A Low Cost Production Model for Small Format Video Production

by Dennis Adams

O ver the last few years there has been a merging of small-format video and computer-controlled telecommunica- tion possibilities. Increasingly, combi- nations of electronic technologies are

looked to for help in developing informed, cre- ative and productive workers. Whether it's pro- viding post-graduate information to an engineer in Alaska, or geometry to a junior high school class in west Texas, distance learning is one of the suc- cess stories for instructional television. And when overhead costs are kept down effective program- ming can be produced by small shops.

Broadcast television has lost a little of its clout to a multitude of technological rivals--such as ca- ble TV, independent stations, VCR tapes, comput- ers and direct satellite reception. However the networks can still set the national agenda and in- form citizens--leaving instructional television to the public sector and corporate inhouse produc- tion.

From its mass beginnings in the late 1940s to the mid 1960s television (with the exception of sports events) was produced in an expensive stu- dio. Overhead costs went up and stayed up. Wide format cameras used two inch tape (today's use ! inch) and weighed hundreds of pounds. Then, as now, less than 10% of network budgets went into the action production of television programming.

In 1967 Sony changed video production by in- troducing small-format (1/2 inch) portable equip- ment. By 1970 1/2 inch editing equipment was also in use--but the quality wasn't quite up to broad- cast standards. By the mid 70s portable 3/4 inch

Dr. Dennis Adams is associate professor at the Department of Educational Technology, San Francisco State University, California.

(broadcast quality) VCR cassettes and editing equipment became available. This made possible remote TV news, personal production and inex- pensive training tapes for a narrow audience. It also allowed independent producers to bypass large broadcasting structures.

Improvements in portable video recording-cam- era equipment has resulted in higher quality 1/2 inch cameras (under five pounds in weight) and light weight 8ram camcorders. The 1/2 inch video cassette system has improved to the extent that it is becoming a standard format for industrial train- ing and education. 8mm is coming up to inhouse (small scale) instructional quality and trying to es- tablish an industry standard (avoiding a Beta/VHS type of incompatibility).

As the technological dust is settling (It will probably never be completely settled.) we have a wide range of portable equipment that opens up new, less expensive production possibilities for life-long learning. Video production is being de- mystified. Specific techniques that were formally the province of studio professionals are being har- nessed for a host of instructional purposes. The resources of large private or governmental agen- cies are no longer a prerequisite for effective pro- gram production.

New Technology Needs New Production Models

Emerging technologies have changed the video production environment. Small light weight equip- ment can now transmit staff training information from a company's headquarters to a branch office thousands of miles away. New camcorders and briefcase size satellite uplinks allow the viewer to watch live events from halfway around the world. Broadcast networks and private companies can

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now gain access to satellites that supply visual in- formation about everything from forest fires to troop movements on earth. Instructional television production is following a similar decentralization pattern. This wider set of programmers requires new production models.

This doesn't mean that we have to invent whole new production systems. Rather it means the effective orchestration of those already available-- and the accommodation of new technologies as they emerge from the laboratory. Of course, high- definition digital TVs, massive financing, interac- tive video lessons and instant access to the latest professional information makes a difference. It doesn't, however, take huge overheads or cutting edge equipment to generate a fresh experimental spirit.

The creative process can be harmed when most of the budget is put into plant, machinery, and endless meetings. Small-format independent pro- ductions can avoid many overhead costs and at the same time become more familiar with their tar- get audience. The key is helping a wide range of video producers to trust their own thinking--and validate their personal ideas and visions. Diverse programming concepts and good instructional de- sign serve as a foundation for tapping technologi- cal opportunities. Whether it's working on instruc- tional design, production efficiency, or equipment operation, there are things we can do to help streamline the logistics of video production.

You can have a technological tour-de-force that's welded to a conceptual desert. Instructional systems need context. This requires a close col- laboration between subject matter experts, in- structional designers and production teams. When a broad cross section of expertise is involved vid- eo imagery can become a universal language that breathes life into abstract equations and redefines learning possibilities.

A Model for Production

Interaction between instructional design and production is a growing concern. Implementing a marriage of complex media and instructional con- cerns is not easy. Many instructional TV products suffer from poor collaboration between production and instructional development. Much is lost in the transition when both work independently---or when instructional designers feel their task is over when production begins. It is most effective when the entire team is most involved from beginning to end.

