A Plant Monograph

on Onion

(Allium cepa L.)

Prepared by Hridaya Shrestha Roll No. 11/2004

Submitted to The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences

Pokhara University Simalchaur, Pokhara, Nepal.

2007

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Purusotam Basnet, the Dean, Faculty of Science and Technolgy, Pokhara University (PU) who was the first who advise me to utilize my leisure time on writing a plant monograph. I wish to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Natasa Skalko Basnet, the Programme Director of The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, PU for her frequent expressing of interest on the progress of my work on monograph writing. Special thanks are due to Mr. Hari Prasad Devkota, Teaching Associate, The School of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sceinces, PU for his guidance and support.Thanks are also due to all the librarian staffs of the Pokhara University Library for their help and providing me available facilities. I would also like to thank the librarians of Pokhara Forestry Campus, Tribhuvan University for providing me facilities available there. Finally I wish to express my warmest and deepest gratitude to my family as well for their support as for their patience during this work.

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Table of Contents 1. Synonyms and common names .............................................................................................. 5

1.1. Scientific Name: .............................................................................................................. 5 1.2. Local Names.................................................................................................................... 5 1.3. Traditional Names ........................................................................................................... 5 1.4. Language Names ............................................................................................................. 5 1.5. Pharmacopoel Name........................................................................................................ 6

2. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 6 2.1. Origin............................................................................................................................... 6 2.2. History ............................................................................................................................. 7 2.3. Mythological Importance ................................................................................................ 8 2.4. Social Value .................................................................................................................... 8 2.5. Genetic characters ........................................................................................................... 9

3. Classification .......................................................................................................................... 9 4. Botanical Description/ Habit .................................................................................................. 9 5. Pharamcognostical character and pharmacopoeal standard ................................................. 14

5.1. Macroscopic characters ................................................................................................. 14 5.2. Microscopic characters.................................................................................................. 15 5.3. Identity, purity, strength ................................................................................................ 22

6. Distribution/ Habitat............................................................................................................. 26 7. Cultivation and Harvesting................................................................................................... 27

7.1. Breeding and crop improvement ................................................................................... 27 7.2. Propagation and cultivation........................................................................................... 28 7.3. Disease and Pest ............................................................................................................ 31 7.4. Harvesting and Yield..................................................................................................... 32 7.5. Processing and Storage.................................................................................................. 33

8. Chemical Constituents.......................................................................................................... 33 9. Traditional uses .................................................................................................................... 56

9.1. Traditioanl uses in different countries........................................................................... 56 9.2. Ayurvedic use, Homeopathic use, Cosmetic use, other common uses ......................... 58

10. Clinical Use ........................................................................................................................ 59 11. Pharmacological Action (Animal experiment, cellular experiment, enzymatic experiment).................................................................................................................................................. 59 12. Formulation ........................................................................................................................ 73 13. Commercial value............................................................................................................... 74

13.1. Production ................................................................................................................... 74 13.2. Markets........................................................................................................................ 74 13.3. Trade and economic impact ........................................................................................ 74

14. Perspective.......................................................................................................................... 77 14.1. Status ........................................................................................................................... 77 14.2. Patent ........................................................................................................................... 77 14.3. Diagnostic characters .................................................................................................. 78 14.4. Occurrence................................................................................................................... 78 14.5. Taste and Potency........................................................................................................ 78 14.6. Substitutes and Adulterants ......................................................................................... 78

15. Miscellaneous..................................................................................................................... 79 15.1. Herbarium collection................................................................................................... 79

16. References .......................................................................................................................... 80

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Glossary of Botanical terms ..................................................................................................... 85 Glossary of Medical Terms ...................................................................................................... 88 List of Abreevations ................................................................................................................. 90

List of Tables Table 1: Classification of Allium cepa ....................................................................................... 9 Table 3: Compounds identified in oil of onion ........................................................................ 38 Table 4: FAO Data on Onion ................................................................................................... 75 Table 5: Some other United States Patents related to onion .................................................... 77

List of Figures Figure 1: Bulb of onion .............................................................................................................. 5 Figure 2: Origin of A. cepa......................................................................................................... 7 Figure 3: Root of onion .............................................................................................................. 9 Figure 4: Onion bulbs............................................................................................................... 10 Figure 5: Longitudinal section (L.S.) of Allium cepa bulb ...................................................... 11 Figure 6: Leaves of onion......................................................................................................... 12 Figure 7: Inflorescence of Allium cepa .................................................................................... 12 Figure 8: Flowers of Allium cepa ............................................................................................. 13 Figure 9: Different parts of onion flower including floral diagram ......................................... 14 Figure 10: Longitudinal section of onion root tip .................................................................... 16 Figure 11: Onion leaf under low power ................................................................................... 18 Figure 12: The outer layer of onion skin.................................................................................. 19 Figure 13: Onion epidermis under high power ........................................................................ 20 Figure 14: Seeds of Allium cepa............................................................................................... 22 Figure 15: TLC chromatogram of Allium cepa ........................................................................ 23 Figure 16: TLC chromatogram of Allium cepa ........................................................................ 23 Figure 17: Treatment of Allum vegetables before TLC-analysis ............................................. 24 Figure 18: TLC analysis of Allium vegetables (Sapogenins) ................................................... 24 Figure 19: TLC analysis of Allium vegetables (Sapogenins) ................................................... 25

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Allium cepa Linnaeus, Lilliaceae

Figure 1: Bulb of onion (URL-1)

1. Synonyms and common names 1.1. Scientific Name: Allium cepa L. Synonyms: Allium ascalonicum L.

Allium esculentum Salisb. Allim porrum cepa Rehb. Cepa rotunda Dod. (URL-2)

1.2. Local Names Nepalese Local Names Bhojpuri: Pyaj Chepang: Pyaj Danuwar: Pyaj English: Onion Gurung: Pyaj Lepcha: Ochong Limbu: Makkhang Magar: Pyaj

Mooshar: Pyaj Nepali: Pyaj Newari: Pyaj Sunwar: Pyaj Tamang: Pyaj Tharu: Pyaj Tibetan: Btsong, Ri-sgog (Manandhar, 2002)

1.3. Traditional Names Sanskrit Names Palandu Tiksnagandha Rocana Sudrapriya Kandarpa Ulli Durgandha Pharada

Mukhadusana Krimighna Rudrasangyaka Mukhagandhaka Bahupatra Visvagandha Yavanesta Sikhadhara

Dipana Durbalasya Sikhakandu Sukanda Sikhamani Siroratna Sikhamula Varhini

(Joshi, 2000)

1.4. Language Names Arabic Countries: Basl Brazil: Onion China: Hu-tsung

China: Shallot Egypt: Bassal Egypt: Onion

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Europe: Onion Fiji: Piyaj Fiji: Piyaz France: Cepa France: Cebo France: Oignon Greece: Onion Guatemala: Cebolla Guyana: Onion India: Onion India: Piyaj India: Pyaz India: Sibuyas India: Vengayam Iran: Onion Iran: Piaz Italy: Cepolla Italy: Cipolla Japan: Onion Jordan: Basal Kuwait: Cepa bulb Kuwait: Common onion Kuwait: Onion Mexico: Cebolla morada Mexico: Onion Morocco: Bsal Nepal: Onion Nepal: Pyaz Netherlands: Onion

Nicaragua: Cebolla Nicaragua: Inyan Nicaragua: Onion Nicaragua: Sebuya Peru: Cebolla Rodrigues Islands: Oignon Saudi Arabia: Basl Tanzania: Kitunguu Tanzania: Onion Thailand: Hom khaao Thailand: Hom yai Tunisia: I-bsel Tunisia: Oignon Turkey: Sogan USA: Bermuda onion USA: Onion USA: Red globe onion USA: Spanish onion USA: White globe onion USA: Yellow onion USSR: Onion Vietnam: Cu hanh Vietnam: Hua phak bua Vietnam: Khtim Vietnam: Oignon West Indies: L’oignon West Indies: Loyon West Indies: Madras onion Yemen: Basal

(Ross, 2001) 1.5. Pharmacopoel NameBulbus Allie Cepae (Anonymous, 1999) 2. Introduction Allium cepa is one of the edible species of a large genus (Allium) consisting of more than 700 species (Burnie et al., 1999). Among the edible Allium, the onion (Allium cepa L.) stands in the first rank, in the warm- temperate hills of eastern Nepal, followed by garlic (Allium sativum) and shallot (Allium cepa Aggregatum group) (Gautam et al., 1997).

2.1. Origin Although the origin remains debatable, the middle Asiatic countries in the region of Iran and Pakistan are considered the primary centre of origin of onion. The near east Asiatic and Mediterranean regions are considered to be the secondary centres of origin (Anonymous, 2003).

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Figure 2: Origin of A. cepa (URL-3)

2.2. History The onion has been cultivated for over five thousand years and has been used in herbal medicine and as an indispensable flavoring agent or as a vegetable that is cooked or eaten raw. The name Onion is derived from the Latin, unio, meaning “one large pearl”, and it is interesting to note that the Chinese called the Onion the “jewel among vegetable” (URL-4). The Greek historian, Herodotus, related that nine tons of Gold were spent purchasing onions to feed the builders of pyramids because the onion was so popular in ancient Egypt, and the Hebrews complained sorely to Moses that the missed the onion when they departed Egypt for the Promised Land (URL-4). Prehistoric remains of cultivated plants are often extremely helpful for reconstructing their evolution and history. This is especially true for seed crops, but much less so for vegetable species like onion, which have little chance of long-term preservation. Therefore, one has to rely mostly upon written records and paintings. Hence, the picture one obtains of the history of such species is fragmentary, at least for the earlier epochs (URL-5). Unfortunately, there are no records from the presumed area of primary domestication. The earliest records come from Egypt, where it was cultivated at the time of the Old Kingdom. Onions appear as carvings on pyramid walls and in tombs from the third and fourth dynasties (2700 B.C.) They are frequently depicted on offering tables since the fourth dynasty. Numerous remains from the era of the Egyptian New Kingdom (since 1580 B.C.) have been found. It was used for funeral offerings and for embalming and has frequently been found attached to, or within, mummies. It must have been important in the daily diet of many people. The biblical records of the Exodus (1500 B.C.), in which the Israelites longed for onion, leek, garlic, and other foods of Egypt, are well known. From Mesopotamia there is evidence of cultivation in Sumer at the end of the third millenium B.C. This, together with the records from Egypt, indicates that the initial domestication began much earlier.

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In India there are reports of onion in writings from the 6th century B.C. In the Greek and Roman Empires, it was a common cultivated garden plant. Reports from this period include poetry, beginning with Homer up to the Roman satirist Juvenal. There are botanical and agricultural books, e.g., Theophrastus, 4th century B.C., and Columella in the first century A.D. Finally, there is the natural history compendium by Pliny from the 1st century A.D. which details cultivation, use and history. Pliny and Theophrastus distinguished different varieties. The Romans cultivated onions in special gardens (cepinae) which had specialized gardeners (ceparii). It is thought that the Romans took onion north of the Alps.

Different cultivars of onion are listed in garden catalogues from the 9th century A.D., e.g., in the famous "Capitulare de villis" from the era of Charles the Great. But the onion became widespread as a crop in Europe only during the Middle Ages. It is said to have been introduced in Russia in the 12th to 13th century. The onion was among the first cultivated plants taken to the Americas from Europe. Columbus took it to the Caribbean. Later it was several times imported and established in the early 17th century into what is now the northern U.S. Europeans took the species to East Asia during the last century. Until now, the indigenous cultivated species of this region, especially Allium fistulosum, are more widespread there. Medicinal literature exists, e.g., Hippocrates, in the 5th century B .C. and Dioscorides in the 1st century A.D. who gives a comprehensive description of medicinal properties (URL-5).

2.3. Mythological Importance “There once was a great monk who, out of compassion for all sentient beings, was a strict vegetarian. In fact, he claimed he had never in his lifetime consumed the flesh of any animal. One lady, deciding to test the monk’s claim, prepared a dish for the monk. She told him it contained only vegetables, but in fact it contained a small piece of meat. The monk gratefully accepted the dish and the lady left, believing she had fooled him. However, the monk saw through her trick, and tossed the dish down to the earth. The next morning he awoke, and found that the food, embedded in the earth, had sprouted into 2 shrubs: one garlic and one onion.” This is why Buddhists do not eat garlic and onions.” The above story discusses two significant prohibitions regarding Buddhist eating customs: that of meat, and that of ‘pungent’ vegetables (URL-6).

Egyptians worshipped it believing that its spherical shape and concentric rings symbolized eternal life. Onions were even used in Egyptian burials as they believed that if buried with the dead, the strong scent of onions would bring breath back to the dead (URL-7).

Onion has been used as a charm against evil spirits. It is believed that halved or quartered onions placed in the home absorb negativity. An onion under pillow is said to give prophetic dreams. Magical swords and knives are purified by rubbing them with an onion half (URL-8).

2.4. Social Value Jains do not eat any root vegetables at all, some strict Hindu vegetarians do not eat onions (URL-9). Some avoid onion, as they are regarded as rajasic (URL-10). Buddhists do not eat onions. The reason behind this is already discussed in the mythological importance of onion (URL-6).

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2.5. Genetic characters Chromosome number (2n) =16 (Anonymous, 1999). In Allium cepa, there is one pair of chromosome which, instead of having median fiber-attachment and arms of equal length, has the fiber attached toward one of end and this shorter arm bears a small satellite (Taylor, 1925). A. cepa will cross with A. fistulosum; the F1 is self sterile but backcrosses are possible; amphidiploids are partially fertile. Common onions of A. cepa will cross with the shallots of A. cepa and other forms of A. cepa which have normal flowers (proliferum group varieties do not produce viable pollen). All ordinary varieties will intercross. No crossing with leek or garlic (URL-11). 3. Classification

Table 1: Classification of Allium cepa Kingdom Sub-kingdom Super division Division Subclass Order Genus Species

Plantae Tracheobionta Spermatophyta Liliopodia Liliales Liliaceae Allium L. Allium cepa L.

(URL-12) 4. Botanical Description/ Habit Habit A perennial herb, strong smelling when crushed (Anonymous, 1999). Root Adventitious, fibrous (Ranjitkar, 2003)

Figure 3: Root of onion

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Stem Underground stem modified into tunicated bulb consisting up reduced stem and axillary buds surrounded by inner fleshy scale leaves and outer membranous dry scales (Ranjitkar, 2003). Bulbs are uniform in shape, size and skin color. Shapes ranges from spherical to nearly cylindrical and include flat and cone like bulbs. Skin variations are considerable as is skin color, which may be white, yellow, brown, red or purple (Ross, 2001). Stem is up to 100 cm tall and 30 mm in diameter (Anonymous, 1999).

Figure 4: Onion bulbs

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Figure 5: Longitudinal section (L.S.) of Allium cepa bulb (URL-13)

Leaf Radical, alternate, sessile, simple cylindrical, hollow green, parallel veined foliage leaves with fleshy sheathing base arising from the underground stem (Ranjitkar, 2003). The sheath develops to encircle the growing point and forms a tube that encloses younger leaves and the shoot apex. Young leaves grow up through the center of the sheath of the preceding leaf. The leaf blades are tubular, slightly flattened on the adaxial side, and although hollow are closed at the tip (Ross, 2001). Leaves are up to 40 cm in height and 20 mm in diameter (Anonymous, 1999).

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Figure 6: Leaves of onion (URL-14)

Inflorescence: The terminal inflorescence develops from the ring-like apical meristem. Scapes, one to several, generally elongate well above the leaves and range in height from 30 cm to more than 100 cm. The scape is the stem internode between the spathe and the last foloage leaf. A spherical umbel is borne on each scape and can range from 2 cm to 15 cm in diameter. The umbel is an aggregate of flowers at various stages of development; usually it consists of 200-600 small individual flowers, but this number can range from 50 to more than 1000 (Ross, 2001).

Figure 7: Inflorescence of

Allium cepa

Flower Bracteate, 2-3 membranous spathe like bracts enclosing the flower during young stage, actinomorphic, trimerous, hypogynous, small and white (Ranjitkar, 2003).

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Figure 8: Flowers of Allium cepa

Perianth Stellate (Anonymous, 1999), six tepals in two alternate whorls of three each, polyphyllous, petaloid, white with green midrib, inferior (Ranjitkar, 2003). Androecium Six stamens in two whorls of three each, opposite the tepals; antipetalous, polyandrous, epiphyllous, inferior. Filament- long but slightly dilated at the base. Anther- long, bilobed and basifixed (Ranjitkar, 2003). Gynoecium Tricarpellary, syncarpous. Ovary – superior, trilocular with 2 ovules in each locules, axile placentation. Style – short and filiform. Stigma – minute (Ranjitkar, 2003). Fruit Capsule of about 5 mm (Anonymous, 1999) Floral Formula:

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Figure 9: Different parts of onion flower including floral diagram

5. Pharamcognostical character and pharmacopoeal standard

5.1. Macroscopic characters Underground stem modified into tunicated bulb consisting up reduced stem and axillary buds surrounded by inner fleshy scale leaves and outer membranous dry scales (Ranjitkar, 2003). Bulbs are uniform in shape, size and skin color. Shapes ranges from spherical to nearly cylindrical and include flat and cone like bulbs. Skin variations are considerable as is skin

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color, which may be white, yellow, brown, red or purple (Ross, 2001). The shape and the size of the bulb differ with each variety (from 2 to 20 cm, flattened, spherical, or pear-shaped) (Bruneton, 1999; Anonymous, 1999).

5.2. Microscopic characters Root The epidermis consists of small tabular somewhat radially elongate cells in transverse section. The outer tangential and radial walls are relatively thick and layered at the electron microscope level. A distinct hypodermis is present under the epidermis which possesses casparian strips in the primary wall. In the mature state, it is evident in the electron microscope that each cell is encased with a complex suberin lamella. A cortex is present and consists of isodiametrically shaped parenchyma cells. The endodermis is distinct and in the mature form its cells have thick secondary walls. Presumably, as is tree of other monocotyledons, this wall consists of a suberin lamella covered by layers of lignified cellulose. This thickening is greatest on the inner tangential walls. The steles can be tetrarch, pentarch or hexarch but most commonly are pentarch.

The histogens of the onion root tip consist of two distinct groups of initials, one giving rise to the vascular cylinder or stele, and the other to the cortex, endodermis, and root cap. The root cap is presumably the site of gravitational perception in roots. In particular, the site resides in the central column of cells called the columella. The ultrastructural characteristics of the columella cells are similar. The cells contain large nuclei, amyloplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. The positioning of the organelles in the columella of both types of roots is also the same; amyloplasts (starch grains) are positioned at the gravitational base of the cells and nuclei at top of the cell away from gravity. However, the size of the columella cells is smaller in short roots than in long roots. The volume of columella tissue is correlated with the gravity response.

Roots are continuously formed in distinct rings at regular intervals in the onion stem. They are formed by the PTM at its more basal level just above the region of the stem where all tissues are mature. Since the apical meristem is sunken at the shoot tip, this is approximately at the level of the apical meristem. The vasculature of the root then matures in connection with that of the stem as well as does the endodermis of the root with the endodermoid layer in the stem. Therefore, there is a continuous vascular and endodermal connection between stem and root from root initiation. The root tip grows through stem cortical tissue and leaf bases to emerge from the plant (URL-2).

