A N A T O M Y

- dissect, cut apart, and separate parts of the body for study.

- study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts and their relationship to one another.

Covers a wide range of studies:

- Structures of body parts

- Microscopic organization

- Process by which they develop

- Examines the relationship between the structure of a

body part and its function

CHAPTER 1

Anatomy and physiologY

Subdivisions

Gross Anatomy

-Large, easily observable structures (heart, bones, muscles etc.)

Microscopic Anatomy

-Use of microscope or magnifying instrument to see very small objects (cells and tissues)

TWO BASIC APPROACHES in studying

Systemic Anatomy

Regional Anatomy

Two basic approaches in studying anatomy

SYSTEMIC ANATOMY

- study of the body by system.

Nervous Digestive

Muscular Integumentary

Skeletal Respiratory

Regional Anatomy

- Study of the body by areas.

Head Thorax Upper Extremities

Abdomen pelvis lower Extremities

2 Procedures to examine the internal structures of a living person:

1. SURFACE ANATOMY

- Study of external features, which serves as landmarks for locating deeper structures.

2. ANATOMICAL IMAGING

- involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Ultrasound machine and other technologies to create pictures of the internal structures

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

X-RAY MACHINE

Computerized Axial Tomography (CT Scan)

P H Y S I O L O G Y

- the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things.

Divided according to:

1. The organisms involved;

Human physiology – the study of specific organisms, the human.

2. The levels of organization within a given organism.

Cellular & systemic physiology – emphasize specific organizational levels.

Major goals of Physiology are:

(1) To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli;

(2) To understand how the body maintains conditions within the narrow range of values in the presence of a continually changing environment.

ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY:

A. CHEMICAL

A. ATOM

- Tiny building blocks of matter.

- Combine to form molecules like water, sugar, proteins;

B. CELLS

- Smallest unit of living things.

C. TISSUES

- Groups of similar cells that have a common function.

D. ORGANS

- a structure consisting 2 or more types of tissues performing a specific type of function.

E. SYSTEM

- group of organs that cooperate accomplish a common purpose.

F. ORGANISM

- Is any living thing considered as a whole

- made up by a group of organ systems.

ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

INTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEM

- Provides protection

- Regulates temperature

- Prevents water loss

- Produces Vitamin D precursors

- Consists of skin, hair, nails & sweat glands

The Skeletal System

- Provides protection & support

- Allows body movements

- Produces blood cells

- Stores mineral & fat

- Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments & joints

The Muscular System

- Provides body movements

- Maintains posture

- Produces body heat

- Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by the tendons

The Lymphatic System

- Removes foreign substances from the blood & lymph

- Combats diseases, maintains body fluid balance, & absorbs fat from the digestive tract.

- Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, & other lymphatic organs.

The Respiratory System

- Exchanges oxygen & carbon dioxide between the blood & air & regulates blood pH

- Consists of the lungs & respiratory passages.

The Digestive System

- Performs the mechanical & chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, & elimination of wastes.

- Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, & accessory organs.

The Nervous System

- A major regulatory system that detects sensations & controls movements, physiological processes, & intellectual functions.

- Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves & sensory receptors.

The Endocrine System

- A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, production, & many other functions.

- Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secretes hormones.

The Cardiovascular System

- Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, & hormones throughout the body.

- Plays a role in the immune response & the regulation of body temperature.

- Consists of the heart, blood vessels & blood.

The Urinary System

- Removes waste products from the blood & regulates blood pH, ion balance, & water balance.

- Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, & ducts that carry urine.

The Female Reproductive System

- Produces oocytes & is the site of fertilization & fetal development; produces milk for the newborn.

- Produces hormones that influence sexual function & behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, & associated structures.

The Male Reproductive System

- Produces & transfers sperm cells to the female & produces hormones that influence sexual functions & behaviors.

- Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts & the penis.

Characteristics of Life

♦ Organization

♦ Metabolism

♦ Responsiveness

♦ Growth

♦ Development

♦ Reproduction

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries

- every cell of the body is surrounded by external membrane that contains its contents & allows needed substances in while restricting unnecessary substances or potentially damaging substances.

• Movement

- includes all activities promoted by the muscular system.

• Responsiveness

- ability of the organism to sense changes in the environment & make adjustments that help maintain its life.

• Digestion

- breaking down of food ingested into simple molecules capable of being absorbed by the body.

• Excretion

- process of removing excreta or wastes from the body.

• Reproduction

• - formation of new cells & organisms.

• Metabolism

- Ability to use energy to perform vital functions such as growth, movement & reproduction.

• Growth

- an increase in size of all or part of the organism. It can result to an increase in cell number, size or the amount of substances surrounding the cells.

Homeostasis

homeo – the same

stasis – standing

-Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is constantly changing

Variables

Set point – ideal normal value

Normal Range

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

2 Kinds of Mechanisms:

1. Negative Feedback Mechanism

- functions to maintain homeostasis - any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. It does not prevent variation but rather it keeps variation within normal range.

e.g. maintenance in BP

Maintenance in Body Temp.

3 Components of the Negative-feedback Mechanism

(1) Receptor – monitors the value of a variable

(2) Control System - establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained.

(3) Effector – can change the value of the variable.

