A Management Information Syste1

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A management information system (MIS) is a system that provides information needed

to manage organizations effectively. [1] Management information systems involve three

primary resources: technology, information, and people. It's important to recognize thatwhile all three resources are key components when studying management information

systems ... the most important resource is people. Management information systems are

regarded to be a subset of the overallinternal controls procedures in a business, whichcover the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures used by

management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a product, service or a

business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regularinformation systems in that they are used to analyze otherinformation systems applied in

operational activities in the organization.[2]Academically, the term is commonly used to

refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of

human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems,Expert systems, andExecutiveinformation systems.[2here are many types of information management systems in the

market that provide a wide range of benefits for companies. Strategic information

management system, customer relation management systems and enterprise resource

planning systems are some of them. The following are some of the benefits that can beattained for different types of information management systems.[4]

Advantages of information management systems (1) The company is able to highlight

their strength and weaknesses due to the presence of revenue reports, employeeperformance records etc. The identification of these aspects can help the company to

improve their business processes and operations. (2) The availability of the customer data

and feedback can help the company to align their business processes according to the needsof the customers. The effective management of customer data can help the company to

perform direct marketing and promotion activities. (3) Information is considered to be an

important asset for any company in the modern competitive world. The consumer buying

trends and behaviors can be predicted by the analysis of sales and revenue reports fromeach operating region of the company.

] The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), orSoftware Development Life Cycle in

systems engineering,information systemsand software engineering, is the process ofcreating or altering systems, and the models andmethodologies that people use to develop

these systems. The concept generally refers tocomputerorinformation systems.

In software engineering the SDLC concept underpins many kinds ofsoftware development

methodologies. These methodologies form the framework for planning and controlling thecreation of an information system[1]: the software development process.

The System Development Life Cycle framework provides a sequence of activities for

system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which

each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one.

A Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) adheres to important phases that are essential

for developers, such asplanning, analysis,design, and implementation, and are explained

in the section below. A number of system development life cycle (SDLC) models have
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been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, and

synchronize and stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model: a

sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next. Thesestages can be characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following[6]:

Project planning, feasibility study: Establishes a high-level view of the intendedproject and determines its goals.

Systems analysis, requirements definition: Defines project goals into definedfunctions and operation of the intended application. Analyzes end-user information

needs.

Systems design: Describes desired features and operations in detail, including

screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, pseudocode and otherdocumentation.

Implementation: The real code is written here.

Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces together into a special testing

environment, then checks for errors, bugs and interoperability.

Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final stage of initial development,where the software is put into production and runs actual business.

Maintenance: What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes,

correction, additions, moves to a different computing platform and more. This, the

least glamorous and perhaps most important step of all, goes on seemingly forever.

In the following example (see picture) these stage of the Systems Development Life Cycle

are divided in ten steps from definition to creation and modification of IT work products:
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The tenth phase occurs when the system is disposed of and the task performed is either

eliminated or transferred to other systems. The tasks and work products for each phase are

described in subsequent chapters.[7]

Not every project will require that the phases be sequentially executed. However, the

phases are interdependent. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, phases

may be combined or may overlap.[7]

[edit] System analysis

The goal ofsystem analysis is to determine where the problem is in an attempt to fix thesystem. This step involvesbreaking downthe system in different pieces to analyze the

situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down what needs to be created and attempting

to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined.

Requirements analysis sometimes requires individuals/teams from client as well as serviceprovider sides to get detailed and accurate requirements; often there has to be a lot of

communication to and from to understand these requirements. Requirement gathering is the

most crucial aspect as many times communication gaps arise in this phase and this leads tovalidation errors and bugs in the software program.
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[edit] Design

In systems design the design functions and operations are described in detail, including

screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams and other documentation. The output of

this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems.

The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approvedrequirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be

produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and/or prototype efforts.

Design elements describe the desired software features in detail, and generally include

functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, businessprocess diagrams, pseudocode, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full data

dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the software in sufficient detail

that skilled programmers may develop the software with minimal additional input design.