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Figure 10: Longitudinal section of onion root tip (URL-15)

In the cells of the root tip of an onion chromosomes can be made visible quite easily. They can be seen during various phases of mitosis: the chromosomes in the cell's nucleus copy themselves (URL-15). Vegetative stem The stem of a mature pre-bulbed plant is heart shaped in median longitudinal section. The apical meristem and youngest leaf primordia are sunken in a "bowl" of surrounding stem tissue. The stem can be divided into two major regions: the cortex and the central cylinder. Pith in the center of the central cylinder, directly below the apical meristem, is devoid of vascular tissue. The central cylinder is congested with vascular bundles and leaf traces. The vascular bundles are often seen to describe an "S" shape in longitudinal section, approaching the pith, and then turning out to form leaf traces. In transverse section, the leaf traces are collateral and the stem bundles are amphivasal in vascular tissue arrangement.

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In the basal regions of the stem where all cells are mature, the cortex is distinguished from the central cylinder by boundary zone of three tissues. They are (1) a uniseriate endodermoid layer of cells with thickened cell walls, (2) a layer of irregularly shaped parenchyma cells, often called a pericycle, and (3) and congested network of vascular bundles which form the vascular connection between the stem and roots. If these layers are followed toward the apex in the stem, they are confluent with a narrow meristematic layer, the primary thickening meristem (PTM). The PTM runs parallel to the stem outline and separates the central cylinder from the cortex and meets up with the apical meristem. The PTM consists of flattened cells which are undergoing rapid cell divisions. The PTM is not only responsible for stem thickening in onion but also is responsible for root initiation. These anatomical and histological features are similar in all respects to those in garlic.

The vegetative stem in onion has a very distinctive pattern of cell alignment which is the result of the pattern of cell division in the PTM. In longitudinal section, the cells are arranged in distinctive files which run from the leaf bases through the PTM to the pith of the central cylinder. The files of cells are not continuous across the pith. The arrangement of cells in the pith is irregular. The files of cells in the stem remain organized during stem growth; however, their angle varies at different levels of the stem. The files are almost vertically oriented in the top of the stem near the apical meristem, but more horizontally oriented in the base of the stem. The leaf traces parallel the cell files at all levels of the stem. In cross section, the cell files form concentric circles in the top of the stem.

Stem development in onion is similar to that in other monocotyledonous species with a short, squat stem and a rosette habit. The stem grows in height by the addition of cell files at the base of the shoot apical meristem. The stem then thickens in width first by increase in length of the cell files due to cell divisions in the PTM and by subsequent cell enlargement and finally by reorientation of the cell files toward the horizontal as the tissues reaches maturity. In conjunction with this, the leaf primordia are initiated at the apical meristem in the "well" and as they increase in diameter they pass up and over the shoulders at the top of the stem as the associated stem cell files increase in length, form the shoulders, and finally are bent away from the vertical (URL-2). Leaf Adult Photosynthetic Leaf Leaves possess a uniseriate epidermis with thickened outer walls with a cuticular layer. The epidermal protoplasts are highly vacuolate. Stomata are frequent in the epidermis. Chlorenchyma is present under the epidermis in the form of palisade cells and isodiametric spongy mesophyll. The chlorenchyma contains abundant intercellular space and chloroplasts are located almost exclusively along the walls adjoining the air spaces. These cells are also highly vacuolate. Chloroplasts have a reniform shape, contain highly developed grana-fretwork systems, and lack starch. Mitochondria and microbodies are present in close association with the chloroplasts.

Internal to the chlorenchyma and in the interveinal regions there is one type of ground parenchyma. It has less intercellular space but the characteristics of the chloroplasts are similar to chlorenchyma except that the chloroplasts are elliptical in shape. Articulated laticifers occur between the ground parenchyma and the chlorenchyma. The second type of ground parenchyma is more internal in position and consists of larger cells. Finally, there is a layer of axially elongate cells which lack protoplasts and line the central lacuna.

The major vascular bundles in the onion leaf are bounded by a uniseriate layer of compactly arranged bundle sheath cells. These cells are highly vacuolate but do contain many organelles including spheriodal chloroplasts which contain starch grains. The conducting cells

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of the vascular bundles are surrounded by vascular parenchyma immediately internal to the bundle sheath cells. The bundles are collateral. The phloem contains sieve tube elements and companion cells.

The leaf primordium is initiated on the flanks of the slightly convex apical meristem and grows erectly as first a rounded and then pointed mound on one side of the apical meristem. When it is 150-200 mm in length, adaxial meristematic activity initiates the radial growth responsible for subsequent dilation of the leaf axis. This establishes the boundary between the sheathing base and the unifacial blade. In transectional view the leaf primordium arises from the shoot apex as a flattened, bifacial pad which appears somewhat indented along its adaxial surface. The sheathing base originates as a circumferential expansion of the leaf primordium entirely around the perimeter of the shoot apex. The sheath then elongates as a tube. The boundary between the sheathing base and the blade is delineated in the young primordium by the adaxial ligular outgrowth which is partially epidermal in origin.

Periclinal divisions and enlargement of the central cells in the leaf axis in combination with adaxial meristematic activity contribute to the increase in thickness in the central portion of the leaf. Subsequently, the intercalaxy cell division and expansion, and schizogenous formation of intercellular spaces, result in a more pronounced rounding of the basal section of the unifacial leaf portion. By contrast with the base, the tip of the leaf does not experience as much thickening growth, and it retains its flattened form into maturity. The initial phase of cell enlargement and vacuolation in the onion leaf is expressed along the entire length of the leaf when it is only 200-300 mm long. Elongation of the central pith cells begins below the leaf tip and spreads down the length of the unifacial blade. Cells derived from periclinal division of hypodermal lineages around the periphery of the leaf, especially in the unifacial zone, will mature as the photosynthetic tissue. These cells are smaller and more densely staining in the early phases of leaf morphogenesis. Ultimately cell growth in the pith region fails to keep pace with division and expansion at the leaf's periphery, resulting in the rhexigenous breakdown of pith tissue and the formation of a central cavity along most of the blade's length (URL-2).

Figure 11: Onion leaf under low power (URL-16)

Bulb scale The bulb scale is the organ which is responsible for the food value in onion. It is morphologically a scale leaf which has an expanded base and an aborted leaf blade. The blade of the photosynthetic leaf elongates before the base. Since the blade elongates much more

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than the base, the final leaf ratio (blade/base) is above 5. After transfer to long day, leaf primordia 1 mm long or less become bulb scales. The blade does not elongate, but the leaf base elongates earlier and longer than that of the photosynthetic leaf. The final leaf ratio of the bulb scale is 0.05.

The external dried leaf scales of the bulbs show a large-celled epidermis with lightly spotted cell walls; the cells are elongated longitudinally. The underlying hypodermis runs perpendicular to the epidermis and contains large calcium oxalate crystals bordering the cell walls. The epidermis of the fleshy leaf scales resembles that of the dried leaf scales, and the epidermal cells on the dorsal side are distinctly longer and more elongated than the epidermal cells on the ventral side. Large calcium oxalate crystals are found in the hypodermis; stomata rare; large cell nuclei conspicuous; and spiral vessel elements occur in the leaf mesophyll.

Figure 12: The outer layer of onion skin (URL-17)

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Figure 13: Onion epidermis under high power (URL-18)

Inflorescence stalk The anatomy of the inflorescence stalk bears more similarities to that of the leaves than to that of the vegetative stem. The epidermis is heavily cutinized with sunken stomata and large accompanying substomatal chambers. The mesophyll has palisade cells to the outside and spongy cells to the inside. There are two rings of vascular bundles embedded in longitudinally elongate parenchyma. The outer ring consists of small bundles closely spaced and is associated with a ring of small parenchyma cells. The bundles are all collateral in vascular tissue arrangement. Collapsed and broken cells line a central lacuna. The cells are not arranged in radial files as they are in the vegetative stem and there is no evidence of a cambial-like zone comparable to the PTM.

At the time of flowering the stem grows up through the ensheathing leaf bases to a height of about 1 to 2 m. The entire inflorescence between the vegetative stem and the head of flowers is a single internode. During the transition to flowering, the apical meristem, through extensive rib meristematic activity, assumes the mantle-core arrangement of cells typical of floral meristems. The flattened vegetative apical meristem becomes rounded and dome shaped as rapid longitudinal growth commences. The apex also produces a spathe that subtends the head of flowers. The spathe is produced immediately after the last vegetative leaf and before histological evidence of the transition to an inflorescence apex occurs. The inflorescence subsequently elongates between the last formed vegetative leaf and the spathe. The PTM does not differentiate into the infiorescence but does into the renewal vegetative bud and maintains essentially the same histological characteristics as it had in the original vegetative stem.

Sections of later stages of inflorescence growth show that, at the base of the inflorescence just above the vegetative stem, the cells are small and little tissue differentiation has occurred. There are many mitotic figures at this level, while approximately 2 cm above the base of the inflorescence, some differentiation occurs in the protoderm and few mitotic

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figures are present. Midway up the internode, no mitotic figures are present and much differentiation has occurred. Finally, at the top of the inflorescence axis the cells are larger and the greatest amount of differentiation has occurred; the epidermis has stomata; the palisade layers are developing; and the protoxylem is present. These observations corraborate the marking experiments and indicate that the inflorescence grows by a basal intercalary meristem. In onion, at the time of flowering, there is an immediate shift from an emphasis on growth in width, characteristic of the vegetative phase, to an emphasis on growth in length in the reproductive phase (URL-2). Seed The seed is convex on one side and flattened on the other and is covered by a black seed coat. The embryo is crescent shaped or curled in a spiral. It consists of a long cotyledon and short shoot-root axis. The epicotyl consists only of an apical meristem and one leaf primordium. The epicotyl faces the slit in the base of the cotyledon through which the first true leaf will emerge during seedling development. The procambium (undifferentiated vascular system) extends from the root tip to the base of the cotyledon, where it forms a short branch towards the epicotyl and a long branch which extends the length of the cotyledon. The cotyledon is a storage organ.

Both the protodermal cells and the internal parenchyma cells store protein in the form of variably sized protein bodies and lipids in the form of very small lipid bodies. The larger protein bodies have small light-staining areas which appear as speckles. Undoubtedly, these consist of phytin crystals (myoinositol hexaphosphate), which are considered to be a storage form of phosphate in seeds. They are well characterized in other seeds. The cells are thin walled and intercellular spaces exist between cells. Nuclei are present in each cell. They are relatively small and irregularly shaped as if they are physically crowded by the protein bodies.

The embryo is buried in a gray, horny endosperm tissue which is the major region of stored reserves in the onion seed. The endosperm consists of living cells with extremely thick, hard cell walls. Unlike the cotyledon there are no intercellular spaces between cells. These walls are not stained with the periodic acid schiffs (PAS) reaction, except for the middle lamella and the innermost region immediately adjacent to the plasmalemma. The major carbohydrate in the thickened region of the cell wall is presumably a mannan (ß 1, 4 mannose-linked units as a backbone). The protoplasts are jigsaw puzzle-shaped due to the fact that the walls are not thickened in regions of pit fields between cells. The cells also store protein in the form of small evenly sized protein bodies and lipids in the form of very small lipid bodies. Nuclei are present in each cell. They are large, darkly staining, and relatively spherical in shape.

The early divisions after fertilization lead to the formation of first a club shaped and then a spherical embryo attached to a uniseriate suspensor. A slight depression, or notch, appears on one side which indicates the future position of the shoot apical meristem. The cotyledon extends greatly in length and produces a marginal sheath-like extention which creates a depression. Within this depression the apical meristem forms as a mound. It initiates the first leaf before the seed is mature. The apical meristem of the root becomes organized at the base of the short hypocotyl. The formation of a lateral notch and the precocious development of the single cotyledon is similar to embryogenesis in coconut and in grasses (URL-2).

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Figure 14: Seeds of Allium cepa (URL-19)

Microscopic characteristics of powdered plant material Contains mainly thin-walled cells of the mesophyll with broken pieces of spiral vessel elements; cells containing calcium oxalate crystals are scarce (Anonymous, 1999).

5.3. Identity, purity, strength General identity tests Macroscopic inspection, microscopic characteristics and microchemical examination for organic sulphur compounds; and thin-layer chromatographic analysis for the presence of cysteine sulphoxides have been found to be useful (Anonymous, 1999). TLC Chromatograms of Allium cepa Sulphur and non-sulphur containing constituents have been isolated from Bulbus Allii Cepae; the sulphur compounds are the most characterstic (Anonymous, 1999). A.Freshly prepared extracts of Allium cepa (3) (with solvent system of toluene-ethyl acetate(100:30)show five to seven dark zones in the Range R, range 0.2-0.65 with two prominent zones of thiosulphinates at Rf 0.3 and Rf 0.45. The dipropylthiosulphinate (T1) at Rf 0.45 is the characteristic compound of onion extracts. Allicin with almost the same Rf value is absent. Other thiosuphinates such as dimethylthiosulphinate (T2) at Rf 0.2 are present, which is contrast to garlic thiosulphinates (TS) show bown-red colours (vis.). This is partly due to higher TS concentrations and to compounds which overlap the TS as shown in Fig. 15.

After treatment with the Vanillin-glacial acid reagent (VGA No. 42), the extract of Allium cepa is distinguishable by the characterstic violet-brown major zones at Rf 0.3 and Rf 0.45, with less concentrated zones at Rf 0.6-0.8. Allicin is seen as a grey-brown-coloured zone, the sulfides at the solvent front as blue to grey-blue (Fig. 16) zones in the low R, range of the TLC (Farooq, 2005).

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Figure 15: TLC chromatogram of Allium cepa

Figure 16: TLC chromatogram of Allium cepa

B. A article (actually this article was on the topic “How to Distinguish Garlic from

other Allium vegetables” whose report was presented at the conference “Recent advances on the Nutritional Benefits Accompanying the Use of Garlic as a Supplement” held November 15-17, 1998 in Newport Beach, CA) tells us that each Allium vegetables is characteristic and distinguishable. The detail of chromatographic technique for sapogenin according to this article is discussed here.

Twenty six different kinds of Allium vegetables were purchased in markets of Japan and United states. They included Allium sativum L. (garlic), A. ampeloprasum (elephant garlic), A. ascalonicum, A. canadence, A. cepa (10 different types), A. chinense (Rakkyo), A. fistulosum (3 different types), A. porrum (leek), A. shoenoprassum (2 dufferent types), A.tricocum, A.tuberosum, A. victorialis and A. wakegi. Each 10g of vegetables or processed garlic was crushed in 40 ml of methanol. After removal of the solvent by evaporation, a suspension of resulting extract in 30% aqueous methanol was applied to a column of MCI gel

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CHP20P (stepwise elution of 30% aqueous methanol and methanol). The methanol extracts obtained were hydrolyzed using a mixture of 8% sulphuric acid/ ethanol (1:1) for 5h at 100oC. The hydrolyzates were added to 20 ml of water and applied to a column of MCI gel, which was then washed with methanol. The sapogenin fraction from each methanol eluate was analyzed by TLC.

TLC was performed on a HPTLC Silica gel 60 plate and spots were visualized by spraying of anisaldehyde –H2SO4 followed by heating of iodine-platinate reagent for sulphur compounds.

Sapogenin is the agycone of saponin, obtained by hydrolysis of saponin. Twenty-eight different kinds of Allium vegetables were treated as shown in Figure17. The sapogenin fractions obtained, corresponding to each vegetable, were analyzed by TLC as shown in Figure 18 and 19. Each chromatogram of Allium vegetables is characteristic and distinguishable (Itakura et al., 2001).

Figure 17: Treatment of Allum vegetables before TLC-analysis

Figure 18: TLC analysis of Allium vegetables (Sapogenins)

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Figure 19: TLC analysis of Allium vegetables (Sapogenins)

Biochemical characterization of landraces through HPLC analysis of endosperm seed proteins:

Water-, salt-, alcohol- and alkali-soluble seed storage proteins, extracted from 21 white onion landraces (Allium cepa L.), were analyzed by anionic exchange-high performance liquid chromatography (AE-HPLC). Chromatographic elution profiles of (time range 0-40 min) at 280 nm of water soluble seed proteins evidenced the presence of 21 peaks, which allowed all the landraces studied to be distinguished from each other. The differences detected were both qualitative and (presence/absence of one or more peaks) and quantitative; the water-soluble proteins were useful in differentiating landraces and cultivars while the other seed protein fractions only showed a weak polymorphism. The cluster analysis, bases on HPLC data, showed that the landraces clustered with a genetic similarity degree ranging between 69% and 94%. The possibility of discriminating among closely related onion landraces during the course of breeding programmes could allow the identification of biochemical markers linked to useful agronomical traits. As observed by chromatographic analysis, the globulin composition of onion water-soluble seed protein appears to be independent of environmental growth conditions. The biochemical characterization of the available typical onion gremplasm may contribute to obtain a community recognition and denomination, such as Denomination of Protected Origin (D.O.P.), Indication of Protected Origin (I.G.P) or Specificity Attestation (A.S.). The biochemical method here developed resulted of high resolution, cost effective and time-saving for characterization and genetic purity assessment of the landraces studied (Mennella et al., 2005).

Purity and Strength: Microbiology: - The test for Salmonella spp. in Bulbus Allii Cepae products should be negative. The maximum acceptable limits of other microorganisms are as follows. Preparations for oral use: aerobic bacteria - not more than 105/g or ml; fungi - not more than 104/g or ml; enterobacteria and certain Gram-negative bacteria - not more than 103/g or ml; Escherichia coli 0/g or ml (Anonymous, 1999). Total ash Not more than 6% (Anonymous, 1999)

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Acid-insoluble ash Not more than 1.0%, Water-soluble extractive - not more than 5.0% (Anonymous, 1999) Alcohol-soluble extractive Not more than 4.0% (Anonymous, 1999) Pesticide residues To be established in accordance with national requirements. Normally, the maximum residue limit of aldrin and dieldrin for Bulbus Allii Cepae is not more than 0.05mg/kg (Anonymous, 1999). Heavy metals Recommended lead and cadmium levels are no more than 10 and 0.3mg/kg, respectively, in the final dosage form of the plant material (Anonymous, 1999). Other purity tests Chemical, foreign organic matter, and moisture tests to be established in accordance with national requirements (Anonymous, 1999).

Mineral concentrations of onions (Allium cepa L.) grown under various conditions,

including factors (fertilization, crop year, variety, and provenance) are different. This can help to develop a technique to determine the geographic origins of onions by mineral composition (Ariyama et al., 2006). 6. Distribution/ Habitat Distribution: It is now cultivated throughout the world. Although temperate in origin, it has been bred to adapt to the tropics (Ross, 2001). It is distributed throughout Nepal to about 3000 m (Manandhar, 2002). They are not found in New Zealand and Australia (Anonymous, 2006). Habitat: A. cepa is cultivated under a wide range of conditions. The environmental conditions are- Latitude It can be grown between 60ºS and 60ºN (URL-5). Temperature High temperatures encourage bulb formation, but flower formation and seed production are only possible where the bulbs are subjected to low temperatures. A cool period promotes early leaf production. Germination temperature is between 15-25ºC, optimal between 20-25. It grows between 4 and 30ºC, and does not tolerate frost (URL-5). Water A long, dry period is required for bulb repening after the leaves have withered. Optimal rainfall/irrigation requirements are 350-600 mm and it is grown in areas with up to 2800 mm annual rainfall (URL-5). Radiation Range and intensity It is a sun-loving species (URL-5).

