a prototype) prototype)

NNo good models of lexical categorieso good models of lexical categories.. (Aristotelian, a fuzzy set, prototype centred, (Aristotelian, a fuzzy set, prototype centred, family resemblance) modelsfamily resemblance) models. . No satisfying No satisfying way of modellingway of modelling usage of language (eusage of language (egg..,, compositionalitycompositionality,, metaphor, ellipsis metaphor, ellipsis); ); linguistic linguistic change, language acquisition change, language acquisition

Examples of such problems Examples of such problems and solutions within the and solutions within the framework advocatedframework advocated

blue eyesblue eyes,, red eyes red eyes1 1 ,, red eyes red eyes2 2 ,, Mary has boughtMary has bought a a lot of flowers lot of flowers for her hotel last winter.for her hotel last winter.

TheThe apocalypseapocalypse has every right to scare us.has every right to scare us.

While I am growing older and older, my children While I am growing older and older, my children are growing older and older and I am having are growing older and older and I am having problemproblemss lifting them. lifting them.

„„Are you 18?Are you 18?”” ””YesYes,, I am I am”- ”- replied a 20 year-old replied a 20 year-old manman..

Meta-informational structureMeta-informational structure of a message as the result of of a message as the result of

selectionselection What language is spoken in Burma? What language is spoken in Burma? EnglishEnglish is is

spoken in Burma.spoken in Burma.{[out of the languages spoken in Burma] {[out of the languages spoken in Burma] English}English}

Where is English spoken? Where is English spoken? EnglishEnglish is spoken in is spoken in BurmaBurma..

((B. Hajcova, Partee, SgallB. Hajcova, Partee, Sgall)){{English English [out of all languages spoken in the world}[out of all languages spoken in the world} Many people read few books.Many people read few books. (different few books each) (different few books each)

Few booksFew books are read by many peopleare read by many people (Palmer) (Palmer) (the (the same few books, e.g. the Bible)same few books, e.g. the Bible)

Wielu ludzi / czyta / niewiele książek.Wielu ludzi / czyta / niewiele książek. Niewiele książek/ czyta/ wielu ludzi.Niewiele książek/ czyta/ wielu ludzi.

Selective usage of language Selective usage of language and dictionary definitionsand dictionary definitions

The dachshund is 200 years old.The dachshund is 200 years old.The dachshund is 2 years old.The dachshund is 2 years old.

dachshund [breed of a dog] [dog of a breed]dachshund [breed of a dog] [dog of a breed]

This is big. This is a whale.This is big. This is a whale. (?)(?) This is a big whale. (Chierchia) This is a big whale. (Chierchia)

{{This [thing]This [thing]}} is big. is big. {{This [animal]This [animal]}} is big. is big. { {This [whale]This [whale]} is a big whale} is a big whale

Mary is Mary is John’s John’s wife wife {[{[a womana woman] ] a man is married toa man is married to}} . Mary is John’s . Mary is John’s wife wife (vs. a sister, mother(vs. a sister, mother,,daudaugghterhter,, friend). friend).

This is a boxing competition for This is a boxing competition for boys boys {young [males]}. This is a school for {young [males]}. This is a school for boys {boys {male [children]}. This is a male [children]}. This is a schoolschool for boys {young, male for boys {young, male [humans]}.[humans]}.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Chess expert explains chess to children. Chess expert explains chess to children. (taken(taken out of a book catalogue)out of a book catalogue)

{chess expert[book’s author]}{chess expert[book’s author]}

FuzzyFuzzy (probabilistic) (probabilistic) meta-meta-informational structure of informational structure of a a

sentencesentence??

What has been negated?What has been negated?

„„Pragnę Państwa uspokoić, że Pragnę Państwa uspokoić, że nie nie stwierdzono trotylustwierdzono trotylu na wraku na wraku tupolewa” tupolewa” (A(Attorney General of Poland , a press ttorney General of Poland , a press conferenceconference 2525.10.2012).10.2012)

I would like to calm you down, I would like to calm you down, no TNTno TNT has been foundhas been found/ (/ (attestedattested)) on the on the TupolevTupolev..

Developing aDeveloping a new tool for assessing new tool for assessing the meaning conveyedthe meaning conveyed - - also for judicial also for judicial

purposespurposes 1.1. It has not been attested that pIt has not been attested that p. . p p == there was trotyl there was trotyl 1.1. the assessment (that p) has not taken place yet, the assessment (that p) has not taken place yet, has not been has not been

completedcompleted, , whatever the status of p and whether we are aware of its whatever the status of p and whether we are aware of its truth or not; truth or not;

2.2. P is not true. The assessment has been completed, but there was no P is not true. The assessment has been completed, but there was no trotyl and that’s why it has not been attestedtrotyl and that’s why it has not been attested

(a structurally motivated interpretation)(a structurally motivated interpretation) 22 we still do not know we still do not know the value ofthe value of p p(the interpretation implied structurally – one declared as intended by (the interpretation implied structurally – one declared as intended by

the speaker)the speaker)

33.. It has been attested that there was no trotyl. (actual It has been attested that there was no trotyl. (actual interpretation indicated by the results of the research, supported interpretation indicated by the results of the research, supported by the rest of the text. by the rest of the text. ””We would like to calm you down, … ., We would like to calm you down, … ., +description of the test procedures.)+description of the test procedures.)