[edit] Testing

The code is tested at various levels in software testing. Unit, system and user acceptance

testings are often performed. This is a grey area as many different opinions exist as to whatthe stages of testing are and how much if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not generally part

of the waterfall model, but usually some occur at this stage. In the testing phase, the whole

system is tested one by one

Following are the types of testing:

Defect testing

Path testing Data set testing

Unit testing

System testing

Integration testing

Black box testing

White box testing

Regression testing

Automation testing

User acceptance testing

Performance testing

[edit] Operations and maintenance

The deployment of the system includes changes and enhancements before the

decommissioning or sunset of the system.Maintaining the system is an important aspect ofSDLC. As key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes will be

implemented, which will require system updates.
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diagram describes three key areas that will be addressed in the WBS in a manner

established by the project manager.[8]

[edit] Work breakdown structured organization

Work Breakdown Structure.[8]

The upper section of the Work Breakdown Structure(WBS) should identify the major

phases and milestones of the project in a summary fashion. In addition, the upper section

should provide an overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part ofthe initial project description effort leading to project approval. The middle section of the

WBS is based on the seven Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phases as a guide for

WBS task development. The WBS elements should consist of milestones and tasks asopposed to activities and have a definitive period (usually two weeks or more). Each task

must have a measurable output (e.x. document, decision, or analysis). A WBS task may

rely on one or more activities (e.g. software engineering, systems engineering) and mayrequire close coordination with other tasks, either internal or external to the project. Any

part of the project needing support from contractors should have a Statement of work(SOW) written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC phases. The development of

a SOW does not occur during a specific phase of SDLC but is developed to include thework from the SDLC process that may be conducted by external resources such as

contractors and struct.[8]

[edit] Baselines in the SDLC

Baselines are an important part of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC). These

baselines are established after four of the five phases of the SDLC and are critical to theiterative nature of the model .[9] Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the SDLC.

Functional Baseline: established after the conceptual design phase.

Allocated Baseline: established after the preliminary design phase.

Product Baseline: established after the detail design and development phase.

Updated Product Baseline: established after the production construction phase.

[edit] Complementary to SDLC
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Complementary Software development methods to Systems Development Life Cycle

(SDLC) are:

Software Prototyping

Joint Applications Design (JAD)

Rapid Application Development (RAD) Extreme Programming (XP); extension of earlier work in Prototyping and RAD.

Open Source Development End-user development

Object Oriented Programming

Comparison of Methodology Approaches (Post, & Anderson 2006)[10]

SDLC RADOpen

SourceObjects JAD Prototyping

End

User

Control Formal MIS Weak Standards Joint User User

Time Frame Long Short Medium Any Medium Short Short

Users Many Few Few Varies Few One or Two OneMIS staff Many Few Hundreds Split Few One or Two None

Transaction/DSS Transaction Both Both Both DSS DSS DSS

Interface Minimal Minimal Weak Windows Crucial Crucial Crucial

Documentation

and trainingVital Limited Internal In Objects Limited Weak None

Integrity and

securityVital Vital Unknown In Objects Limited Weak Weak

Reusability Limited Some Maybe Vital Limited Weak None

[edit] Strengths and weaknesses

Few people in the modern computing world would use a strict waterfall model for their

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) as many modern methodologies havesuperseded this thinking. Some will argue that the SDLC no longer applies to models like

Agile computing, but it is still a term widely in use in Technology circles. The SDLC

practice has advantages in traditional models of software development, that lends itselfmore to a structured environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC methodology is

when there is need for iterative development or (i.e. web development or e-commerce)

where stakeholders need to review on a regular basis the software being designed. Instead

of viewing SDLC from a strength or weakness perspective, it is far more important to take

the best practices from the SDLC model and apply it to whatever may be most appropriatefor the software being designed.

A comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of SDLC:

Strength and Weaknesses of SDLC [10]

Strengths Weaknesses
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Control. Increased development time.

Monitor Large projects. Increased development cost.

Detailed steps. Systems must be defined up front.

Evaluate costs and completion targets. Rigidity.

Documentation. Hard to estimate costs, project overruns.

Well defined user input. User input is sometimes limited.

Ease of maintenance.

Development and design standards.

Tolerates changes in MIS staffing.

An alternative to the SDLC is Rapid Application Development, which combines

prototyping, Joint Application Development and implementation of CASE tools. Theadvantages of RAD are speed, reduced development cost, and active user involvement in

the development process.

Steps in System Development Life CycleX

Larry Simmons

Larry Simmons is a freelance writer and expert in the fusion of computer technology and

business. He has a B.S. in economics, an M.S. in information systems, an M.S. incommunications technology, as well as significant work towards an M.B.A. in finance.

He's published several hundred articles with Demand Studios.

By Larry Simmons, eHow Contributor

Steps in System Development Life Cycle

System Development Life Cycleo As hardware and software systems become larger and more complex, it's

become increasingly necessary to employ large teams of developers for asingle project. In order to manage the teams effectively and maintain a

grasp of the overall progress of a project, a method was developed in which

system development could be modeled in an easily grasped fashion. The
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system development life cycle (SDLC) models in a few crucial steps the

creation of these complex systems.

While there have been several SDLC models created over time, the oldestand best known is the waterfall model first described by American

computerscientist Winston W. Royce. Using the waterfall model, each stepof development leads directly into the next, with the output from the earlier

step being the input for the step which follows.