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Photoperiodism The production of bulbs is controlled by the photoperiod, the critical day-length varies from 11-16 hours, depending on the cultivar (URL-5). Soil Physical Moist soil is required throughout the growing period, but excessive soil water and high humidity encourage diseases. Best soils are medium deep, well drained, sandy loams with a good content of organic matter; it can in also any soil (URL-5). Chemical Best soils are medium fertility with low salinity and a pH between 6.0-7.0, but also soils with low fertility, some salinity and a pH between 4.3-8.3 are feasible (URL-5). 7. Cultivation and Harvesting

7.1. Breeding and crop improvement Breeding experiments on different varieties of onion showed significance differences for the all characters studied, viz. leaf length, umbel height, number of seed stalks per plant, umbel diameter, weight per umbel, 1,000-seed weight, and seed yield per plant. In general, a character exhibiting a wider range also showed high phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variability. High heritability was observed for the number of seed stalks per plant, whereas it was low for all other characters. The number of seed stalks gave high values for genetic advance but umbel diameter showed low expectation for genetic gain. Hybrid vigour or heterosis was observed to the extent of 72 per cent on the average of the parents, and up to 37 per cent as measured from the better parent. Highly significant combining ability effects of parents were recorded in the females. For obtaining hybrid vigour in onions, cytoplasmic male sterility is a useful tool. A 13- 53 cytoplasm which remains apparently completely stable in performance, is the main source utilized for producing hybrids. For example, shallot (A. ascalonicum) is easily hybridized with 13-53 (male sterile cytoplasm) onion because it has the male sterile genes. For selecting varieties suitable for dehydration the following characterstics are essential: pale white flesh, small neck and root zones, high pungency, uniform bulb, size of similar composition throughout, long fresh storage life, high yield potential, high solids content (15-20%) and also high drying ratio between 3:1 and 20:1. Selfing and massing method is found to be existed for raising the improved strains of onion. During the first year, bulbs of desired characters such as uniform size, colour and necks are planted for obtaining seeds. The umbels are selfed by covering them with muslin cloth bags and shaking the bags every day to ensure pollination and greater seed-setting. The progeny of these selfed plants are grown separately, selected for desirable characters and the selected bulbs propagated and selfed again. This inbreeding for two successive generations results in homozygosity to a large extent, although the inbred progeny is found to be less vigorous than the open pollinated original crop. Group breeding in the third generation results in restored vigour besides the formation of new strains. By following this procedure of breeding, a number of strains in red, scarlet, and white onions have been evolved (Anonymous, 2003).

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7.2. Propagation and cultivation Onion is important tropical vegetable, grown both as field and garden crop. It is

extensively grown all over India. It is generally grown as irrigated crop throughout the year though the main planting seasons are June-July and Dec-Jan. In the plains, it is sown during Oct-Nov and on the hills during March-May. It can not stand heavy rainfall although it can be grown as a rain-fed crop in certain places. (Anonymous, 2003) Preparation of land Onion grown from seed requires a finer degree of tilth than most other vegetables. The soil should be spread over with decomposed farmyard manure to a depth of 7.5-10.0 cm. Addition of wood or cowdung ashes and compost has a beneficial effect on the crop. The soil is worked smooth to a depth of 15-20 cm by repeated ploughing and raking. Beds or ridges with intervening channels for irrigation are then laid out. In places where onions are to follow rice, excessive water is drained off by making treches 6-9 m apart immediately after harvesting the rice crop. The land is worked with a furrow turning plough and left for drying. Three to four ploughings are given subsequently, clods broken and pulverized by using a roller. Onions being a shallow feeder, most of the roots penetrate to a depth of 5.0-7.5 cm and the crop thrives well on a hard bottom (Anonymous, 2003). Sowing time Depending upon the geographical conditions, the sowing time is found to be different in different places. The bulk of the onion crop is obtained from seed. The seedlings are first grown in the nursery bed and transplanted in the field later (Anonymous, 2003). Selection of seed The viability of the seed is lost in 1-2 years. Good seed is triangular, and black or dark in colour. The loss of germinating capacity can be detected when the seed looks pale, especially along the marginal edges. Such non-viable seed is light in weight. About 25 g of normal seed contains about 7,000 seeds (Anonymous, 2003). Seed production Large-sized bulbs (about 7.5 cm in diameter and about 40 g in wt) are selected from the previous year’s crop and are planted in the field 30 cm apart in rows spaced at 60 cm during September-October. A furrow 7.5-10.0 cm deep is opened and the bulbs are set in and covered by hand. Prior to sowing half of the top portion of the bulb results in early sprouting, better stand, more seed stalks and larger yield of seed. The upper cut portion may be used for edible purposes. Onion is a cross-pollinated plant and when the seed production of more than on variety is required, the varieties should be separated at least by 200 m. Flowering stalks emerge in 10 weeks, and within 6 weeks the seeds ripen. The seed is harvested when the capsules ripen and the black seeds are seen. The umbels or seed heads are cut from the stalk and collected. After collection the seeds are spread on a canvas cloth kept in a well-ventilated, shaded place and stirred once a day. When thoroughly dried, the seeds are threshed and winnowed clean and dried again before storing in alkathene in a cool place. Seed yield per plant is significantly and positively correlated with the number of seed stalks per plant and the weight per umbel. Seed yield increases with close plant spacing (20 cm), the use of big-sized bulbs (about 50 g) and application of 40 kg N/ha.

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Onion seed loses its viability after one year; high humidity and high temperature cause onion to lose its vitality rapidly. Seed viability is enhanced and the associated fungal flora is eliminated by treatment with Dithan 2-78, Captan, and Brassicol. Onion seed harvested in May shows 90 per cent germination when sown in Sept.-Oct. Seeds treated with 10 ppm NAA and 10 ppm IBA gave over 90 per cent and 85 per cent germination respectively as against about 65 per cent in control (Anonymous, 2003). Propagation Ripe onions are generally produced from transplants raised from seeds sown in the nursery bed 6-8 weeks prior to transplanting, from seeds sown directly in the open field, and by planting medium-sized mature onion sets (Anonymous, 2003). Transplanting The chief advantages of this method are the use of a lower seed rate, early maturation, formation of large and more uniform bulbs, a better stand, better control of weeds and ultimately a higher yield. The main disadvantage is the manual labour required. For the production of healthy seedlings, seed of selected, high yielding varieties should be sown broadcast, or in drills made 10-15 cm apart in the first week of November or preferably before the first week of December. Immediately, after sowing the seed is covered 5 cm deep with fine soil mixed with farmyard manure, and a light irrigation given. Irrigation is repeated every third or fourth day till the plants are well established. The seedlings come up in a week’s time and are ready for transplanting in 7-9 weeks. Larger seedlings give better yield. The fields, where the seedlings are to be transported, are divided into small plots of a convenient size, preferably long and narrow beds, to facilitate weeding and irrigation. The seedlings are set out in rows about 10 cm apart both ways. Wider spacing for the convenience of hoeing without provision for adequate plant population, yields bigger-sized onions at the cost of optimal yield. Transplanting is done in the first week of January. Seedlings are set 2.5-3.5 cm deep. Deep planting of seedlings hampers the proper development of bulbs and lowers the yield. Irrigation is necessary immediately after planting (Anonymous, 2003). Seed propagation Onion is also propagated by sowing the seed directly in the field in rows about 30 cm apart. The seed is dibbled about 1.5 cm deep in heavy soils and about 2.5 cm in sandy soils. For sowing directly the seed bed is prepared thoroughly and laid out in plots. The rows are marked and furrows made. The seed is then dropped by hand in the furrows. Coarse sand mixed with the seed, gives even distribution. A very light irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by another after 4-5 days. The seedlings push through the surface in about a week’s time. When the plants are 6-8 weeks old they are thinned to about 10-12 cm apart. The thinnings may be transplanted to vacant plots or between other crops, or made use of in a green state during the course of the season (Anonymous, 2003). Propagation from dry sets Onion is also cutivated by planting dry onion sets from the previous year’s crop, which yields more and matures earlier. The sets are planted in rows 30 cm apart and spaced 10 cm in the rows. The medium-sized sets of 1.5-2.0 cm in diameter are most desirable for planting. About 14-18 qt of sets is required to plant a hectare. The dry onion sets are produced by sowing seeds thickly in rows 22-30 cm apart at the rate of 90-135 kg/ha. Globe-shaped early varieties are chose. The sets are harvested as soon as

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the crop is ripe and before hot weather sets in. They are pulled out by hand, the tops twisted off and the bulbs collected and immediately removed to the shade for curing. The green onions are produced by planting the smallest bulbs from the previous crop during Sept-Oct in rows 22-30 cm apart and 10 cm apart in the rows. They are usually ready to be pulled out in 4-5 weeks after planting (Anonymous, 2003). Manuring Onion needs moisture-retaining soil rich in available plant food, especially humus. Farmyard manure or green manure is used freely to maintain a favourable physical condition of the soil. But the crop does not require much nitrogenous manure which leads to more leaf growth at the cost of bulbs. Manures rich in potash like wood ash, poultry dropping, etc. give increased out-turns. Well-rotted farmyard manure is applied at the rate of 25-50 tonnes/ha after the first ploughing or it may preferably be applied to the preceding crop. When farmyard manure is used in smaller quantities, application of nitrogenous fertilizers proves beneficial, but overdoses are detrimental to the keeping quality of the bulbs and cause the appearance of “scallions” or ‘bull necks’ in a high percentage of the crop. At the time of the final ploughing, fertilizer at the rate of 250 kg of calcium ammonium nitrate, 250 kg of superphosphate and 125 kg of muriate of potash per hectare is broadcast and mixed well into the soil. Besides, the crop after transplanting is top-dressed in two split-up doses; the first dose is given one month after transplanting and the second after three months. Soot and ash are also used for top-dressing. Manorial experiments have shown that application of nitrogen, either alone or in combination with P2O5 and K2O in varying proportions, depending on soil condition, gives satisfactory results in onion cultivation. Application of 563 kg of calcium ammonium nitrate, 679 kg of superphosphate and 47 kg of muriate of potash per hecatare gave the best results. In studies on the effect of application of potash and different micronutrient sprays such as zinc, manganese, and copper on the onion crop, the highest yield was obtained with 281 kg of potash with copper spray (Anonymous, 2003). Weeding Onion needs frequent weeding; the crop is hand-hoed and weeded 20-25 days after planting and again 3 weeks later. Chemical weed control by using Tenoran (2.0-2.5 kg/ha in 1,000l of water) after 3-5 weeks of transplanting is very effective and does not affect the yield. Other weedicides like contact herbicides, etc. are also used (Anonymous, 2003). Irrigation Since a steady state moisture supply is required for continuous growth in onion, irrigation is given once every two weeks during the cool growing period and more frequently when the hot weather sets in. In all 8-9 irrigations are sufficient for the crop. When the crop is nearing maturity, it is watered sparingly and when the tops start falling over, irrigation is stopped. Irrigations should be light, as wetting the soil up to a depth of 30 cm is sufficient for the onion crop. The drip method of irrigation gives higher yield of the crop (Anonymous, 2003). Rotation and Intercropping Rotation is very important for onion crop. It usually follows a heavily manure crop like potato, which requires a thorough cultivation and leaves the land comparatively free of weeds. Onion following clovers and cereals thrives well. In irrigated lands, it is rotated with sorghum, ragi, chillies, rice, etc. in the same year. Depending upon the variety of onion, it is found to be

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rotated with wheat, bajra, groundnut, vegetables like chillies, potatoes, fodder crops, maize, etc. Onion is found to be intercropped with garlic, turmeric, sugarcane, etc (Anonymous, 2003).

7.3. Disease and Pest Fungi Leaf diseases Peronospora destructor, the causal agent of downy mildew is widespread on all continents (URL-5). The affected parts attain a peculiar colour, and the foliage and the flowering stalks wither and the bulbs become moist and spongy, thus reducing the yield considerably. Three to four sprayings with Difolatan was found to be beneficial to reduce the intensity of the disease and also to increase the net yield of the crop (Anonymous, 2003). Alternaria porri which causes purple blotch and scald and this is widespread in hot, humid climates as it requires temperatures of 21-30oC for development. Botrytis allii which causes leaf spot, leaf fleck, collar rot, brown stain is the common grey mould fungus ubiquitous in temperate regions (URL-5). The infection usually takes place at curing time, through the exposed moist tissues. The white varieties, scallions, and injured bulbs are more susceptible than the normal ones. The lesions on the bulbs appear as sunken dried areas around the neck but may involve the whole bulb that ultimately rots, giving a stinking smell. The fungus can tide over the winter. The disease can be controlled by proper rotation and sanitation, elimination of late application of fertilizers to avoid scallions, clean tillage, rapid curing, close topping, careful handling and thorough ventilation throughout the storage period. The rotten bulbs should be sorted out and removed (Anonymous, 2003). Cladosporium allii-cepae causes outbreaks of leaf blotch in temperate areas. Puccinia allii, causing rust, is widespread but sporadic in temperate zones. Pleospora herbarum (black stalk mould, leaf spot) occurs in temperate and subtropical parts of the world. Stemphylium vesicarium, Stemphylium leaf blight, normally invades dying tissue. Glomerella cingulata (twister disease, anthracnose, seven curls) is more common in the tropics and subtropics. Cercospora duddiae leaf spot is a tropical disease. The soil bourne smudge caused by Colletotrichum circinans reduces cosmetic quality on the outer scales (URL-5). Root deseases Pink root, caused by Pyrenochaeta terrestris is present in regions with high soil temperatures. Fusarium basal rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum is present almost wherever onions are grown and can cause up to 90% loss of seedlings. Onion smut, caused by the soil bourne Urocystis colchici and U. cepulae is present in most temperate onion growing regions (URL-5). The infected plants become stunted, do not develop bulbs and ultimately die. Onion suffers heavily from bulb rot, caused by Sclerotium cepivorum. Lower moisture content and an alkaline soil seem to reduce the intensity of the desease (Anonymous, 2003). Southern blight is capable of causing serious field and storage losses and is caused by Athelia rolfsii. Fusarium, Pythium and Rhizoctonia spp. cause damping off (URL-5). Viruses Onion Yellow Dwarf Potyvirus (OYDV) is the only important and widespread virus infecting A. cepa. Others may occasionally infect the common onion (URL-5). Insects

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Of the several aphids which attack onion, Myzus ascalonicus is a typical pest of the stored crop and Myzus persicae damages the growing crop; both are virus vectors. The onion thrips, Thrips tabaci is widely distributed and is believed to cause more damage to alliaceous crops than all other pests. Cutworms are major pests of many crops and those which are more important pests of onion include the larval stages of the turnip moth, Agrotis segetum, Agrotis ipsilon- the black cutworm and Peridroma saucia- the variegated cutworm. The almond moth is a cosmopolitan pest of stored products including onion. The leek moth, Acrolepiopsis assectella also attack onion. The onion fly or onion maggot, Delia antique is a major pest attacking bulbing and green onions globally. The bulb fly, Eumerus amoenus is a pest in warmer regions. Several leaf miners (e.g., Liriomyza sativae and other Liriomyza spp.) colonize onion and are polyphagous. Several beetles are important pests of alliaceous crops including flea beetles, chafer beetles, leaf beetles, weevils and click beetles (URL-5). Mites Tetranychus cinnabarius- the carmine spider mite and Tetranychus urticae- the red spider mite are particularly severe pests locally in many parts of the world. Petrobia latens- the stone mite may be the most serious onion pest in some parts of the world. The bulb mites, Rhizoglyphus echinopus and Rhizoglyphus robini are occasionally serious storage pests. The gall mite- Aceria tulipae occasionally damages onions. Gastropods Slugs and snails are troublesome pests of onion- the commonest UK species are Deroceras reticulatum- the field slug, Arion hortensis- the garden slug and Helix aspersa- the garden snail (URL-5). Nematodes Root parasites: These include the sedentary endoparasites (the root knot nematodes- Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne hapla, Meloidogyne exigua, Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica and Meloidogyne thanesi) and the sedentary ectoparasite includes the reniform nematode (Rotylenchus reniformis). Migratory endoparasites include the lesion and burrowing nematodes (Pratylenchus sp. and Radolphos similes respectively) and the migratory ectoparasites include the stubby root (Trichodorus sp.), lance (Longidorus sp.) and dagger (Xiphinema diversichaudatum) nematodes. Crown parasites: The major crown parasite is the stem and bulb nematodes (Ditylenchus dipasaci) (URL-5).

7.4. Harvesting and Yield Harvesting The green bunching onions are harvested by hand as soon as they attain the required size. The roots are washed and the outer skin is peeled out leaving the onion clean and white. They are then tied into bunches and sold. For the bulb crop, the flower heads are not allowed to set as they affect the formation of bulbs. The onions are ready for harvest when they are fully mature, which is indicated by the falling over of the tops while the leaves are still green. When these leaves turn yellow the onions should be pulled out. Harvesting can be advanced by a process called ‘necking’ in which the tops of the onions are broken with the help of a plank or the crop is trampled 2-3 times at intervals of a few days. Necking does not affect the yield or the keeping quality of the

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produce. The bulb crop is ready for harvest in three months after planting. The entire plants can be pulled out easily from the light soils, but in heavy soils they have to be dug out with the aid of a sharp-edged hand tool (Khurpa). The tops are cut off 2.5-3.0 cm from the bulbs as soon as possible after they are removed from the field. The bulbs are then spread out in shade in thin layers for curing. They are cured for a week or ten days till the necks are completely dry. A well-cured onion is firm and the top of the bulb is not readily dented with the thumb. After curing the onions are kept in heaps till they are sent to the market. The small bulbs can be kept in stacks for two months (Anonymous, 2003). Yield The average yield of a transplanted crop varies from 90 to 270 qt/ha. Yields are usually high when the crop is raised from sets. A seed crop gives c 400-660 kg of seeds per hectare. When all conditions are optimum it is possible to get yields up to 900 qt/ha (Anonymous, 2003).

7.5. Processing and Storage Mature onions are cured and dried before storage. They are usually stored by spreading on the floor or on racks or keeping them in baskets in well-ventilated, thatched sheds or rooms. Frequent removal of rotted bulbs and loose skins and thinning over of the stored product is done. Occasionally, they are stored in small thatched pyramids of wheat straw, sorghum straw or sarkanda constructed in the open on roofs or under shade. This method is probably the cheapest and the most efficient. Onions can be stored in cold storage at 0.0-2.2º and low humidity approximately for six months without affecting their pungency (Anonymous, 2003). The ideal condition of the relative humidity for storage of onions is 70-75% (URL-5).