2.) POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

- Not homeostatic & are rarely in healthy individuals.

- Positive implies that when a deviation from a normal value occurs, the response of the system is to make the deviation even greater. Positive feedback therefore usually creates a cycle leading away from homeostasis & in some cases results in death.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

• What is Homeostatic Imbalance?

Disturbance to homeostasis that results to disease

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

ANATOMICAL TERMS

A. Anatomic position (standard body position)

- refers to person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, & the palms of the hands facing forward.

Body positions:

ق Supine – lying with face upward.

ق Prone – lying with face downward.

B. Planes of Division

1. Directional Terms

ق Superior - means above

ق Inferior - means below

ق Anterior/Ventral - means front

ق Posterior/dorsal - means back

ق Proximal - means nearest

ق Distal - means farthest

ᴥ Medial - means towards the midline

ᴥ Lateral - means away from the midline or side

ᴥ Superficial – close to the surface of the body

ᴥ Deep - toward the interior of the body

Body Parts and Regions

Upper limb

آل Arm

آل Forearm

آل Wrist

آل Hand

Lower limb

آل Thigh

آل Leg

آل Ankle

آل Foot

Central Region

آل Head

آل Neck

آل Trunk

Thorax

Abdomen

Pelvis

Regional Terms

• Visible body landmarks on the surface of the body.

– Divisions

• Anterior body landmarks

• Posterior body landmarks

Anterior body landmarks

2.c.1. Central Region

Cephalic (Head)

ð Frontal (forehead)

ð Orbital (eye)

ð Nasal (nose)

ð Oral (mouth)

ð Otic (ear)

ð Buccal (cheek)

ð Mental (chin)

– Cervical (neck)

– Trunk

ð Thoracic (thorax)

- Pectoral (chest)

- Sternal (breastbone)

- Mammary (breast)

ð Abdominal (abdomen)

ð Umbilical (navel)

ð Pelvic (pelvis)

ð Inguinal (groin)

ð Pubic (genital)

– Upper Limb

– clavicular (collar bone)

– axillary (arm pit)

– brachial (arm)

– antecubital (front of elbow)

– carpal (wrist)

– palmar (palm) Manual

– digital (fingers) (hand) .

– Lower Limb

– Coxal (hip)

– Femoral (thigh)

– Patellar (knee cap)

– Crural (leg)

– Talus (ankle)

– Dorsum (top of foot)

– Digital (toes)

– Pedal (foot)

POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS

• Cranial (skull)

إل Occipital (Base of skull)

إل Nuchal (Back of neck)

• Trunk

إل Scapular (shoulder blade) Dorsal

إل Vertebral (spinal column) (back)

إل Lumbar (loin)

إل Sacral (between hips)

إل Gluteal (buttocks)

إل Perineal (perineum)

• Upper limb

∞ Acromial (point of the

shoulder)

∞ Olecranon (point of elbow)

∞ Dorsum (back of hand)

• Lower limb

∞ Popliteal (hollow behind the knee)

∞ Sural (calf)

∞ Plantar (sole)

∞ Calcaneal (heel)

C. Subdivisions of the Abdomen

ABDOMINAL REGION

ٴۇ Umbilical region

ٴۇ Epigastric region

ٴۇ Hypogastric region (pubic area)

ٴۇ Right & left iliac regions (inguinal regions)

ٴۇ Right & left lumbar regions (loin regions)

ٴۇ Right & left hypochondriac regions

9 Regions of the Abdomen

Umbilical region – area around the umbilicus

- includes sections of the small & large intestines, inferior vena cava, & abdominal aorta.

Epigastric region – superior to the umbilical region.

- contains most of the pancreas & portions of the stomach, liver, inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta, & Duodenum.

Hypogastric region ( Pubic area)

- lies inferior to the umbilical region.

- prominent structures include a portion of a sigmoid colon, urinary bladder & ureters, & portions of the small intestines.

Right & Left Iliac regions (Inguinal regions)

- situated on either side of the hypogastric region.

- They include portions of the small & large intestines.

Right & Left Lumbar Regions (loin regions)

- located on either side of the umbilical region.

- they include portions of the small & large intestines & portions of the kidneys.

Right & Left

Hypochondriac Regions

- located on either side of the epigastric region

- they contain the diaphragm, portions of the kidneys, the right side of the liver, the spleen &part of the pancreas.

PLANES

PLANES – imaginary flat surfaces passing through it.

(1) Sagittal plane

(2) Midsagittal plane

(3) Transverse

(4) Frontal plane

(5) Longitudinal section

(6) Transverse (cross-section)

(7) Oblique section

Sagittal plane

– runs vertically through the body & separates it into right & left parts.

Midsagittal plane – divides the body into equal left & right parts.

Transverse plane – means horizontal & runs parallel to the surface of the ground & divides the body into superior & inferior parts.

Frontal plane – a.k.a. coronal plane

- runs vertically from right to left & divides the body into anterior & posterior parts.

Longitudinal section – a cut through the long axis of the organ.

Transverse (cross-section) – cut at a right angle to the long axis.

Oblique section – cut made across the long axis other than a right angle.

Sagittal, transverse & frontal section of the body

Longitudinal, Transverse & Oblique section of an intestine