AA dictionary of the conveyed meaning of phrases. Experiment: corpus taken dictionary of the conveyed meaning of phrases. Experiment: corpus taken phrases, asking subjects to choose the most plausible interpretation, and phrases, asking subjects to choose the most plausible interpretation, and independently, about the plausibility of p. Eventually, purely automaticindependently, about the plausibility of p. Eventually, purely automatic assesassesssment ment

The benefitsThe benefits Categorization (no need to establish and share Categorization (no need to establish and share

prototypes, no need to consider the allowable prototypes, no need to consider the allowable degree of departure from a prototype) degree of departure from a prototype)

Language efficiency (Language efficiency (zmień nogęzmień nogę /change a leg/ /change a leg/ – – ((when cantering vs. - when posting a trot) when cantering vs. - when posting a trot)

Metaphorical use of languageMetaphorical use of language ellipsisellipsis Language acquisition is possible without Language acquisition is possible without

explaining the meaning of every word, the explaining the meaning of every word, the meaning of new grammatical constructions can meaning of new grammatical constructions can be inferred (andbe inferred (and it it happens gradually) happens gradually)

Language changeLanguage change,, self-organization and self- self-organization and self-regulation is possible (and regulation is possible (and it it happens gradually) happens gradually)

Mechanisms of self-Mechanisms of self-organization and self-organization and self-regulation in languageregulation in language

Local optimizing processes (reductionist, Local optimizing processes (reductionist, bio-psychological)bio-psychological)

Local regularization of meaning and form Local regularization of meaning and form correlation during categorization (language use)correlation during categorization (language use)

(ganging effect in Skousen)(ganging effect in Skousen)

Global optimizing processes (systemic, bio-Global optimizing processes (systemic, bio-psycho-social) psycho-social)

A large chunk of the source of data of a given speaker A large chunk of the source of data of a given speaker used in the selection process (the comparison set) is used in the selection process (the comparison set) is made up of utterances pronounced by successful made up of utterances pronounced by successful speakers. Successful speakers use an efficient variety of speakers. Successful speakers use an efficient variety of language, which helped them succeed in life. Theirlanguage, which helped them succeed in life. Their speech speech constitutes input for a large number of people constitutes input for a large number of people and thus their standards are replicated.and thus their standards are replicated.

Biological, Biological, ppsychological, sychological, and linguistic mand linguistic motivationotivation

Two hemispheres and their predominant Two hemispheres and their predominant operating modesoperating modes

Fast mapping experiments andFast mapping experiments and the speed the speed of acquiring vocabulary in early childhoodof acquiring vocabulary in early childhood

Forming predictions (eye tracking Forming predictions (eye tracking experiments, false memories, scripts etc.) experiments, false memories, scripts etc.)

Only about 10%-20% of the information Only about 10%-20% of the information conveyed with natural language is coded. conveyed with natural language is coded. (see also Pareto laws, etc.)(see also Pareto laws, etc.)

””word entanglement” experiments (Peter word entanglement” experiments (Peter Bruza) Bruza)

Priming effects Priming effects ((Firth J.R. (1934) Firth J.R. (1934) ””you shall you shall know a word by a company it keeps”know a word by a company it keeps”

The likelihood of optionsThe likelihood of options

Functional organization of the Functional organization of the (discrete) communicative field(discrete) communicative field

systemism cum emergergentismsystemism cum emergergentism

mice experiments (nests and the mice experiments (nests and the organization of neural cliquesorganization of neural cliques: : Li,Li, Tsien)Tsien)

basic encodingsbasic encodings

””Mey (2001) pragmemesMey (2001) pragmemes”-”- like fields at the like fields at the bottom of the organization?bottom of the organization?

BBibliographyibliography Zielinska,2007 Zielinska,2007 Proceduralny model językaProceduralny model języka. WUJ.. WUJ. Zielinska, D. 2007. Zielinska, D. 2007. The selective mode of The selective mode of

language use and the quantized communicative language use and the quantized communicative field. field. Journal of PragmaticsJournal of Pragmatics. 39, 813-830. 39, 813-830

Zielinska, D. (Zielinska, D. (to appear 2012) Utterance and to appear 2012) Utterance and sentence meanings from the perspective of the sentence meanings from the perspective of the theory of models in empirical sciencestheory of models in empirical sciences. . In:In: Perspectives in Philosophy, Pragmatics and Perspectives in Philosophy, Pragmatics and PsychologyPsychology. ed. Alessandro Capone, Franco Lo . ed. Alessandro Capone, Franco Lo Piparo, Marco Carapezza, Springer.Piparo, Marco Carapezza, Springer.

Zielinska, D. Science of Language in the Zielinska, D. Science of Language in the Language of Science. (in preparation, available Language of Science. (in preparation, available as a file from the author)as a file from the author)

Beneš, Martin, 2012

K problému kompozicionality jazykového významu

; benes at ujc dot cas dot cz; Ústav pro jazyk český AV ČR, Prague, Czech Republic

The first part of this article documents the fact that all four possible combinations of the Czech adjectives železniční (rail) and silniční (road) and nouns podjezd (underpass) and nadjezd (overpass) can refer to both of the two possible kinds of grade-separated road/railway crossings. The second part of the article discusses this particular fact in connection with the notion of compositionality and interprets it using the procedural model of language constructed by the Polish linguist Dorota Zielińska. It is argued that compositionality cannot be viewed as a phenomenon defined in a binary manner, but rather, that being (non-)compositional is a matter of degree.

Thank youThank you