Heavy losses in onions occur during storage, the chief causes sprouting, rotting, shrinkage and driage. Sprouting is enhanced by increase in temperature whereas rotting increases with increase in humidity. Losses are also influenced by varieties, seasonal variations, stage of harvest of bulb, etc. Onions having a closed neck and tight fitting scales have better keeping quality. A pre-harvest spray with maleic hydrazide (600 ppm of 40% maleic hydrazide) considerably inhibits rooting and spoiling during storage. Dipping onions in a mixture of Fernate and Senesan fungicides and DDT before storing reduces rotting significantly (Anonymous, 2003). Onions sprayed with maleic hydrazide can not be used for planting purposes next year, because they will not sprout (URL-5). 8. Chemical Constituents Bulb Analysis of the onion (big) gave the following values: moisture, 86.6; protein,1.2; fat,0.1; carbohydrates,11.1; fibre,0.6; and minerals, 0.4g/100g; calcium ,47.0; phosphorus,50.0; iron,0.7; thiamine,0.08; riboflavin,0.01; niacin,0.4; and vitamic C, 11.0mg/100g. The Vitgamic C content decreases on cooking and storage. The essential amino acid composition of a sample of Indian onion (protein, 1.19%) was as follows (g/16g N):arginine,2.72; histidine,1.12; lysine,4.64; tryptophan,1.44; phenylalanine,2.88; methionine, 1.12; threonine, 1.44; leucine, 2.72; isoleucine, 1.44; and valine, 2.24 (Anonymous, 2003). The constituents identified are listed below (ppm unless otherwise indicated): (+)L-S-Prop-1-enyl-cysteine-s-oxide: 25.8 1(F)-beta-fructosyl-sucrose 2-Methyl-but-2-en-1-al 2-Methyl-butyr-2-aldehyde

33

4-Alpha-methyl-zymostenol 4-S-Oxide(trans)dec-2-ene,5-ethyl-4,6,7-Trithia (diastereomer) 4-S-Oxide(trans)dec-2-ene,5-ethyl-4,6,7-trithia 4-S-Oxide(trans/cis)deca-2,8-diene,5-ethyl-4,6,7-thithia (diastereomer) 4-S-Oxide(trans/trans) deca-2,8-diene,5-ethyl-4,6,7-thithia (diastereomer) 4-S-Oxide(trans/trans)deca-2,8-diene,5-ethyl-4,6,7-thithia 6(G)-Beta-fructosyl-sucrose 2,3-Dimethyl-bicyclo(2,2,1)hexane-5-oxide-5,6-dithia(1,2,3,4-alpha-5-beta) 2,3-Dimethyl-thiophene 2,4-Dimethyl-thiophene 24-Methylene cycloartanol 28-Iso-fucosterol 31-Nor-cycloartenol 31-Nor-lanostenol 9,10,13-Trihydroxy-octadec-11-enoic acid 9,12,13-Trihydroxy-octadec-10-enoic acid Abscisic acid Acetal Acetic acid Adenosine Allicin Alliin gamma-glutamyl-peptide Alliin Allium cepa polysaccharide Allyl-propyl-disulfide Alpha amyrin Alpha linolenic acid Alpha-sitosterol Arabinose Ascorbic acid Benzyl-iso-thiocyanate Beta carotene Beta-sitosterol Butane-cis-1-cis-4-dithial-S-S-dioxide,2,3-dimethyl Caffeic acid Calcium oxalate Catechol Cepaene 1 Cepaene 2-A Cepaene 2-B Cepaene 3 Cepaene 4-A Cepaene 4-B Cholest-7-en-3-beta-ol Cholesterol Choline Cis-Propanethial-s-oxide Cis-zweibelane Citric acid

34

Cyanidin bioside Cyanidin diglycoside Cyanidin monoglycoside Cyanidin-3-O-laminariobioside Cyclo-(2,1,1)-heptane-5-oxide,cis-2,3-dimethyl-5,6-dithia Cyclo-(2,1,1)-heptane-5-oxide,trans-2,3-dimethyl-5,6-dithia Cycloalliin Cycloartanol Cycloartenol Cycloeucalenol Cysteine Di-n-propyl-disulfide Dimethyl-trisulfide Diphenylamine DNA Ethanol Ferulic acid Fructose Gamma-gultamyl leucine Gamma-glutamyl-S-(Beta-carboxy-Beta-methyl-ethyl)-cysteinyl glycine Gamma-L-glutamyl cysteine Gamma-L-glutamyl-L-iso-leucine Gamma-L-glutamyl-L-valine Gamma-L-glutamyl-S-(2-carboxy-N-propyl)cysteine Gamma-L-glutamyl-S-(2-carboxy-propyl)-L-cysteinyl glycine ethyl ester Gamma-L-glutamyl-S-propenyl cysteine sulfoxide Glucofructan (Allium cepa) Glucose Glutamic acid Glutathione Glycine Glycolic acid Gramisterol Iso-quercitrin Iso-rhamnetin 4’-O-beta-D-glucoside Iso-rhamnetin Kaempferol Kaempferol-3,4’-di-O-beta-D-glucoside Kaempferol-4’,7-di-O-beta-D-glucoside Kaempferol-4’-0-beta-D-glucoside L-2-Propenyl-cysteine sulfoxide L-Gamma-glutamyl-phenylalanine ethyl ester L-Gamma-glutamyl-phenylalanine Gamma-L-glutamyl-L-arginine L-Methyl-cysteine sulfoxide Lophenol Leutein: 0.02 Malic acid Melatonin: 31.5 pcg/gm

35

Methanol Methionine methylsulfonium salt Methionine sulfone Methionine Methyl, 1-(methyl-sulfinyl)-propyl-disulfide Mevalonic acid: 0.5 N-Propyl mercaptan Nonadecanoic acid Oleanolic acid Oleic acid: Onion coat colorant Oxalic acid Palmitic acid Para-coumaric acid Para-hydroxybenzoic acid Pelargonidin monoglycoside Phloroglucinol carboxylic acid: 100 Phloroglucinol: 100 Prop-cis-enyl-disulfide Prop-(trans)-enyl propyl-trisulfide Propan-1-ol Propane-1-thiol Propional Propionaldehyde Prostaglandin A Prostaglandin A-1 Prostaglandin B Prostaglandin E-1 Prostaglandin F Protocatechuic acid: 0.45% Pyrocatechol Pyruvic acid Quercetin: 0.01-4.8% Quercetin-3,4’-di-O-Beta-D-glucoside Quercetin-4’,7-di-O-Beta-D-glucoside Quercetin-4-di-O-Beta-D-glucoside Raffinose Rhamnose Ribose Rutin S-(2-Carboxy-propyl) glutathione: 125mcg/g S-(beta-carboxy-beta-methyl-L-ethyl)cysteine S-1-cis-propenyl ester methyl sulfinothioic acid S-1-Cis-propenyl ester propyl sulfinothioic acid S-1-Propenyl ester n-propyl sulfinothioic acid(cis) S-1-Propenyl ester n-propyl sulfinothioic acid(trans) S-1-Trans-propenyl ester methyl sulfinothioic acid S-1-Trans-propenyl ester propyl sulfinothioic acid S-Allyl-cysteine

36

S-Methyl-cysteine sulfoxide S-N-Propyl ester N-propyl sulphinothioic acid S-Propyl ester propyl sulfinothioic acid S-Propyl-cysteine sulfoxide Satiomem Sinapic acid Sodium prop-(cis)-1-enyl-thiosulfate Sodium prop-(trans)-1-enyl-thiosulfate Sodium propyl-thiosulfate Spiraeoside: 1.13% Stearic acid Stigmasterol Succinic acid Sucrose Sugars Thiopropanal-S-oxide Thiopropional-S-oxide Valine Xylitol Xylose Zeaxanthin (Ross, 2001) When an onion is bruised; the sulphoxides are degraded by allinase and release puruvic acid and alkyl-thiosulfinates, which rapidly form into disulfides (Bruneton, 1999).

The organic sulphur compounds of Bulbous Allii cepae including the thiosuphinates, thiosulphonates, cepaenes, S-oxides, S,S’-dioxides, monosulfides, disulphides, trisulfides, and zwiebelanes occur only as degradation products of the naturally occurring cysteine sulphoxides (eg. (+)-s-propyl-L-cysteine sulphoxide). When the onion bulb is crushed, minced, or otherwise processed, the cysteine sulfoxides are released from compartments and contact the enzyme allinase in adjacent vacuoles. Hydrolysis and immediate condensation of the reactive intermediate (Sulphenic acids) form the compounds.

The odorous thiosuphonates occur (in low concentrations) only in freshly chopped onions, whereas the sulphides accumulate in stored extracts or steam-distilled oils. Approximately 90% of the soluble organic-bound sulphur is present as gamma-glutamyl cysteine peptides, which are not acted on by allinase. They function as storage reserve and contribute to the germination of seeds. However, on prolonged storage or during germination, these peptides are acted on by gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase to form cystine sulphoxides, which in turn give rise to other volatile sulphur compounds (Breu and Dorsch, 1994). Essential oil The bulbs on steam distillation yield an essential oil (0.005%) known as ONION OIL (dα9º, 1.041, [α]D, -0.5º) having an acrid taste and an unpleasant odour. The characteristic odour of the oil is attributed to the presence of several unstrurated sulphur and other organic compounds. The alkyl di- and tri-sulphides are primarily responsible for the cooked onion flavour which is characteristic of steam distilled onion oil. Gas chromatrography of the steam distilled onion oil showed the presence of several flavour constituents (Table 2). Other compounds identified are cepanone, nor-cepanone and neodecanoic acid. A lachrymatory principle, thiopropanal-S-oxide, is also present.

37

Table 2: Compounds identified in oil of onion

Thiophene dervatives 2,5-Dimethylthiophene 2,4-Dimethylthiophene 3,4-Dimethylthiophene 3,4-Dimethyl-2,5-dihydrothiophen-2-one

Monosulphides Dimethyl sulphide Allyl methyl sulphide Methyl propenyl sulphide (2 isomers) Allyl propyl sulphide Propenyl propyl sulphide (2 isomers) Dipropenyl sulphides (3 isomers)

Oxygen compounds Propanal Dimethylfuran 2-Methylpentanal 2-Methyl-pent-2-enal Tridecan-2-one 5-Methyl-2-n-hexyl-2,3-dihydrofuran-3-one

Trisulphides Dimethyl trisulphide Methyl propyl trisulphide Allyl methyl trisulphide Methyl cis-propenyl trisulphide Methyl trans-propenyl trisulphide Diisopropyl propyl trisulphide Isopropyl propyl trisulphide Dipropyl trisulphide Allyl propyl trisulphide Diallyl trisulphide cis-Propenyl propyl trisulphide trans-Propenyl propyl trisulphide

Thiols Hydrogen sulphide Mehanethiol Propanethiol Allylthiol

Disulphides Dimethyl disulphide Methyl propyl disulphide Allyl methyl disulphide Methyl cis-propenyl disulphide Methyl trans-propenyl disulphide Isopropyl propyl disulphide Dipropyl disulphide Allyl propyl disulphide cis-Propenyl propyl disulphide trans-Propenyl propyl disulphide Diallyl disulphide Allyl propenyl disulphide ( 2 isomers) Dipropenyl disulphide (3 isomers)

Tetrasulphide Dimethyl tetrasulphide

(Anonymous, 2003) Root Caffeic acid Ferulic acid Gibberellin A-4 Para-hydroxybenzoic acid Tuliposide A Tuliposide B (Ross, 2001) Leaf and Flower The leaf and flower from Japan on steam distillation yielded an essential oil (0.006%). The oil contain two new cyclic cis- and trans-3,5-diethyl-1,2,4-trithiolanes (Anonymous, 2001). The flower also contains carotene. The other compounds identified as constituents of leaf are as follows: Ascorbic acid

38

Caffeic acid Citric acid Ferulic acid Fructose Glucose Malic acid Methanol Oxalic acid Para-coumaric acid Para-hydroxybenzoic acid Propionaldehyde Protocatechuic acid Raffinose Sinapic acid Succinic acid Sucrose (Ross, 2001) The presences of quercetin, sterol glycosides are reported. The presence of gibberllin is also reported. Analysis of onion stalks gave the following values:moisture, 87.6;protein, 0.9; fat, 0.2; fibre, 1.6; carbohrdrates, 8.9; and minerals, 0.8g/100g; calcium, 50.0; phosphorus,50.0; iron,7.5; riboflavin, 0.03; niacin, 0.3; and vitamin C,17.0 mg/100g. The carotene content is 595mg and calorie value, 41 Kcal/100g (Anonymous, 2003). Skins Dried onion skins are the best natural source of quercetin. The skin of the pink onion cotains stigmasterol, cholesterol, β-sitosterol, kaempferol, quercetin, and quercetin-3-glucoside. The phenolic acids reported to be present are p-hydroxy-benzoic acid, protocatechuic acid and vanillic acid. The onion skin is also used in the preparation of pectic substances (11-12%) as reported in the skin of white onion (Anonymous, 2003). Seed 5-Dehydroavenasterol Beta-sitosterol Beta-tocopherol Brassicasterol Cholesterol Fixed oil (17.3-18.1%) Stigmast-7-en-beta-ol Trigonelline Tseposide A Tseposide B Tseposide C Tseposide D Tseposide E Tseposide F (Ross, 2001) The seed yield an oil (18%) (Anonymous, 2003) with following composition (ppm unless otherwise indicated):

39

Alpha-tocopherol Arachidic acid Eicosen-1-ol Hexadecen-1-ol Linoleic acid (57.5-59.1%) Myristic acid Oleic acid (26.29%) Palmitic acid (7.3%) Stearic acid (3.5%) Stigmasterol (Ross, 2001)

O2-Methylpentanal

H

O2-Methyl-but-2-en-1-al

S CH3

CH3

2,3-Dimethyl-thiophene

S2,4-Dimethylthiophene

S2,5-Dimethylthiophene

S3,4-Dimethylthiophene

OHO

Abietic acid

O

HO

OHO

Abscisic acid

40

O OH

Acetic acid

N N

NN

H2N

O

HO

HOOH

Adenosine

SS

Allyl methyl disulphide

S

Allyl methyl sulphide

SS

S

Allyl methyl trisulphide

S

Allyl propenyl disulphide

SS

Allyl propyl disulphide

S

Allyl propyl sulphide

Allyl propyl trisulphide

SS

S

S

SAllyl-methyl-disulfide

SS

Allyl-propyl-disulfide

S

Allyl-propyl-sulfide

SS

S

Allyl-propyl-trisulfide

HS

Allylthiol

41

H

H

H

HO

Alpha amyrin

OHO

Alpha linolenic acid

Alpha-sitosterol

SSO

Allicin

S

OHO

H2N

O

Allin

O

OH OHOH

OHArabinosealpha-D-Pyranose form

O

OH

OH

O

HO

HOAscorbic acid

NC

S

Benzyl-iso-thiocyanate

42

Beta carotene

Beta sitosterol

O

OHHO

HOCaffeic acid

OCa

OO

OCa

Calcium oxalate

OH

OHCatechol

O

O

Cepanone

43

HO

Cholesterol

HOCholest-7-en-3-beta-ol

Cis-Propanethial-s-oxideH3C

SO

+-

O

OH

OHO

OH

O OH

Citric acid

OH

N

Choline

44

OHO

OHO

OHOH

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

Cyanidin 3-glucoside

O

HOOH

OH

OHO

O

O

OHOH

OHOH

HO

OH

OH

Cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside

45

OHO

OHO

O

OH

OH

OOHOH

O

OH OHOH

OH

Cyanidin 3-laminariobioside

NHS

O

O OH

Cycloallin

HOCycloartenol

46

HO

Cycloeucalenol

OH

Cycloartanol

HSCO2H

NH2Cysteine

Diallyl disulphide

SS

Diallyl trisulphide

SS

S

Dimethyl disulphide

SS

S

Dimethyl sulphide

Dimethyl tetrasulphide

SS

SS

Dimethyl trisulphide

SS

S

Dimethyl-disulfide

SS

Dipropyl disulphide

SS

Dipropyl trisulphide

SS

S

47

HO

Ethanol

O

HO

O

HO

Ferulic acid

OHOMe

COOH

Ferulic acid(E)-form

O

OH

CH2OH

OHOH

OHFructosealpha-D-Pyranose form

OOH

OH

OH

OH

CH2OH

Galactosealpha-D-Pyranose form

OHOO

OHO

Gibberllin A-4

O

OH OH

OH

OH

CH2OH

Glucosealpha-D-Pyranose form

48

H2NO

HO O

OH

Glutamic acid

HS O

HN

HNO

NH2

O

OH

O

OH

Glutathione

ONH2

OH

Glycine

OOH

OH

Glycolic acid

OH

Gramisterol

SS

Isopropyl propyl disulphide

Isopropyl propyl trisulphideS

SS

OO

HO

HOO OH

OH

Iso-rhamnetin

OHO

OH OOH

OHKaemferol

49

OH

Lophenol

SCO2H

H NH2

S-Allyl-cysteine

SCO2HH3C

O H NH2

S-Propyl-cysteine sulfoxide

OHO

Stearic acid

HO O

OH

HO

O

Malic acid

O

HN

HN

O

Melatonin

SH

Methanthiol

OH

Methanol

S N 2

HO OMethionine

H

50

SO O

NH2

HO O

Methionine sulphone

Methyl propenyl sulphide

S S

Methyl propyl disulphide

SS

SS

S

Methyl propyl trisulphide

OH

OH

OH

OMevalonic acid

OH

O

Nonadecanoic acid

HO

OH

O

Oleanolic acid

OHO

Oleic acid

OH

OO

OHOxalic acid

51

HO O

Palmitic acid

OH

CO2H

Para-coumaric acid

HO

OH

O

Para-hydroxybenzoic acid

O

HO OH

O

OHO

O

HO OH

OH

OH

Peonidin-3-glucoside

OH

OH

HO

Phloroglucinol

52

CO2H

HOOH

Prostaglndin E-1

OHHO

O

OHProtocatechuic acid

O

Propanal

HOO

OH

OO

OH

Pyruvic acidTautomeric structures

53

O

OH

OH

HO

OH OOH

Quercetin

O

OHHO

HOO

O O

HO

OH

OH

OH

O OH

OHHO

HO

Raffinose

O

OH OHOHOH

CH3

Rhamnosealpha-D-Pyranose form

O

OH OH

OHOHRibosealpha-D-Pyranose form

54

OHHO

OO

O

OHHO

O

HO OH

OH

OO

HO OH

OH

Rutin

O

OHO

O OH

Sinapic acid

CO2HH3C

O H NH2

S-Methyl-cysteine sulfoxide

HOStigmasterol

OHOHO

OSuccinic acid

55

O

OHOH

OHO

HO

O

HO

OH

OHOHSucrose

HO O

H2N

Valine

HO OH

HOOH

OH

Xylitol

O

OH OH

OH

OH

Xylosealpha-D-Pyranose form

HO

OH

Zeaxanthin

S

SO

Zwibelene

9. Traditional uses

9.1. Traditioanl uses in different countries Arabic countries. The dried bulb is used orally as a contraceptive, externally as a liniment, as an emmenagogue in the form of Unani medicine. Brazil. Hot water extract of the onion bulb is taken orally to treat hypertension or to induce diuresis. Egypt. The roasted bulb is used intravaginally as a contraceptive, before and after coitus. Europe. The bulb is taken orally to induce menses.

56

Fiji. Fresh bulb juice is applied ophthalmically to improve eyesight; aurally for earache (juice warmed with coconut oil is dropped in the ear). The fresh bulb is eaten raw with salt for stomachache. Germany. Fresh bulb juice is used externally as an anti-inflammatory agent on insect bites and for bronchitis. Hot water extract of the bulb is taken orally to induce miscarriage. Greece. Warm bulbs are applied externally to treat furuncles. Guatemala. Hot water extract of the dry bulb is used externally for wounds, ulcers, bruises, sores, skin diseases, irritations and eruptions, erysipelas and burns. India. The bulb is taken orally as an emmenagogue. The hot water extract is taken orally by women as an emmenagogue. Butanol extract of the bulb is taken orally for asthma. Hot water extract of the bulb is taken orally by men and women as an aphrodisiac. Butanol extract of the bulb is taken orally as an expectorant and diuretic. The dried seed is used as an abortifacient; parts of the seed, 3 parts of Punica granatum root, 2 parts of Cajanus cajan and red lead oxide are taken with honey. For abortion, the vaginal region is fumigated with feces of wild pigeon and seeds of Allium cepa. Hot water extract of the seed is taken orally as an emmenagogue. Fresh fruit juice, mixed with the juice of Achyranthes bidentata leaves is taken orally every 2 hours for cholera. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb is taken orally for diabetes, dysentery and fever. The leaf juice is administered ophthalmically to treat jaundice. Italy. The bulb is taken orally for menstrual and uterine pains. Decoction of the dried shoot is taken orally as a cicatrizing agent and to treat insect bites. Hot water extract of the dried bulb is used for inflammation. The decoction is used externally as a cicatrizing agent. The raw bulb is eaten to improve eyesight. Wine extract of the fresh bulb is taken orally for renal function and urinary disease; externally it is used for boils and whitlows. The bulb is eaten for gastronomic purposes. Japan. The fresh bulb is used as a regular part of the diet. Kuwait. The bulb is taken orally as an emmenagogue and aphrodisiac. Malaysia. The bulb is taken orally for amenorrhea. Mexico. Decoction of the dried leaf, together with Pimpinella anisum and Allium sativum, is given orally to new born infants. The root is taken orally to facilitate expulsion of the placenta. Nepal. The fresh bulb is taken orally for tuberculosis. Five hundred grams of the leaf of Adhatoda vasica is decocted in 5 liters of water until a dark brown mass remains. Half a teaspoonful of this drug is taken with honey and 10 grams Allium cepa twice daily for 6 months. Nigeria. The fresh bulb is taken orally as a carminative, tonic, antipyretic, hypotensive and diuretic. Peru. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb taken orally to regulate blood pressure, dropsy, urinary problems, renal and biliary calculi, bronchitis and as an antidiabetic. Externally, the extract is used for acne. Philippines. Butanol extract of the dried bulb is taken orally to treat high blood pressure. Saudi Arabia. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb is taken orally for diabetes, dropsy, colic, catarrh, chronic bronchitis, scurvy, body heat, epilepsy, hysterical fits, nosebleed, jaundice, unclear vision, spleen enlargement, rheumatic pain and strangury. Hot water extract of the dried bulb is taken orally for diabetes, dropsy, colic, catarrh, chronic bronchitis, scurvy, epileptic fits, hysterical fits, epistasis, jaundice, enlarged spleen; rheumatic pain and strangury. Thailand. Fresh bulb essential oil, administered by inhalation, is used for the treatment of colds. The bulb is taken orally for gastrointestinal infections.