Requirementso During the requirements step, overall goals are set for the project. This step

defines much of the system's behaviors, sets the project plan and createsbudget estimates.

Systems Analysis and Design

o Goals are developed into more specific functions and operations of the

system. The look and feel of the system is created during this phase as well.Also determine what the end-user will be able to do with the completed

system, taking the opportunity to change thebusiness process if necessary

in order to create a functioning system. This step is all about high-leveldesign of the system and should be carefully worked through as mistakes

here can be costly to change later on.

Implementation

o During the third step of the SDLC, the system is actually created. Thedesigns worked out during earlier steps are translated into code, and

hardware is built. It's during this stage that the system goes from planning to

reality.

Testing and Deployment

o Everything built to this point comes together during the fourth step of the

SDLC. Components are tested individually, and the system as a whole at

this stage, putting it through real-life scenarios in order to see if the system

performs as expected and at the volume of activity necessary. Bugs whenfound should be worked out at this step. After successful testing is

completed, the system is deployed and put to actual use by those it wasintended for. If all went well throughout the development cycle, the final

system should resemble the system defined during the first step.

Maintenance
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o Once deployed, maintenance is needed to keep the system running as

desired. Any post design changes occur during this phase including

upgrades, changes or corrections

Variable Steps

o Since its creation, the systems development life cycle had undergone many

changes. The waterfall model is useful for the creation of a well-definedsystem project with identifiable stages. But many modern systems require

flexibility that strict adherence to the waterfall won't allow. For these

projects the SDLC waterfall model works as a guide, a point of origin from

which steps often occur simultaneously or may be split into smaller steps orskipped entirely as necessary.

Quality life cycle

A quality circle is a volunteergroup composed ofworkers (or even students), usuallyunder the leadership of their supervisor (but they can elect a team leader), who are trained

to identify, analyze and solve work-related problems and present their solutions to

management in order to improve the performance of the organization, and motivate andenrich the work of employees. When matured, true quality circles become self-managing,

having gained the confidence of management.

Quality circles are an alternative to the dehumanising concept of the division of labor,

where workers or individuals are treated like robots. They bring back the concept ofcraftsmanship, which when operated on an individual basis is uneconomic, but when used

in group form (as is the case with quality circles), it can be devastatingly powerful andenables the enrichment of the lives of the workers or students and creates harmony and

high performance in the workplace. Typical topics are improvingoccupational safety andhealth, improvingproduct design, and improvement in the workplace and manufacturing

processes.

The term quality circles derives from the concept ofPDCA(Plan, Do, Check, Act) circlesdeveloped by Dr. W. Edwards Deming.

Quality circles are not normally paid a share of the cost benefit of any improvements but

usually a proportion of the savings made is spent on improvements to the work

environment.[citation needed]

They are formal groups. They meet at least once a week on company time and are trainedby competent persons (usually designated as facilitators) who may be personnel and

industrial relations specialists trained in human factors and the basic skills of problem

identification, information gathering and analysis, basic statistics, and solution generation.[1] Quality circles are generally free to select any topic they wish (other than those related to
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salary and terms and conditions of work, as there are other channels through which these

issues are usually considered).[2][3]

Quality circles have the advantage of continuity; the circle remains intact from project toproject. (For a comparison to Quality Improvement Teams, see Juran'sQuality by Des

quality control

Quality control is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in

production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects:[citation needed]

1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed processes[1]

[2], performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications

3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence,organizational culture,motivation, team spirit, and quality relationships.

The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.

Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects, and reporting tomanagement who make the decision to allow or deny the release, whereas quality

assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production, and associated processes, to avoid,
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or at least minimize, issues that led to the defects in the first place. [citation needed] For contract

work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among

the top reasons for not renewing a contract.[3]

Quality assuranceQuality assurance, orQA for short, is the systematic monitoring and evaluation of the

various aspects of a project, service or facility to maximize the probability that minimumstandards of quality are being attained by the production process. QA cannot absolutely

guarantee the production ofquality products.

Two principles included in QA are: "Fit for purpose" - the product should be suitable for

the intended purpose; and "Right first time" - mistakes should be eliminated. QA includesregulation of the qualityof raw materials, assemblies, products and components, services

related to production, and management, production and inspection processes.

Quality is determined by the product users, clients or customers, not by society in general.

It is not the same as 'expensive' or 'high quality'. Low priced products can be considered ashaving high quality if the product users determine them as such.

Steps

There are many forms of QA processes, of varying scope and depth. The application of aparticular process is often customized to the production process.

A typical process may include:

test of previous articles

plan to improve

design to include improvements and requirements

manufacture with improvements

review new item and improvements

test of the new item
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A Management Information Syste1

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