57

Tunisia. The dried bulb is taken orally as an antiphlogistic, and is applied externally to treat infections. USA. The fresh bulb is taken orally as a sedative, blood purifier and expectorant. Vietnam. The bulb is taken orally as an emmenagogue. West Indies. Bulb juice with sugar is given to children for worms. Yemen. Hot water extract of the plant is used medically. Yogoslavia. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb is taken orally for diabetes. (Ross, 2001)

9.2. Ayurvedic use, Homeopathic use, Cosmetic use, other common uses Ayurvedic properties Rasa - Madhura, Katu. Virya - Usna. Guna - Guru, Snigdha, Tiksna Vipaka – Madhura (Joshi, 2000) Actions/Uses Vatasamaka, Kaphapottavardhaka, Tvagrogahara, Vedanasthapana, Dipana, Pacani, Balya, Medhya, Rasayana, Rocana, Anulomana, Sosaghna, Kustaghna, Sophaghna, Arshoghna, Yakrtottejaka, Svaraprada, Caksusya, Vrsya, Varnakara, Bhaghnasandhakara, Hrdrogahara, Ajirnanasana, Jvaraghna, Krimighna, Gulmahara, Kuksisulahara, Vibandaghna, Kasaghna, Svasaghna (Joshi, 2000). Cosmetic uses Onion juice rubbed into the skin is said to promote the growth of hair and to be a remedy for baldness. It is also used as a cosmetic to get rid of freckles (URL-20). Onion extract was found to be useful in prevention of scarring in patients having laser removal of tattoos (Ho et al., 2006). Homeopathic use Allium cepa, better known as Cepa is a Homeopathic remedy. Coryza profuse, watery and acrid nasal discharge; with profuse bland lachryrmation is typical symptom. Acute catarrhal inflammation of mucus membranes with increased secretion; eyes burning, biting smarting as from smoke, must rub them are other symptoms of note (Joshi, 2000). Other common uses The juice of the plant is used as a moth repellent and can also be rubbed onto the skin to repel the insects. The plant juice can be used as a rust preventative on metals and as a polish for copper and glass. A yellow-brown dye is obtained from the skins of the bulbs. The growing plant is said to repel insects and moles. A spray made by pouring enough boiling water to cover 1 kg of chopped unpeeled onions is said to increase the resistance of other plants to diseases and parasites (URL-20). Allium cepa root length inhibition test is a well recommended bioassay for the evaluation of the toxicity of various polluted waters. Allium cepa derived EROD (7-ethoxy resorufin O-deethylase) can act as a potential biomarker of certain pesticides present in water (Fatima and Ahmad, 2006). The possibility of producing a new type of vinegar from worthless onions, which fail to meet the quality standards required for marketing, was investigated. Several kinds of onion were initially tested as raw material

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for vinegar production, and vinegar was successfully produced from the juice of a red onion, the cultivar Kurenai, by batch culture using yeast and Acetobacter aceti. Nutritional analysis revealed that the potassium content of onion vinegar was extremely high, while the amount of sodium was lower than that in conventional vinegars. It was also shown that the total amino acid and total organic acid contents of the onion vinegar were respectively 1.6-6.9 times and 3.5-11.5 times those in other kinds of vinegars (Horiuchi et al., 1999). 10. Clinical Use It has been shown that Allium species may help to prevent tumor promotion, cardiovascular diseases and aging; all processes that are associated with free radicals (Stajner et al., 2006). Uses suported by clinical data The principle use of Bulbous Allii Cepae today is to prevent age-dependent changes in the blood vessels, and loss of apetite (Anonymous, 1999). Uses described in pharmacopoeias and in traditional systems Treatment of bacterial infections such as dysentery, and as a diuretic. The drug has also been used to treat ulcers, wounds, scars, keloids, and asthma. Bulbus Allii Cepae has also been used as an adjuvant therapy for diabetes (Anonymous, 1999). The Chinese pharmacopeia indicates its use for treatment of angina pectoris, cough, and dyspnea (painful, difficult breathing), and also tenesmus (painful spasmodic contraction of anal or vesical sphincter) in dysentery (Anonymous, 1997). Uses described in folk medicine, not supported by experimental or clinical data As an antihelmintic, aphrodisiac, carminative, emmenagogue, expectorant, and tonic , and for the treatment of bruises, bronchitis, cholera, colic, earache, fevers, high blood pressure, jaundice, pimples, and sores (Anonymous, 1999). The juice made into syrup is good for colds and coughs (Biswas, 2006). 11. Pharmacological Action (Animal experiment, cellular experiment, enzymatic experiment) Abortifacient effect. Ethanol/ water (1:1) extract of the seed, administered orally to female rats at a dose of 200.0 mg/kg, was inactive (Prakash et al., 1976). Acid phosphatase inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb and the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rats, were active on RBC (Ahluwalia and Mohindroo, 1989). Adenosine deaminase inhibition. Sap of the fresh bulb, at a concentration of 10.0 microliters, was inactive (Kock et al., 1992). Aflatoxin production inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb, at a concentration of the fresh bulb, at a concentration of 1.0 mcg/ml, was active on Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxin B-1 production was inhibited 44.80%. On agar plate, a concentration of 250.0 mcg/ml was active. Aflatoxin B-1 prodcution was inhibited 60.44% (Ross, 2001). Alanine racemase inhibition. Lyophilized extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of chicken at a concentration of 2.0% of the diet, was active. Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase activity was inhibited (Ross, 2001).

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Alkaline phosphatase inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was active. The study was conducted for 6 months in cholesterol-loaded animals. Water extract of the fresh bulb and the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rats, were active on RBC (Ross, 2001). Alkaline phosphatase stimulation. The fresh bulb, in the ration of rats at a concentration of 3.0% of the diet, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Alpha amylase inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb was active (Ross, 2001). Analgesic activity. Ethanol (70%) extract of the fresh bulb, administered intraperitoneally to mice of both sexes at variable dosage levels, was active (Ross, 2001). Antifungal activity and antibacterial activity. An aueous extract of the juice of Bulbous Allie Cepae inhibited the in vitro growth of Escherichia coli, Streptococcus species (Anonymous, 1999; Arunachalam, 1980), Lactobaccilus odonotlyticus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhosa (Anonymous, 1999). The fresh bulb, on agar plate, was inactive on Escherchia coli and Staphylococcus aereus, MIC 7.5 mg/ml. The chloroform extract was inactive on Escherchia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, MIC >6.0 mg/ml (Hughes and Lawson, 1991). A petroleum ether extract of Bulbous Allii Cepae inhibited the in vitro growth of Clostridum paraputrificum and Staphylococcus aureus. The essential oil has activity against a variety of fungi including Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium verneckii, Candida albicans, Fusarium oxyparum, Saccharomyces cervisiae, Georichum candidum, Brettanomyces anomalus, and Candida lipolytica (Anonymous, 1999). The fresh bulb, on agar plate was active on Nannizzia fulva, Nannizzia gypsea and Nannizzia incurvata (Singh and Desmukh, 1984). Antianaphylactic acitivty. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered intraperitoneally to guinea pigs at a dose of 50.0 mg/kg, was active vs egg albumin sensitization (Ross, 2001). Antiascariasis activity. Water extract of the bulb, at a concentration of 10.0 mg/ml, was active on earthworms (Ross, 2001). Antiasthmatic activity. Ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to guinea pigs at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was active vs allergen- induced asthmatic reactions and platelet activating factor-induced asthmatic reactions, and inactive vs histamine-induced asthmatic reactions and acetylcholine-induced asthmatic reactions (Ross, 2001). Ethanol (95%) extract of the fresh bulb, administered by gastric intubation to guinea pigs at a dose of 1.0 ml/animal, was active vs allergen-induced bronchial asthma. Results significant at p<0.02 level. The extract was inactive vs histamine- and acetylcholine-induced bronchial asthma.The water extract was inactive vs allergen-induced bronchial obstruction. Results significant at p<0.05 level ( Dorch et al., 1985). Anticholesterolemic acitivity. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was inactive. The study was conducted for 6 months in cholesterol-loaded animals. The fresh bulb, administered orally to rabbits, was active. Hypercholesterolemic rabbits that were fed a cholesterol and onion extract diet had a lower level of total lipids, cholesterol and phospholipids in the eyes than those fed only cholesterol. This level was similar to the control group (Ross, 2001).

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Anticlastogenic activity. Bulb juice, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 25.0 ml/kg, was active on bone marrow cells vs mitomycin C-, dimethylnitrosamine-, and tetracyline-induced micronuclei (Ross, 2001). Anticonvulsant activity. Ethanol (70%) extract of the fresh bulb, administered intraperitoneally to mice of both sexes at variable dosage levels, was active vs metrazole- and strychnine-induced convulsions (Ross, 2001). Anticrustacean activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried bulb was inactive on Artemia salina. The assay system was intended to predict for antitumor activity (Ross, 2001). Antiedema activity. Methanol extract of the bulb, applied on the ears of mice at a dose of 2.0 mg/ear, was active vs 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation. Inhibition ratio (IR) was 15 (Ross, 2001). Antifertility effect. Hot water extract of the dried bulb scales, at a concentration of 20% in the drinking water, and administered intraperitoneally at variable dosage levels, was equivocal in pregnant mice (Ross, 2001). Antifilarial activity. The fresh bulb was active on Setaria digitata, LC100 700 ppm (Ross, 2001). Antihistamine activity. Ethanol extract (95%) of the bulb, administered orally to guinea pigs at a dose of 200.0 mg/kg, and intraperitoneally at a dose of 50.0 mg/kg, was active vs histamine aerosol (Ross, 2001). Antihypercholesterolemic activity. The bulb juice, administered orally to rabbits, was active. The animals were fed a high cholesterol diet and the juice of 25 gm of onion/kg of body weight daily for 16 weeks. Ethanol (95%) extract of the fresh bulb, administered by gastric intubation to rabbits at a dose of 20.0 gm/animal, was inactive. Cholesterol-loaded diet was used daily for 3 months. The onion extract appeared to prevent crenation and aggregation of RBC. The essential oil, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg for 60 days, was active vs ethanol-induced hyperlipemia. Results siginificant at p<0.01 level. The fixed oil, in the ration of male rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was active. Simultaneous feeding of unsaturated oil from the plant material with a high sucrose diet significantly reduced serum and tissue cholesterol levels, and a small but significant tissue-protein reducing effect was also observed. The outer skin fiber, in the ration of male rats at a dose of 263.0 gm/day, was active. Scales of bulb, at a dose of 5.0 mg/kg for 45 days, was active (Ross, 2001). Antihyperglycemic activity. Decoction of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 0.5ml/animal, was active. Twenty-five percent aqueous extract was used and produced a maximal change in blood sugar of 28.2% vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, at a dose of 250.0 mg/kg, was active in rabbits vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia. A 18.57% drop in blood glucose was observed at 2 hours post-treatment. Ether and ethanol (95%) extracts of dried bulb, var. Behairy, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 50.0 gm/kg (expressed as dry weight of the bulb), were active vs alloxan- and epinephrine induced hyperglycemia. Ether extract of the aerial part,

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administered subcutaneously to rats at a dose of 0.5 ml/animal dailt for 10 days, was equivocal vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia. The plant juice produced weak activity. Ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rabbits at doses of 100 mg/animal for 7 days, and 250 mg/kg, was active vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia. Water extract of the fresh bulb, taken orally by human adults at a dose of 100.0 gm/person, was active vs glucose- and adrenalin-induced hyperglycemia. Fresh bulb juice, administered intragastrically to rabbits at a dose of 25.0 gm/animal (expressed as dry weight of plant), was active vs glucose-induced hyperglycemia. Petroleum ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rabbits at a dose of 250.0 mg/kg, was active vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia. Hot water extract of the dried bulb, administered by gastric intubation to mice at a dose of 0.5 ml (25% of the extract), was active vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia. When administered orally to rabbits at a dose of 10.0 ml/animal, a 13.4 mg percent drop in blood sugar level was observed after 8 days of treatment. Water extract of the dried bulb, administered intravenously to mice at a dose of 70.0 mg/kg, was active vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia (Ross, 2001). Antihyperlipemic activity. The water extract, administered orally to rabbits at a dose of 10.0 ml/kg, was active. Hyperlipidemia was induced by long term feeding of sucrose. There was a significant reduction in serum, liver and aorta triglycerides, and serum and liver proteins, and a significant increase in liver free amino acids. The essential oil, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg for 60 days was active. The effect was measured in the liver vs ethanol-induced hyperlipemia. Results significant at p <0.01 level. The fixed oil, in the ration of male rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was active. Simultaneous feeding of unsaturated oil from the plant material with a high sucrose diet significantly reduced serum and tissue cholesterol levels, and a small but significant tissue-protein reducing effect was observed. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was inactive. The study was conducted for 6 months in cholesterol-loaded animals (Ross, 2001). Antihypertensive activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rats, was inactive. The extraction was made at zero degrees Celsius. Four ml of the extract was fed for 3 weeks, then salt was added and the dose increased to 8 ml. salt did not affect blood pressure in the spontaneously hypertensive animals (Ross, 2001). Antihypertriglyceridemic effect. Outer sin fiber, in the ration of male rats at a dose of 263.0 gm/day, was active (Ross, 2001). Anti-implantation effect. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered orally to rats, was inactive. Water extract of the dried seed, administered intraperitoneally to female rats, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Anti-inflammatory activity. Ethanol (80%) extract of the bulb, administered by gastric intubation to male rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was inactive vs carrageenin-induced pedal edema (Ross, 2001). The active antiallergic and anti-inflammatory constituents of onion are the flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol) (Alcaraz and Jimenez, 1988). The flavonoids act as anti-inflammatory agents because they inhibit the action of protein kinase, phospholase A2, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase (Middleton, 1984).

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Antimatagenic activity. Water extract of the fresh bulb, at a dose of 0.4 ml/plate, was active on Salmonella typhimurium TA100, vs TRP-P-2 mutagenicity with S9 mix (Ross, 2001). Antiradiation effect. The dried bulb, in the ration of rats at a concentration of 20.0 mg/kg, was active vs X-irradiation (Ross, 2001). Antisickling activity. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in cell culture at a concentration of 40.0 microliters, was active on platelets vs epinephrine-induced aggregation (Ross, 2001). Antispasmodic activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, at a concentration o f4.0 mg/ml, was active on the guinea pig ileum vs BaCl2, 5-HT, acetylcholine, and histamine spasms (Ross, 2001). Antitoxic activity. Essential oil, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was active. The treatment prevented ethanol-induced serum cholesterol and triglyceride rise, kidney and liver cholesterol accumulation, hepatic total lipid rise, and serum albumin reduction vs ethanol-induced hyperlipemia (Ross, 2001). Antitumor activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 50.0 mg/kg, produced weak activity on Sarcoma III (Some other United States Patents related to onion). Essential oil, applied externally on female mice at a dose of 1.0 mg/animal vs twice weekly 12-0-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate promotion fro 2 weeks, followed by mezerein promotion for 2 weeks, followed by mezerein promotion for 18 weeks, was active. The dose, when given with a second promoter, produced a 32% decrease in incidence of papolloma vs DMBA-induced carcinogenesis. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb, in cell culture, produced weak activity on RAJI cells vs phorbol myristate acetate-promoted expression of EB virus early antigen (Ross, 2001). Antiviral activity (plant pathogens). Ethanol (80%) extract of freeze-dried entire plant at variable concentrations in cell culture, was equivocal on Poliovirus 1, and inactive on Adenovirus (unspecified), Coxsackie B2 virus, Herpes virus type 1, Measles virus and Semlicki-forest virus vs plaque-inhibition (Ross, 2001). Antiyeast acitivity. Bulb essential oil, at a concentration of 1.0%/disc, was active on Brittanomyces anomalus, Hansenula anomala, Kloeckera apiculata and Lodderomyces elongisporus. A concentration of 10.0%/disc was active on Kluyveromyces fragilis, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Pichia membranaefaciens, Rhodotorula rubra, and Saccharomyces cervisiae, and inactive on Candida lipolytica. Dried oleoresin, on agar plate at a concentration of 500.0 ppm, was active on Bearyomyces hansenii vs ascospore production, and on Rhodotorula rubra vs pseudomycelium production. The oleoresin was inactive on Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulopsis glabrata, and Hansenula anomala vs pseudomycelium production, and on Hansenula anomala, Sacchromyces cervisiae and Lodderomyces elongsporus vs ascospore production. Weak activity was produced on Lodderomyces elongisporus vs ascospore production. A concentration of 500.0 ppm, in broth culture, was active on Debaryomyces hansenii, Hansenula anomala and Saccharomyces cervisiae vs biomass production, and inactive on Candida lipolytica, Koeckera apoculata, Loddermyces elongisporus, Rhodorotula tubra and Torulopsis glabrata vs biomass production. Ethanol/water (1:1) extract of the bulb, at a concentrations of 500.0 mg/ml and 1042 mg/ml (dry weight of the plant material) on agar plate, were inactive on Candida

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albicans and Sacchoromyces pastorianus. The fresh bulb, on agar plate, was inactive on Candida stellatoidea, MIC 1000.0 mcg/ml and Candida albicans, MIC >470.0 mcg/ml. the chloroform extract was inactive on Candida albicans, MIC >6.0 mg/ml. Tincture of the dried bulb (10 gm of plant material in 100 ml ethanol), on agar plate at a concentration of 30.0 microliters/disc , was inactive on Candida albicans. Water extract of the bulb, on agar plate, produced weal activity on Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Ross, 2001). Ascorbic acid lowering effect. The fresh bulb, in the ration of rats at a concentration of 3.0% of the diet, was active (Ross, 2001). ATPase (mg++) inhibition. The bulb, administered intragastrically to rats, was active, and the water extract was inactive on RBC (Ross, 2001). ATPase inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was active. The study was conducted fro 6 months in cholesterol-loaded animals (Ross, 2001). Blood pressure effect (biphasic). Water extract of the dried bulb, administered intravenously to cats and rats at a dose of 0.1mg/kg, was active. A concoction of Nicotiana tabacum leaf, Ocimum basilicum leaf, Allium sativum leaf, Allium cepa bulb, Allium ascabricum bulb, Citrus limon fruit juice, cow’s urine, and trona (an alkaloid mineral substance) was used. The treatment produced an initial hypotensive effect followed by hypertension (Ross, 2001). Bradycardia acitivity. Water extract of the dried bulb, administered intravenously to cats and rats at a dose of 10-20 mg/kg, produced weak activity (Ross, 2001). Bronchodilator activity (autonomic). Chloroform extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to guinea pigs at a dose of 20.0 mg/kg, was active vs allergen-induced bronchial obstruction. A dose of 80.0 mg/kg was active vs PAF-induced bronchial obstruction. Ether extract, at a dose of 20.0 mg/kg, and lyophilized extract, at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, were active vs allergen-induced bronchial obstruction (Ross, 2001). Carcinogenesis inhibition. Essential oil, applied externally to mice at a concentration of 0.01 mg/animal, was active vs phorbol myristate acetate-induced carcinogenesis of the skin. A dose of 2.0 mg/animal, applied 30 minutes before DMBA, resulted in 50% decrease in incidence of carcinoma vs DMBA-induced carcinogenesis (Ross, 2001). Cardiac activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered by perfusion to the heart of the guinea pig at a dose of 10mg, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Cardiovascular effect. Water extract of the dried bulb, administered intravenously to cats and rats at a dose of 10-20 mg/kg, produced no change in ECG (Ross, 2001). Choleretic activity. Butanol extract of the bulb, in the ration of dogs, was active. The fresh bulb juice was active on rats (Ross, 2001). Cholesterol inhibition. The entire plant, together with cholesterol in the ration of rabbits, was inactive (Ross, 2001).

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Cholesterol level decrease. The fresh bulb, in the ration of rats at a concentration of 3.0% of diet, was active (Ross, 2001). Chronotropic effect (positive). Ethanol/water (1:1) extract of the fresh bulb, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 40.0 ml/kg, was active (Ross, 2001). CNS depressant activity. Butanol extract of the bulb, in the ration of dogs, was active (Ross, 2001). Coagulant activity. Essential oil, administered by gastric intubation to male rabbits at a dose of 2.0 gm/kg for 3 months, produced strong activity. There was an increase in coagulation time. Results significant at p <0.001 level (Ross, 2001). Cyclooxygenase inhibition. Essential oil of the dried entire plant, at a concentration of 0.35 mg/ml, was active on rabbit platelets (Ross, 2001). Cytotoxic + activity. The dried bulb, in cell culture at a concentration of 25.0% was active on Hamster-CA-HCPC-1. Water extract of the fresh leaf, on agar plate, was inactive on Ustilago nuda (Ross, 2001). Desmutagenic acitivity. Aqueous high speed supernatant of the fresh unripe fruit juice, on agar plate at a concentration of 0.5 ml/plate, was inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA98 vs mutagenicity of L-tryptophan pyrolysis products. The assay was done in the presence of S9 mix. The fresh plant juice, on agar plate at a concentration of 0.5 ml/plate, was inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA98 (Ross, 2001). Diuretic activity. Butanol extract of the bulb, in the ration of dogs, was active. Ethanol/water (1:1) extract of the fresh bulb (5 parts of fresh bulb in 100 parts ethanol/water), administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 40.0 ml/kg, and was active. The fresh bulb juice administered by gastric intubation to rabbits, was active. Methanol extract of scales of the bulb, administered to dogs, was active (Ross, 2001). DNA synthesis inhibition. Essential oil, applied externally to female mice at a dose of 5.0 mg/animal, produced 86% inhibition when the oil was applied 2 hours before DMBA vs DMBA-induced carcinogenesis (Ross, 2001). Embryotoxic activity. Ethanol/water (1:1) extract of the seed, administered orally to female rats at a dose of 200.0 mg/kg, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Fibrinolytic activity. The bulb juice, in the ration of rabbits, was active. The essential oil, administered by gastric intubation to male rabbits at a dose of 2.0 gm/kg for 3 months, decreased fribrinolytic activity. Results significant at p<0.001 level (Ross, 2001). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide stimulation. The bulb, in the ration of rabbits and rats, produced weak activity vs cholesterol-loaded animals (Ross, 2001). Glucose uptake induction. Ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rabbits at a dose of 250 mg/kg, was active vs alloxan-induced hyperglycemia (Ross, 2001).

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Gluatamate pyruvate transminase inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was active. The study was conducted for 6 months on cholesterol loaded animals (Ross, 2001). Glutathione peroxidase inhibition. Lyophilized extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of chicken at a concentration of 2.0% of the diet, was active (Ross, 2001). Goitrogenic activity. The bulb, in the ration of rats at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet for 4 weeks, was active (Ross, 2001). Growth promoter activity. Benzene/chloroform (6:4) extract of the fresh fruit essential oil, diluted to the same concentration as in fresh onion juice and administered intragasrically to rats at a dose of 5.0 ml/kg for 42 days, was inactive. Body weight, growth, and organ weights were unaffected. Protein content of the kidneys was greater than that of controls. Polyamine content of the organs was not was not different from the the controls. Undiluted essential oil of the fresh onion, administered intragstrically to rats at a dose of 5.0 ml/kg for 42 days, was active. Body weight, growth, and weight of the spleen, muscles, heart and protein content of major organs were greater than vehicle treated controls. Polyamine contents of the liver and kidney were higher than the controls. Ether extract of fresh onion juice, diluted to same concentration as fresh onion juice and administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 5.0 ml/kg for 42 days, was active. Body weight, growth, and weights of muscle, heart, lungs, and protein content of organs were greater than vehicle-treated controls. Polyamine contents of the liver and kidneys were higher than the controls. Methanol extract of fresh onion juice, diluted to the same concentration as fresh onion juice and administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 5.0 ml/kg for 42 days, was active. Body weight and the heart and lungs were greater than the vehicle-treated controls. Polyamine content of the liver was greater than the controls, but the organ protein content was unaffected (Ross, 2001). Hemotoxic activity. The bulb, in the ration of guinea pigs at a variable concentrations, was active the bulb was fed in raw form, cooked or various types of extracts. The result was a decrease in red blood count; the decrease was proportional to the amount fed. Changes in the white blood cell count were variable. Death occurred within 23 days after starting the animals on a diet containing high doses. The red blood cell count decreased from 5 million to 3.5 million. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried bulb, administered intraperitoneally to guinea pigs, was active. Anemia was induced. The water and ether extracts were inactive. The fresh bulb, administered by gastric intubation to dogs at a dose of 15.0 gm/kg, was active. Daily dosing for 6 days produced anemia characterized by a red blood cell count of 1.99 million (7.76 million prior to onion dosing), and hemoglobin concentration of 30 (91 prior to doing) and a white blood cell count of 25,000 (10.900 prior to dosing). Data was comparable following dosing with autoclaved onions and/or autoclaved onion juice. Butanol extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of cattle at a concentration of 25.0% of the diet, was active. A decrease in the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin concentration was observed (Ross, 2001). Histamine release inhibition. Ethanol (75%) extract of the fixed oil, in cell culture, was active on the human basophil. The biological activity has been patented (Ross, 2001). Hydroxy(17)-steroid urinary excretion increased. The fresh bulb, in the ration of rats at a concentration of 2.0% of the diet, was active (Ross, 2001).

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Hypercholesterlemic activity. The dried bulb, administered orally to male rats at a dose of 5.0gm/kg daily for 56 days, was active. Water extract of the fresh bulb, administered to rats, was active (Ross, 2001). Hyperglycemic activity. The fresh bulb and ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered to pancreatectomized dogs by gastric intubation, were active. Methanol extract of the dried bulb, administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 2.0 gm/kg was inactive (Ross, 2001). Hyperlipidemic activity. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was active. The study was conducted for 6 months on cholesterol-loaded animals (Ross, 2001). Hypertensive activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered inravenously to dogs at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Hypocholesterolemic activity. The fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rats, was active. Lyophilized extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of chicken at a concentration of 2.0% of the diet, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Hypoglycemic activity. Chloroform extract of the raw bulb, administered by gastric intubation to rabbits, produced strong activity vs glucose-induced hyperglycemia. The treatment was 79.4% as effective as tolbutamide. The petroleum ether extract was active. Chloroform, ethanol (95%), and petroleum ether extracts of the fresh bulb, administered by gastric intubation ot rabbits, were active. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered by gastric intubation to rabbits, was active. The petroleum ether extract produced strong activity. Ether and petroleum ether extracts of the bulb, administered by gastric intubation to male rabbits at a dose of 0.25 gm/kg, were active. Ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered to pancreatectomized dogs and rabbits by gastric intubation, was active. Ether extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rabbits at a dose of 250 gm/kg, was active. A dose of 10.0 mg/kg, administered orally to rabbits, was active. A drop in blood sugar of 15 mg relative to inert-treated controls indicated positive results. The fresh bulb juice, administered intravenously to rabbits, was active. Methanol extract of the dried bulb, administered to rats at a dose of 2.0 gm/kg, was inactive. Petroleum ether and petroleum ether-insoluble extracts of the dried bulb, administered by gastric intubation to female rats at a dose of 0.25 gm/kg, were inactive. The plant juice, administered subcutaneously to rats at a dose of 0.5 ml/animal daily for 10 days, was inactive. Fasting blood sugar levels were determined (Ross, 2001). Hypolipemic activity. The essential oil, administered by gastric intuabaion to rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg for 60 days, was active. The effect was measured in the liver. Results significant at p <0.01 level vs ethanol-induced hyperlipemia. The fresh bulb and water extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rats, were active on RBC. The bulb juice, in the ration of rabbits, was active. The treatment prevented a rise in the levels of serum cholesterol for up to 60 days (Ross, 2001). Hypotensive activity. Chloroform extract of the fresh bulb, administered intravenously to rats at a dose of 1.0 mg/animal, was active. Ethanol (70%) extract of the fresh bulb, administered intravenously to rats at variable dosage levels, was active. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered intravenously to dogs at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was inactive. Ethanol/water

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(1:1) extract of the fresh bulb sap, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 40.0 ml/kg, produced weak activity. Water extract of the dried bulb, administered intravenously to cats and rats at doses of 5 to 20 mg/kg, produced weak activity (Ross, 2001). Hypotriglyceridemia activity. Lyophilized extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of chicken at a concentration of 2.0% of the diet, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Immunosuppressant activity. Aqueous suspension of the fresh bulb, administered by gastric intubation to rabbits at a concentration of 10.0%, was active (Ross, 2001). Insect attractant activity. Butanol extract of the fresh bulb was active on Delia antique (Ross, 2001). Lactate dehydrogenase stimulation. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rabbits at a concentration of 20.0% of the diet, was active. The study was conducted for 6 months in cholesterol-loaded animals (Ross, 2001). Lipid metabolism effects. Ethanol (100%) extract of the bulb was active in rats. Ethanol (95%) extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of rats, was active. The extraction was made at zero degrees Celcius. 4 ml of the extract was fed for 3 weeks , then salt was added and the dose increased to 8 ml. Salt did not affect blood pressure in the spontaneously hypertensive animals. Arachidonic acid level was decreased (Ross, 2001). Lipid peroxide formation inhibition. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb was active vs T-butyl hydroperoxide/heme-induced luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence (Ross, 2001). Lipoxygenase inhibition. Ethanol (75%) extract of the fixed oil was active on the polymorphonuclear leukocytes of guinea pigs. The biological activity has been patented. Methanol extract of the fresh bulb, at a concentration of 100.0 mcg/ml, was active on the rat platelets. Ether-soluble material produced 77% inhibition and the ether-insoluble material was inactive with zero percent inhibition (Ross, 2001). Lipoxygenase stimulation. Essential oil of the dried entire plant, at a concentration of 0.35 mg/ml, was active on the rabbit platelets (Ross, 2001). Mutagenic activity. The bulb was active on Salmonella typhimurium TA98. Cholesterol/methanol (2:1) extract of the bulb, on agar plate at a concentration of 100.0 mg/plate, was inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA98. The water extract was inactive on pig kidney cells LLC-PK—1 and trophoblastic-placenta cells. The effect was the same with or without embolic activation. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried bulb, on agar plate at a concentration of 10.0 mg/plate, was inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA102 and TA98. The fresh bulb, on agar plate at a concentration of 1.2 mg/plate, was active on Salmonella typhimurium TA1535, and inactive on TA98. A concentration of 2.4 mg/plate was active on TA1537 and TA1538. Water extract of the fresh bulb, on agar plate, was inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 (Ross, 2001). Nucleotidase inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb, administered intragastrically to rats, was active on RBC (Ross, 2001).

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Phorbol ester antagonist. The essential oil, applied externally to female mice at a dose of 5.0 mg/animal, was active. The dose was applied 1 hour before application of 12-0-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate. 16 hours later, the rate of DNA synthesis was decreased by 79%. The fresh bulb was active vs phorbol myristate acetate-induced decrease in glutathione peroxidase, and stimulation of ornithine decarboxylase (Ross, 2001). Plant germination inhibition. Water extracts of the dried leaf and dried stem, at a concentration of 500.0 gm/liter, were active on the seeds of Cuscuta reflexa after 6 days of exposure to the extract (Ross, 2001). Plant growth inhibition. Water extract of the dried stem, at a concentration of 500.0 gm/liter, was active on Cuscuta reflexa. Seedling length, weight, and dry weight were measured after 6 days of exposure to the extract (Ross, 2001). Plant pollen tube elongation inhibition. The fresh bulb, at a concentration of 0.3 gm/well, was active vs Camellia sinesis pollen. Water extract of the bulb, at a concentration of 0.001%, was active on Calotropis gigantea (Ross, 2001). Plasminogen activation stimulation. Water extract of the bulb was active (Ross, 2001). Platelet adhesion inhibition. The essential oil, administered by gastric intubation to male rabbits at a dose of 2.0 gm/kg for 3 months, was active. Results significant at p <0.001 level (Ross, 2001). Platelet aggregation inhibition. Butanol extract of the bulb, at a dose of 20.0 microliters, was active on human platelets vs ADP-induced aggregation. Ethanol-insoluble fraction, at a concentration of 20.0 microliters, was active vs ADP-induced aggregation. One out of 6 fractions extracted showed activity. Butanol extract of the fresh, taken orally by adults at a dose of 200.0 gm/person, was active. The subjects consumed a high fat meal prior to testing. Chloroform extract of the bulb, at variable dosage levels, was active on platelets of human and rabbits. Platelet aggregation was inhibited by the blocking of thromboxane synthesis. The essential oil, at concentrations of 10 to30 mcg/ml, produced strong activity in human adults vs ADP-induced aggregation. There was induction of a redistribution of the products of lipoxygenase pathway. Concentrations of 30 to 60 mcg/ml also produced strong activity vs ADP-induced aggregation. There was complete suppression of the formation of all oxygenase products. The essential oil produced weak activity on human platelets vs ADP-induced platelet aggregation. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in cell culture at a dose of 10.0 microliters, was active vs ADP-induced aggregation. A dose of 30.0 microliters was active vs collagen-, epinephrine- and arachidonic acid-induced aggregation. Water extract of the fresh bulb was active vs ADP-and arachidonic acid-induced platelet aggregation (Ross, 2001). Pro-oxidant activity. The fresh bulb, at a concentration of 1.0%, was active. The effect was observed at 140 degrees Fahrenheit in peanut oil (Ross, 2001). Prostaglandin inhibition. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in cell culture, was active on platelets and on the rat aorta (Ross, 2001). Protein synthesis inhibition. The fresh bract, in buffer, was active, IC50 60.0 mcg protein/ml (Ross, 2001).

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Quinone reductase induction. Aceonitrile extract of the dried bulb, in cell culture at a concentration of 7.9 mg/gm, was active on mice hepatoma-ICIC7. Assay was conducted to determine the induction of detoxifying enzyme, an effect that may have anticarcinogenic activity (Ross, 2001). Respiratory depressant. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered intravenously to dogs at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Respiratory stimulant effect. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered intravenously to dogs at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Smooth muscle relaxant activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the bulb, administered by perfusion to guinea pig lung at a dose of 5.0 mg, was active (Ross, 2001). Smooth muscle stimulant activity. Chromatographic fraction of the fresh bulb was active on the stomach (fundus). The fresh bulb juice was active on the rat intestine (Ross, 2001). Oral administration of an ethanol extrct of the drug to guinea-pigs inhibited smooth muscle contraction in the trachea induced by carbachol nd inhibited histamine-, barium chloride-, serotonin-, and acetycholine-induced contractions in ileum (Dorsch et al., 1991). Spermicidal effect. The essential oil was active in guinea pigs (Ross, 2001). Superoxide inhibition. Lyophilized extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of chicken at a concentration of 2.0% of the diet, was active. Mn-superoxide dismutase activity was stimulated (Ross, 2001). Sympathomimetic activity. Water extract of the dried bulb, administered intravenously to cats at a dose of 0.05 mg/ml, was active. A concoction of Nicotiana tabacum leaf, Ocimum basilicum leaf, Allium sativum leaf, Allium cepa bulb, Allium ascabricum bulb, Citrus limon fruit juice, cow’s urine, and trona (an alkaloid mineral substance) was used. The treatment enhanced the contractile response of the cat ictating membrane evoked by preganglionic cervical sympathetic nerve stimulation. At a higher dose, it caused contraction without nerve stimulation (Ross, 2001). Thromboxane B-2 synthesis inhibition. Essential oil of the dried entire plant was active on rabbit platelets, IC50 0.125 mg/ml. Ether extract of the fresh bulb juice, in cell culture, was active on fibroblasts-human-lung and platelets. Water extract of the fresh bulb, in cell culture, was active (Ross, 2001). Tumor necrosing factor induction. The fresh bulb juice, administered intravenously to mice at a dose of 200.0 microliters/animal, was active. Three hours after priming TNF production with the juice, intravenous injection of OK-432 or IFN-Gamma was used to trigger TNF production. Two hours later, TNF was assayed by its cytotoxicity against L929 cells (Ross, 2001). Tumor promoting effect. Hot water extract of the fresh bulb, applied externally to mice at a dose of 10.0 mg/animal, was active. The dose was applied 3 times weekly fro 49 to 60 weeks after tumor initiation vs DMBA-induced carcinogenesis (Ross, 2001).

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Tumor promotion inhibition. Ethyl acetate extract of the fresh root, in cell culture at a dose of 200.0 mcg, was active on Epstein-Barr virus vs 12-0-Hexadecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced Epstein-Barr activation. The methanol extract was inactive (Ross, 2001). Uricosuric activity. Benzene/chloroform (6:4) and ether extracts of the fresh onion juice and the essential oil, diluted to the same concentration as in fresh onion juice and administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 5.0 ml/kg for 42 days, were inactive. Urinary urea content was increased transiently, then decreased below the level of the vehicle-treated controls. Allantoin level in the urine was greater than that in the control group. The methanol extract of fresh onion juice, diluted to the same concentration as in fresh onion juice and administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 5.0 ml/kg for 42 days, was inactive (Ross, 2001). Uterine stimulant effect. Fresh bulb juice was active on the uterus of rats. The treatment was equivalent to 0.003 IU of oxytocin. Water extract of the bulb was active on non-pregnant, and produced strong activity on pregnant mice and rats (Ross, 2001). WBC macrophase stimulant. Water extract of the freeze-dried bulb, at a concentration of 2.0 mg/ml, was inactive on sarcoma (Yoshida ASC). Nitrite formation was used as an index of the macrophase stimulating activity to screen effective foods (Ross, 2001). WBC stimulant. Fresh bulb juice, administered intraperitoneally to mice, was active. Neutrophil accumulation was increased 78%, ED50 0.15 ml/animal (Ross, 2001). Clinical and Toxic effect Clinical effects Oral administration of a butanol extract of bulbus Allii Cepae (200mg) to subjects given a high-fat meal prior to testing suppressed platelet aggregation associated with a high-fat diet (Anonymous, 1999).

A saponin fraction (50mg) or the bulb (100mg) also decreased serum cholesterol and plasma fibrinogen levels. However, fresh onion extract (50g) did not produce any significant effects on serum cholesterol, fibrinogen, or fibrinolytic activity in normal subjects (Sharma and Sharma, 1976: Sharma and Sharma, 1979). Administration of a butanol extract to patients with alimentary lipaemia prevented an increase in the total serum cholesterol, β-lipoprotein cholesterol, and β-lipoprotein and serum triglycerides (Anonymous, 1999). The bulb, taken orally by human adults at a dose of 100.0 gm/person, was active. Statistical data indicate significant results. Butanol extract of the fresh bulb, taken orally by male human adults at a dose of 500.0 gm/person, was inactive. The study utilized 10 healthy subjects ranging in age from 18 to 30 years. The subjects were given a fatty breakfast containing 100 gm butterfat. The breakfast produced a significant increase in serum cholesterol and plasma fibrinogen, and a decrease in blood fibrinolytic A. After the administration of either raw or boiled onion, no significant change in serum cholesterol or plasma fibrinogen levels was seen. Statistical data indicate significant results (Ross, 2001).

The bulb, taken orally by human adults at a dose of 100.0 gm/person, was active. The essential oil, taken by male adults, was antihyperlipemic (Ross, 2001).

Antihyperglycaemic activity of Bulbus Allii Cepae has been demonstrated in clinical studies. Administration of an aqueous extract (100mg) decreased glucose-induced hyperglycaemia in human adults. The juice of the drug (50mg) administered orally to diabetic patients reduced blood glucose levels. Addition of raw onion to the diet of non-insulin-

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dependent diabetic subjects decreased the dose of antidiabetic medication required to control the disease. However, an aqueous extract of Bulbus Allii cepae (200mg) was not active (Anonymous, 1999). The water extract, taken orally by adults at a dose of 200.0 gm/person, was inactive as hypoglycemic agent (Ross, 2001).

The immediate and late cutaneous reactions induced by injection of rabbit anti-human IgE-antibodies into the volar side of the forearms of 12 healthy volunteers were reduced after pretreatment of the skin with a 50% ethanol onion extract. Immediate and late bronchial obstruction owing to allergen inhalation was markedly reduced after oral administration of a 5% ethanol onion extract 1 hour before exposure to the allergen (Anonymous, 1999).

In one clinical trial in 12 adult subjects, topical application of a 45% ethanolic onion extract inhibited the allergic reactions induced by anti-IgE (Anonymous, 1999). The bulb, taken orally by human adults at variable dosage levels, was active. The study involved 100 patients with bronchial asthma. Chloroform and ethanol (95%) extracts of the dried bulb were active in adults (Amla et al., 1981).

Juices of the bulb of red globe, white globe, and madras varieties were active lacrymation stimulant when applied ophthalmically to human adults (Ross, 2001).

The bulb, taken orally by adults, was appetite stimulant. It is claimed to be ba tonic medicine and capable of accelerating recovery from fatigue. When mixed with equal weight of starch, it is free of unpleasant odor and taste. The biological activity has been patented (Ross, 2001). Toxic effects Animal data A review of literature discussing large amounts of onion bulb ingestion leaves toxicity questions unresolved (Kendler, 1987). Butanol extract of the fresh bulb, in the ration of dogs at undiluted concentration, was active. A pug puppy was referred to a Veterinary college. The dog had a depraved appetite and preferred raw onion to other vegetables, which led to anemia in the dog (Ross, 2001). Low doses of onion (50 mg/kg) given to rats had little effect on the lung and liver tissues. High doses (500 mg/kg) resulted in histological changes in these organs. Intraperitoneal administration was more damaging than oral administration, resulting in 25% mortality in rats (Thomson et al., 1998). Eighty-five young cattle were allowed 1,000 kg/day of onion, negatively affecting approximately 26%, with 1 fatality. New illnesses continued to occur for 5 days after the withdrawal of onion, including lack of appetite, tachycardia, staggering, and collapse, all probably because of adverse red blood cell effects (Verhoeff et al., 1985). Clinical data Certain sulfur compounds (eg, propanethial-S-oxide) escape from onion in vapor form and hydrolyze to sulfuric acid when cut, causing the familiar eye irritation and lacrimation. Corneal swelling from onion exposure has been reported (Chan and Mandell, 1972). With large intake, the stomach may be affected, and frequent contact with onion rarely causes allergic reaction (URL-21). Onion seeds have been reported as occupational allergens (Navarro et al., 1995). Onion toxicity is only associated with high intake (URL-21). Most people can eat onion in food without any difficulties. Higher intakes of onion may worsen existing heartburn, though it does not seem to cause heartburn in people who do not already have it (Allen et al., 1990). There are also isolated reports of allergy to onion manifesting as skin rash and red, itchy eyes. Onion is safe for use in children and, in small amounts in food, during pregnancy (though some pregnant women may have heartburn that onions could exacerbate) and nursing (URL-22). Dosages above those found in foods should be avoided

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because safety and efficacy are unproven (URL-21). A large hepatitis A outbreak was identified due to consumption of green onion in a restaurant. But a case-control study concluded it was due to green onions that were apparently contaminated before arrival at the restaurant (Wheeler et al., 2005). 12. Formulation They are used therapeutically in the Ayurvedic (Kapoor, 1990), Siddha and Unani systems of Indian medicine, in various dosage forms including the decoction, infusion, and fresh juice, as well as raw, cooked, and/or roasted bulb. The juice form is usually combined with honey, ginger rhizome juice, and ghee (liquid clarified butter) (Nadkarni, 1976). Dosage and administration Unless otherwise prescribed, a daily dose is 50 g of fresh bulb or 20 g per day of dried bulb (Anonymous, 1999). Dried bulb: 20 g Fresh bulb: 50 g Infusion: Steep 1–2 teaspoons in 120 ml water Succus: 5 ml (1 teaspoon) pressed juice of fresh bulb, three to four times daily Tincture: 5 ml (1 teaspoon), three to four times daily Duration of administration: Note: If onion preparations are used over several months, the daily maximum amount for diphenylamine is 0.035 g (URL-23). Some formulation from Hamdard Pharmacopoea of Eastern Medicine 1. ARQ ANANAS (contains Allium cepa bulb) Recipe: Tribulus terrestris, semi-ground (majith nim kofta)-300 grams Allium cepa bulbs (piyaz safaid) - 300 grams Pineapple preserve (ananas kalan) - 20 Nos Water (pani) - 12 litres Preparation: The first two ingredients are soaked in 12 litres of overnight. The next morning the Allium cepa bulbs and the pineapples are sliced and depeeled, after which they are added to the infusion. About 7.5 litres of the aqua are obtained by distillation and stocked in bottles. Dosage and administration: 15ml with shalbat bazuri motadil (25 ml). q.v. Uses and indications:

i. Lithontriptic for the kidney and gall bladder. ii. Diuretic. iii. Antiphlogistic and refrigerant for the kidney and gall bladder.

2. JAWARISH ZAR’UNI AMBARI BA NUSKHA KALAN 3. ARQ HAZIM 4. LUBUB-AL-ASRAR 5. LUBUB KABIR 6. MA’JUN PIYAZ 7. MA’JUN RAIG MAHI

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8. MA’JUN MURRAWEH-UH-ARWAH 9. MA’JUN MUQAWWI WA MUMSIK (Said, 1997) 13. Commercial value

13.1. Production As of the late 1970s, the Food and Agirculture Oraganization (FAO) of the United Nations reports total worldwide annual production of dry onions at 16 million metric tons (18 million tons). In terms of the continents, Asia led with 46.2% of the total production, followed by Europe (28.7%); North and Central America (10%); Africa (7.8%); South America (6.5%); and Oceania (0.8%). In terms of countries, China led in production with 14% of the total, followed by India (9.6%); the United States (9.4%); Japan (6.2%); Spain (5.4%); Egypt and the U.S.S.R., each with 4.4%; Turkey (4.2%); Italy (3%); the Netherlands (2.5%); Poland (2.2%); Brazil, Indonesia and Iran, each with 2%; Yogoslavia (1.9%); Argentina (1.8%); Rumania (1.7%); and the United Kingdom (1.5%). Together, these countries account for 77.8% of total world production (Considine and Considine, 1997).

Of the vegetables crops listed by FAO, the onion falls second only to tomatoes in terms of tones per annum world production. Average yields of bulb onions range from around 30 tonne/ha in North West Europe to less than 8 tonne/ha as an average for developing countries. FAO statistics show that in 2000 global green onion and shallots production and productivity was from 227137 ha planted- with a total production of 4109099 Mt giving an average yield of 18091 kg/ha. The data for dry onions was 2705030 ha giving 47781146 Mt; an average global yield of 17664 kg/ha (URL-5).

13.2. Markets Ripe onions are either marketed soon after harvesting or kept in storage for disposal at a later stage. When the produce is to be disposed of at harvest, it is taken to the market in ordinary gunny bags, but it is advisable to use open mesh sacs with a coarse mesh through which the bulbs can be seen easily. These are attractive and give ventilation and facilitate inspection by the prospective buyer. It is desirable that proper grading is done before the produce. Onions are found to be marketed in many forms- the fresh markets include naturally dried onions and several types of green onions- salad leaves and roasting and salad bulbs. World War II stimulated the technology for commercial drying techniques. Reduction in bulk, by dehydration or flavour extraction results in decreased transportation and storage costs and lower seasonal fluctuations in cost, quality and availability. However, this may result in undesirable appearance changes and modification of the natural balanced aroma and flavour. Processed products available for market are: dehydrated or lyophylised products, onion oil, juice, solid flavourings, pickled onions and canned and bottled onions (URL-5).

13.3. Trade and economic impact The onion bulb produced in the hills have a very high potential to supply to the domestic markets of the Terai, and onion seeds have window of opportunity to supply to the south east Asian countries (Gautam et al., 1997).

Table 3: FAO Data on Onion 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Food quantity (1000 tonnes)

9.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.77 0.05 0.01 8.45 37.75 31.49

Producer price (US $/ tonne)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.18 9.39

Quantity produced (1000 tonnes)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Yield per hectar (tonnes/Ha)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Area harvested (1000 Ha)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Feed &Seed quantity (1000 tonnes)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Other net uses quantity (1000 tonnes)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 -0.10

0.00 0.00 0.00 -1.09

Export quantity

0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31

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(1000 tonnes) Import quantity (1000 tonnes)

9.32 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Import value (Million US $)

0.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.58 0.00 0.00 0.88 3.26 2.80

Avg. Import unit value (US $/ tonne)

83.69 - - - - - - - - 179.01 - 0.00 104.14 86.89 91.18

Net trade (X-M) (1000 tonnes)

-9.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -2.87 0.05 -0.01

-8.45 -37.75

-30.40

Source: FAO Statistics Division, 2006(URL-24)

14. Perspective

14.1. Status Only some species of the section Allium is found to be in the list of endangered species. Taxa of more local distribution are seriously endangered. Therefore, in the Soviet Union, three species of the section are listed in the new edition of the Red Book of the U.S.S.R. (a list of endangered species in U.S.S.R.), as either nearly extinct (e.g., Allium microbulbum), or threatened by the rapidly decreasing number of localities at which they occur (Allium vavilovii and Allium pskemense). Also the Red Books of the individual Republics of the U.S.S.R., include some species of the section (e.g., in Uzbekistan Allium oschaninii, A. pskemense, and Allium praemixturn) (URL-25).

14.2. Patent Some biological activities of onion have been patented like apetite stimulant,

histamine release inhibition and lipoxygenase inhibition (Ross, 2001).

Table 4: Some other United States Patents related to onion United States

Patent No. Patent Title

7007449 Onion harvester with leaf topper6759068 Onion and garlic biohydrolysates and their use as natural flavorings6468565 Onion extract rich in sulfurized cyclic amino acid and process for producing

the same6443234 Bulbous onion harvester and trimmer6406734 Method for imparting a fried onion aroma to foodstuffs6403642 Sulfur adsorbent for reducing onion or garlic breath odor6007809 Method and product for eliminating undesirable side effects of eating

vegetables such as onion or garlic5514366 Dental and oral preparation for smokers for solubilizing and removing

tobacco tars as well as onion and garlic essential oils5405640 Process of vacuum treating onions5391390 Treatment of bulb vegetables such as garlic, onions and the like to free them

from the so-called day-after effect5367111 Hybrid plants of onion and garlic or Chinese chive and method for breeding

and propagating the same5260090 Process for deodoring garlic or welsh onion and the like4889046 Device for peeling onions or other bulbous or tuberous plants4622906 Onion planter4602455 Method and apparatus for cultivating young seedlings of Welsh onion4579028 Onion dicer4545297 Onion peeling device4476778 Onion peeling4470345 Apparatus for peeling skins off the bulbs of onions4442764 Machine for peeling and cleaning foodstuffs, particularly vegetables such as

onions4430352 Preparation of fresh chopped onions which may be dispensed from tubes

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4394394 Process for producing dry discrete agglomerated garlic and onion and resulting products

4373589 Harvesting apparatus for onions4374153 Process for controlling the pinking of onions4351850 Process of producing a batter-coated onion product4257216 Onion capsule harvester and process4202261 Method and apparatus for trimming onions or like produce4068011 Method of peeling onions by scalding and cutting4034118 Method of sweetening or mellowing onions

(URL-26) The antiviral composition derived from onion is also patented under the title “Antiviral composition derived from allium CEPA and therapeutic use thereof” (United States Patent 6340483) (URL-27).

14.3. Diagnostic characters Fibrous root, parallel veined leaves, trimerous flower, six tepals in two whorls, superior, trilocular, six stamens in two whorls, antipetalous, epiphyllous, gynoecium- tricarpellary, trilocular and axile placentation (Ranjitkar, 1995).

14.4. Occurrence Among the edible Allium the onion (Allium cepa L.) stands in the first rank, in the warm- temperate hills of eastern Nepal, followed by garlic (Allium sativum) and shallot (Allium cepa Aggregatum group) (Gautam et al., 1997).

14.5. Taste and Potency Onion has a prominent place in human diet. It is popularly used in green and mature

vegetable salads, pickles, sauces, etc. It introduces a rich, healthy and tasteful variation in common diet (Anonymous, 2003). Onion has strong pungent taste (Anonymous, 1999; Anonymous, 2003). Onion oil has acrid taste and unpleasant odour (Anonymous, 2003).

Among the two main varieties of onions found in cultivation, viz. (1) the big sized onions with single bulbs and white or pink flesh, and (2) the small-sized onions with multiple bulbs having a white or red skin, the latter type are smaller but the flavour of the bulbs is stronger. So they are more popular than the single bulb type (Anonymous, 2003).

14.6. Substitutes and Adulterants Addition of aliphatic sulphide mixtures has been found to the onion oil (Burfield, 2003).

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15. Miscellaneous

15.1. Herbarium collection

Herbarium number: 1272

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16. References Ahluwalia P and Mohindroo A (1989) Effect of oral ingestion of different fractions of Allium cepa on the blood and erythrocyte membrane lipids and certain membrane-bound enzymes in rats. Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology 35, 155-161. Alcaraz MJ and Jimenez MJ (1988) Flavonoids as antiinflammatory agents. Filoterapia 59, 25-38. Allen ML, Mellow MH, Robinson MG and Orr WC (1990) The effect of raw onions on acid reflux and reflux symptoms. The American journal of gastroenterology 85, 377-380. Amla V, Verma SL, Sharma TR, Gupta OP and Atal CK (1981) Clinical study on Allium cepa Linn. In patients of bronchial asthma. Indian journal of pharmacology 13, 63-64. Anonymous (1997) Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China, (English Edition), Chemical Industry Press, Beijing, Volume 1, pp 7. Anonymous (1999) WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, World Health Organization, Geneva, Volume 1, pp 5-12. Anonymous (2003) The wealth of India, A Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials & Industrial Products, Council of Science & Information Research, New Delhi, Volume I:A, pp 167-181. Anonymous (2006) Britannica, Ready References®, Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Britannica (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi and Impulsa Marketing, New Delhi, Volume 1, pp 64. Ariyama K, Nishida T, Noda T, Kadokura M and Yasui A (2006) Effects of fertilization, crop year, variety, and provenance factors on mineral concentrations in onion. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 54, 3341-3350. Arunachalam K (1980) Anntimicrobial activity of garlic, onion and honey. Geobios 7, 46-47. Biswas PK (2006) Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants, (1st Ed.), Dominant Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, pp 674-675. Brew W and Dorsch W (1994) Allium cepa L. (Onion): Chemistry, analysis, and pharmacology. In: Economic and medicinal plants research (Eds. Wagner H and Farnsworth NR), Academic Press, London, Volume 6, pp 115-147. Bruneton J (1999) Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, Medicinal Plants, (2nd Ed.), Intercept Ltd., Londres, pp 209. Burfield T (2003) The adulteration of Essential Oils- and the consequences to aromatherapy & Natural Perfumery Practice. The International Federation of Aromatherapists Annual AGM, London, UK, 11 Oct 2003. Burnie G, Forrester S, Greig D, Guest S, Harmony M, Hobley S, Jackson G, Lavarack P, Melanie L, Donald RM, Macoboy S, Molynenx B, Moodie D, Moore J, North T, Newan D,

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Pienaar K, Purdy G, Silk J, Ryan S and Schien G (1999) Botanica: The illustrated A-Z of over 10,000 garden plants, (3rd Ed.), Random House Australia Pty Ltd, New South Wales, pp 74. Chan RS and Mandell RB (1972) Corneal swelling caused by Allium cepa. American journal of optometry and archives of American Academy of Optometry 49, 713-715. Considine DM and Considine GD (Eds.) (1997) Food and Food Production Encyclopedia, (1st Indian Ed.), CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, pp 1374. Dorch W, Adam O, Weber J and Ziegeltrum T (1985) Antiasthmatic effects of onion extracts- detection of benzyl- and other isothiocyanates (mustard oils) as antiasthmatic compounds of plant origin. European journal of pharmacology 107, 17-24. Dorsch W and Wagner H (1994) New antiasthmatic drugs from traditional medicine? International archives of allergy and applied immunology 94, 262-265. Farooq S (Ed.) (2005) 555 Medicinal Plants: Field and Laboratory Manual, International Book Distributors, Dehradun, pp 31. Fatima RA and Ahmad M (2006) Allium cepa derived EROD as a potential biomarker for the presence of certain pesticides in water. Chemosphere 62, 527-537. Galeone C, Pelucchi C, Levi F, Negri E, Franceschi S, Talamini R, Giacosa A and La Vecchia C (2006) Onion and garlic use and human cancer. The American Journal of clinical nutrition 84, 1027-1032. Gautam SR, Neupane G, Baral BH, Rood PG and Pun L (1997) Prospects of onion cultivation in the warm-temperate hills of eastern Nepal and its research and development strategies for commercial production. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 433, 83-94. Ho WS, Ying SY, Chan PC and Chan HH (2006) Ues of onion extract, heparin, allantoin gel in prevention of scarring in Chinese patients having laser removal of tattoos: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Dermatologic Surgery: official publication for American Society for Dermatological Surgery 32, 891-896. Horiuchi J, Kanno T and Kobayashi M (1999) New vinegar production from onions. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 88, 107-109. Hughes BG and Lawson LD (1991) Antimicrobial effects of Allium sativum L. (garlic), Allium ameloprasum L. (elephant garlic) and Allium cepa L. (onion), garlic compounds and commercial garlic supplement products. Phytotherapy research: PTR 5, 154-158. Itakura Y, Ichikawa M, MoriY, Okino R, Upayama M and Morita T (2001) How to distinguish Garlic from the Other Allium vegetables. Journal of Nutrition 131, pp 963s-967s. Joshi SG (2000) Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp 11-12. Kapoor LD (1990) Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 25.

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Kendler BS (1987) Garlic (Allium sativum) and onion (Allium cepa): a review of their relationship to cardiovascular disease. Preventive medicine 16, 670-685. Kock HP, Jager W, Hysek J and Korpert B (1992) Garlic and onion extracts. In vitro inhibition of adenosine deaminase. Phytotherapy research: PTR 6, 50-52. Manandhar NP (2002) Plants & People of Nepal, Timber Press, Portland, pp 81. Mennella G, Sanaja V, D’Alessandro A and Desidrio A (2005) Biochemical characterization of white onion landraces (Allium cepa L.) through HPLC analysis of endosperm seed proteins. Euphytica 141, 169-180. Middleton E (1984) The flavonoids. Trends in pharmacological sciences (TIPS) 5, 335-338. Nadkarni KM (1976) Indian Materia Medica, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, pp 63–64. Navarro JA, del Pozo MD, Gastaminza G, Moneo I, Audicana MT and Fernandez de Corres L (1995) Allium cepa seeds: a new occupational allergen. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology 96, 690-693. Prakash AO and Mathur R (1976) Screening of Indian plants for antifertility activity. The journal of experimental biology 14, 623-626. Ranjitkar HD (1995) A Hand-book of Practical Botany, Arun Kumar Ranjitkar, Kathmandu, pp 165. Ross IA (2001) Medicinal Plants of the world: Chemical Constituents, Traditional and Modern Medicinal Uses, Humana Press, Totowa, Volume 2, pp 1-9. Said HM (Ed.) (1997) Hamdard Pharmacopoeia of Eastern Medicine, (2nd Ed.), Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, pp 82, 195, 205, 244, 263, 270, 283, 287. Sharma KK and Sharma SP (1976) Effect of onion on blood cholesterol, fibrinogen and fibrinolytic activity in normal subjects. Indian journal of pharmacology 8, 231-233. Sharma KK and Sharma SP (1979) Effect of onion on serum on normal subjects. Mediscope 22, 134-136. Singh KV and Desmukh SK (1984) Volatile constituents from membranes of Liliaceae and spore germination of Microsporum gypseum complexes. Fitoterapia 55, 297-299. Stajner D, Milic N, Candanovic-Brunet J, Kapor A, Stajner M, Popovic BM (2006) Exploring Allium species as a source of potential medicinal agents. Phytotherapy research:PTR 20, 581-584. Taylor WR (1925) The Chromosome Morphology of Velthemia, Allium, and Cyranthus. Americal Journal of Botany 12, 104-115.

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Thomson M, Alnaqeeb MA, Bordia T, Al-Hassan JM, Afzal M and Ali M (1998) Effects of aqueous extract of onion on the liver and lung of rats. Journal of ethnopharmacology 61, 91-99. URL-1 (http://www.halcyon.com/tmend/onion5.gif)

URL-2 (http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=364&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full)

URL-3 (http://ecoport.org/ep?status=IN&status=RE&entityId=364&mapCode=xw&searchType=entityDistributionMap)

URL-4 (http://herbalextractsplus.com/onion.cfm) URL-5 (http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=364&entityType=PLCR**&entityDisplayCategory=full) URL-6 (http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/axismundi/2002/An_Analysis_Of_Eating.pdf#search=%22hinduism%20and%20onion%22) URL-7 (http://en.wikipedia.org/org/wiki/Allium_cepa) URL-8 (http://www.wscandles.com/herbal_magic.php) URL-9 (http://www.hindu.com/op/2006/01/01/stories/2006010103611600.htm) URL-10 (http://www.myswizard.com/2005/12/18/hinduism) URL-11 (http://oregonstate.edu/dept/hort/233/onion.htm) URL-12 (http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ALCE) URL-13 (http://www.promotega.org/csu30004/images/onionparts) URL-14 (http://www.efloras.org/object_page.aspx?object_id=48087&flora_id=1001) URL-15 (http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/micropolitan/botany/frame4.html) URL-16 (http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~rayf/photos.htm) URL-17 (http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~rayf/photos.htm) URL-18 (http://www.niles-hs.k12.il.us/micbee/biology/leaf%5Fimages/onionepi_high.jpg) URL-19 (http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/seedid/single.asp?strId=173) URL-20 (http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Allium+cepa) URL-21 (http://www.drugs.com/npp/onion.html)

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URL-22 (http://www.vitacost.com/Healthnotes/Herb/Onion.aspx) URL-23 (http://www.herbalgram.org/iherb/expandedcommissione/he071.asp) URL-24 (http://faostat.fao.org/site/336/default.aspx) URL-25 (http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=364&entityType=PLME**&entityDisplayCategory=full) URL-26 (http://www.freepatentsonline.com/search.pl?p=1&srch=ezsrch&sf=1&pn=&in=&icn=&is=&ic=&isd=&isdto=&ttl=onion&abst=&aclm=&spec=&an=&acn=&as=&ac=&ccl=&icl=&apn=&apd=&apdto=&parn=&refe=&fref=&oref=&prir=&pex=&asex=&agt=&uspat=on&date_range=all&stemming=on&sort=chron) URL-27 (http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6340483.html) Usner G (1996) Dictionary of Botany, Wordsworths Editions Ltd., Hertfordshire. Verhoeff J, Hajer R and van den Ingh TS (1985) Onion poisoning of young cattle. The veterinary record 117, 497-498. Wheeler C, Vogt TM, Armstrong GL, Vaughan, G, Weltman A, Nainan OV, Dato V, Xia G, Waller K, Amon J, Lee TM, Highbaugh-Battle A, Hembree C, Evenson S, Ruta MA, Williams IT, Fiore AE and Bell BP (2005) An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with green onion. The New England journal of medicine 353, 890-897.

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Glossary of Botanical terms Adaxial. The surface, usally of a leaf, facing the stem. Next to the axis. Adventitious. Of organs or tissues developing from stems. Alternate. Of leaves or branches that are arranged singly on the parent axis. Androecium. A collective term for the stamens of a flower. Anther. The part of the flower of Angiosperm producing pollen (microspores), borne at the end of stamens, and usually consisting of four sporangia. Antipetalous. Opposite the petals. Apical meristem. The group of acitivity dividing cells found at or near the tip of a stem, root or sometimes, a leaf. It originates from a single cell in the Pteridophytes, and from a group of cells in Spermatophyta. It brings about an increase in length by forming the primary plant-body. Apical meristem. The group of actively dividing cells found at, or near the tip of a stem, root or sometimes, a leaf. It originates from a single cell in the Pteridophytes, and from a group of cells in Spermatophyta. It brings about an increase in length by forming the primary plant-body. Axile pacentation. Said of an ovary the ovules attached to the tissues the control axis. Basifixed. Said of an anther which is attached by its base to the filament. Blade. The flattened part of the thallus of the larger sea-weeds. Bract. A small atypical leaf subtending a flower-bud in its axil. Bracteate. Having bracts. Bulb. An organ of storage and vegetative reproduction. It consists of a flattened stem bearing fleshy leaves, or leaf-bases with buds in their axis, and scale leaves. Capsule. A drug indehiscent fruit consisting of more than carpel. Chromosome arm. One of the two parts of a chromosome to which the spindle fibre is attached along the side. Collateral bundle. A vascular bundle with a strand of xylem, with a strand of phloem external to it on the same radius. Columella. The central part of a root-cap which contains statoliths. Complete flower. A flower having calyx, corolla, stamens and carpels. Cortex. The tissue in a stem or root between the vascular bundles and the epidermis. Typically it is parenchyma. Cross. The act of fertilization between two individuals of different breeds or races. Cyme. An inflorescense in which the terminal bud is a flower-bud, i.e. it is a sympodium, and any subsequent flowers are formed in a similar way at the ends of lateral braches. Epidermis. The outer single layer of cells on an organ. The outer wall may be thickened may be thickened by the production of a cuticle, and the cells may be extended into hairs. Epiphyllous. Growing on a leaf. Exserted. Protruding. Fibrous root system. A mass of fine adventitious roots, of more-or-less equal thickness, and bearing finer lateral roots. They are borne on stems or the hypocotyls, e.g. grasses. Filament. The stalk of a stamen. Fleshy. Thick and soft, but not necessarily juicy. Flower. The reproductive stem of the angiosperms. Typically it is made up of a calyx of sepals, a corolla of petals, (these two being the perianth), an andrecium of stamens, and a gynecium of carpels. Any of these parts may be missing in a particular flower. The floral axis is the receptacle. Foliage leaf. An ordinary green leaf.

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Herb. A plant having no persistent parts above the ground. Herbaceous. Soft and green, containing little woody tissue. Hypodermis. A layer of one, or more cells thick, of thickened cells lying immediately below the epidermis. Hypogynous. Said of a flower in which the other parts arise below the gynecium. Inferior. Said of an ovary where the receptacle encloses it, so that the other floral parts arise above the ovary. The flower is then epigynous. Inflorescence. A flowering shoot, bearing more than one flower. Internode. The stem between two successive nodes. Isodiametrical. Of the same length, vertically and horizontally. Lacuna. A large multicellular cavity. Mesophyll. The parenchyma of a leaf, differentiated into the cyhe longy palisade cells with large number of chloroplasts and arranged with lindrica axis at right-angles to the epidermis; and the spongy mesophyll of looselt packed cells with fewer chloroplasts, and large air-space. Monochasium. A cyme in which each flowering branch bears one other flowering bud in its turn. Oblong. Elliptical, blunt at each end, having nearly parallel sides and two to four times as long as broad. Obstuse. Rounded or blunt; or being greater than a right-angle. Ovary. The hollow basal region of a carpel, containing one or more ovules. In a flower with 2 or more united carpels, they form a single compound ovary. Ovate. Flat and thin, shaped like the longitudinal section of an egg, widest below the middle. Ovule. The nucellus containing the embryo sac and enclosed by 1 or 2 integuments, which after fertilization, and subsequent development, becomes a seed. Palisade cells. A single cell of a palisade layer. Palisade layer. A layer of elongated cells set at right-angles to the surface of a leaf or thallus, and underlying the upper epidermis, or layers of cells. Its cell contain numerous chloroplasts and is concerned with photosynthesis. Parenchyma. A tissue of differentiated cells, which are more or less spherical, frequently unspecified, and with cellulose cell-walls. Air-spaces are often present, and the tissue is often for storage. Pedicellate. Said of a flower or a fruit having a stalk. Pedicels. 1. The stalk of an individual flower of an inflorescence. 2. A small stalk. Perennial. A plant living for three or more seasons and normally flowering and fruiting at least in the second and subsequent seasons. Perfect. Said of a flower which has both functional anthers and ovules. Perianth. The flower envelope, it includes the calyx and corolla, or any one of them. Periclinal. Said of cell-walls running parallel to the surface of the plant. Pericyle. A cylinder of vascular tissue, 3-6 cells thick, lying immediately inside the parenchyma, and sometimes fibres. Persistant perianth. A perianth which remains unwithered, and often enlarged around the fruit. Petaloid. Looking like a petal. Petals. One of the parts forming the corolla of a flower, usually brightly coloured and conspicuous. Pistil. Each separate carpel of an apocarpous or syncarpous 2. The gynecium as a whole, whether it is apocarpous or syncarpous. Placenta. 1. The part of an ovary to which the seeds are attached. Polyandrous. Having a large and indefinite number of stamens.

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Primordium. The earliest recognizable rudiment of an organ or structure in development. Protodermal. The external layer of a stem or root apex, one cell thick, and giving rise to the epidermis. Rhexigenous. Said of a space formed by the disintegration of cells, especially of secretory cells leaving a cavity containing the secretion. Rosette. A group of leaves arising from a short stem, and so lying close together on or near the ground. Scale. A thin flat plant member, which may be green when very young, and is usually non-green at ground-level. Scape. A flower-stalk which is leafless or nearly so, arising from the middle of a rosette of leaves. It bears a flower, several flowers or a crowded inflorescence. Schizogenous. Formed by cracking or splitting. Seedlings. The young plant developed from a germinating seed. Sessile. Lack of stalk. Sheath. A leaf base, it forms a tubular casing around the stem. Shoot. The part of a plant which develops from the plumule Spathe. A large bract often coloured or membraneous, enclosing a spadix. Stamen.The microsporophyll of a flower; made up of the anther and filament. Stamens. The microsporophyll of a flower; made up of the anther and filament. Stele. The vascular cylinder. The cylinder or core of vascular tissue in the centre of stems and roots. It consists of xylem, phloem, and pericyle, in some cases pith and medullary rays. It is surrounded by an endodermis. The detailed structure differs in different groups of plants. Stellate. Star like. Stigma. The receptive part of the stigma. Stripe. Streak Striped. Having longitudinal stripes of colour. Style. The narrow part of the gynecium bearing the stigma. Superior. Hypogynous. Syncarpous. Composed of united carpels. Tepal. A perianth segment, not differentiated into a calyx and corolla. Tricarpellary. Consisting of 3 carpels. Trimerous. Arranged in threes or multiples of 3. Tunicated. Having coat or covering. Umbel. A raceme in which the axis has not elongated, so that the flowers stalks arise at the same point. Thus the flowers are in a head, with the oldest at the outside. Vascular bundle. The longitudinal strand of conducting tissue, consisting essentially of xylem and phloem. Vessel. A non-living element of the xylem consisting of a tube-like series of cells arranged end-to-end, running parallel to the long axis of the organ in which it lies, and in communication with adjacent elements by means of numerous pits in the side walls. It functions in the conduction of water and mineral salts, and acts in mechanical support.

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Glossary of Medical Terms Abortifacient. 1. Producing abortion. 2. An agent that produces abortion. Abortion. Expulsion from the uterus of and embryo or fetus prior to the stage of viability (20 weeks’ gestation or fetal weight <500g). A distinction made between abortion and premature birth: premature infants are those born after the stage of viability but prior to 37 weeks. Abortion may be either spontaneous (occurring from natural causes) or induced (artificial or therapeutic). 2. The arrest of any action or process before its normal completion. Acne. An inflammatory follicular, popular, and pustular eruption involving the pilosebaceous apparatus. Adjuvant therapy. Additional therapy given to enhance or extend primary therapy’s effect, as in chemotherapy’s addition to a surgical regimen. Amenorrhea. Absence or abnormal cessation of the menses. Aphrodisiac. 1. Increasing sexual desire. 2. Anything that aroses or increases sexual desire. Asthma. An inflammatory disease of the lungs characterized by reversible (in most cases) airway obstruction. Originally, a term used to mean “difficult breathing”; now used to denote bronchial asthma. Boil. SYN furuncle Bronchitis. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. Bronchitis. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. Bruise. An injury producing a hematoma or diffuse extravasation of blood without rupture of skin. Calculi. Plural of calculus. Calculus. A concentration formed in any part of the body, most commonly in the passages of the biliary and urinary tracts; usually composed of salts of inorganic or organic acids, or other material such as cholesterol. Cicatrization. The process of scar formation. Cicatrizing agent. An agent causing or favouring cicatrisation. Coitus. Sexual union between male and female. Colic. 1. Relating to the colon. 2. Spasmodic pains in the abdomen. 3. In young infants, paroxysms of gastrointestinal pain, with crying and irritability, due to a variety of causes, such as swallowing of air, emotional upset, or overfeeding. Contraception. An agent for the prevention of conception. Diabetes. Either d. insipidus or d. mellitus, diseases having in common the symptom polyuria; when used without qualification. Diuretic. 1. Promoting the excretion of urine. 2. An agent that increases the amount of urine excreated. Dropsy. Old term for generalized edema, most often associated with cardiac failure. Dysentery. A disease marked by frequent watery stools. Often with blood and mucus, and characterized clinically by pain, tenesmus, fever, and dehydration. Epilepsy. A chronic disorder characterized by paroxyamal brain dysfunction due to excessive neuronal discharge, and usually associated with some alteration of consciousness. The clinical manifestations of the attack may vary from complex abnormalities of behavior including generalized or focal convulsions to momentary spells of impaired consciousness. Eruption. 1. A breaking out, especially the appearance of lesions on the skin. 2. A rapidly developing dermatosis of the skin or mucous membranes, especially when appearing as a local manifestation of one of the exanthemata; an eruption is characterized, according to the nature of lesion, as macular, popular, vesicular, nodular, etc. 3. The passage of a tooth through the alveolar process and perforation of the gums.

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Erysipelas. A specific, acute, superficial cutaneous caused by β-hemolytic streptococci and characterized by hot, red, edematous, brawny, and sharply defined eruptions; usually accompanied by severe constitutional symptoms. Expectorant. 1. Promoting secretion from the mucous membrane of the air passages or facilitating its expulsion. 2. An agent that increases bronchial secretion and facilitates its expulsion. Furuncles. A localized pyrogenic infection, most frequently by Staphylococcus aureus, originating deep in a hair follicle. SYN boil, furunculus. Jaundice. A yellowish staining of the integument, sclerae, deeper tissues, and excretions with bile pigments, resulting from increased levels in the plasma. Keloid. A nodular, firm, movable, non encapsulated, often linear mass of hyperplastic, scar tissue, tender and frequently painful, consisting of wide irregularly distributed bands of collagen; occurs in the dermis and adjacent subcutaneous tissue, usually after trauma, surgery, a burn, or severe cutaneous disease such as cystic acne, and is more common in blacks. Liniment. A liquid preparation for external application or application to the gums; they may be clear dispersion, suspensions, or emulsions, and are frequently applied by friction to the skin; used as counterritants, rubefacients, anodynes, or cleansing agents. Menses. Menstrual period. Miscarriage. Spontaneous expulsion of the products of pregnancy before the middle of the second trimester. SYN spontaneous abortion. Pimple. A papule or small pustule; usually meant to denote an inflammatory lesion of acne. Scar. Fibrous tissue replacing tissues destroyed by injury or disease. Scurvy. A disease marked by inanition, debility, anemia, and edema of the dependent parts; a spongy condition sometimes the ulceration of the gums and loss of teeth, hemorrhages and poor wound healing; due to a diet lacking vitamin C. Teratogenesis. The origin of mode of production of a malformed conceptus; the disturbed growth processes involved in the production of a malformed neonate. Teratogenic. 1. Relating to teratogenesis. 2. Causing abnormal prenatal development. Tonic. In a state of continuous unremitting action; denoting especially a prolonged muscular contraction. Ulcer. A lesion through the skin or a mucous membrane resulting from loss of tissue, usually with inflammation. Whitlow. Purulent infection through a perionychial fold causing an abscess of the bulbous distal end of a finger.

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List of Abreevations 5-HT- 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) A.S. - Specificity Attestation AEHPLC- anionic exchange-high performance liquid chromatography Cal- Calorie cm-Centimeter D.O.P.-Denomination of Protected Origin DDT-Dichloridiphenyltrichloroethane DMBA-Dimethyl bezoic acid EROD-7-ethoxy resorufin O-deethylase g-Gram h- Hour Ha-Hectare HPTLC- High performance thin layer chromatography I.G.P. - Indication of Protected Origin IBA-Indole Butyric acid INF-Interferon Kcal- Kilocalorie kg-Kilogram L.S.-Longitudinal section mg- Milligram MIC-Minimum inhibitory concentration Min-Minute Mt-Metric NAA-Napthlane-1-Acetic acid nm- Nanometer PAS- Periodic acid schiffs Ppm- Parts per million PTM- Primary thickening meristem Qt-Quinton Rf-Retention factor T.S.-Transverse section TLC: Thin layer chromatography TNF- Tumor necrosing factor TS- Thiosulphinates VGA: Vanillin-glacial acid ОC- Degree centigrade

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