Our video design teams include a writer, mes- sage designer, instructional design team, produc- tion team, director and visual designer/editor. It is important to remember that these are roles, not people. As few as two people can cover them all on a small production. And no one's job is com- plete until the audience is reached.

Production Steps

1. Project Entry Phase This phase brings the project manager and the

client together to arrive at an understanding of the scope of the project--what they want to do and what they envision the final product will be. The manager is responsible for explaining the potential capabilities of the system to match the client ex- pectations. The client assesses the appropriateness for his/her needs. 2. Analysis Phase

This is an essential step in which the major in- structional design team analyzes the learner, the setting, the content, and motivation. The basic rule here is to know your audience very well. The team develops instructional goals based on the cli- ent's objectives and the instructional setting. This includes a job task analysis and means getting your hands dirty with subject matter specialists. The outcome is a written report which can be communicated effectively to the production team and the client with implications for production. 3. Treatment Development Phase

The analysis phase outcomes are next taken to a meeting with the instructional design and produc- tion people in an attempt to come up with a treat- ment acceptable to both. This is a brainstorming creative phase intent on developing a common concept of what the product will be which meets concerns of both production and instructional de- sign teams. The outcome is a set of very general alternative treatments addressing how this is to be approached. Many images are floating around in this phase of mental processing. The task is to de- scribe what individuals are thinking and lock it into continuity. 4. Treatment Development

The function writer then drafts a written copy of the treatments discussed in the brainstorming ses- sion. At the same time the production team works on the budget to determine the cost of producing individual treatments. 5. Match Between Treatment and Resources

The writer and the production team then meet with the instructional design team to find the best match between treatment and resources. If a match is not found it is necessary to go back and start again until a match can be found. The out- come being a common image clarification of the project. 6. Script Development and Video Design

When all parties have arrived at a common vi- sion the script and content of the audio portion can be written. It is a good idea to get approval of the audio content before turning it over to the vid- eo design team. The visual designer and message designer then work together to come up with a storyboard. 7. Early Formative Evaluation

In this very early evaluation stage the first script, storyboard and audio are presented to the whole group including the client and content spe- cialists. Depending on the production, it is often beneficial to get peer, student or administrative evaluation of this initial stage. Often the plan is tested with students and experts in content design. It is important to have an inexpensive medium to test the audio, visual, and pacing of the project. 8. Recycle, or Proceed to Prototype Development

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It may be necessary to do extensive revision af- ter the early formative evaluation. If the produc- tion meets with approval it's finally time to begin the actual shooting and recording. 9. Evaluate

It's time to make a major formative evaluation of prototype product to try with audience. 10. Approved Audio and Video

Do real audio, capture images on medium. A set of common visual images--and shared

goals--make management more effective and effi- cient.

Orienting the Client to the Instructional Design Process

1. Initial Meeting In the initial contact between client and manag-

er it is important to determine the real need of the client and provide the client with an overview of the process. The client is often overwhelmed, be- wildered or anxious. To meet the expectations for both parties it is helpful to formalize situations on paper. Needs assessment is on-going--listening, notetaking, assessing. A task analysis does not need to be presented in a formal way with the cli- ent at first. It is often confusing and overwhelm- ing. 2. Clarification of Content

Once the problem is identified it's helpful to get a one to three page content outline from the client or content specialist. This gives the manager a better grasp of what the overall content is, helps the client clarify the idea, and provides back- ground information for goals and objectives of the project. Meeting formally at least once a week, even for a few minutes, keeps the project on track and keeps both sides up on their homework. 3. Goals and Objectives

Goals and objectives provide a rationale and purpose. These provide a reference throughout the project, and are helpful to refer back to when writing storyboard and script. Goals and objec- tives should be specific and written in behavioral terms. Encourage the client to come up with their own list of goals and objectives before interacting together. Emphasize trying to think visually. 4. Media Selection

The environment, utilization, content, audience and equipment resources are all determinants in the selection of media. It makes little sense to pro- duce a good videotape if there is no good play- back unit, for example. 5. Select Planning Team

Once medium is selected, put together produc- tion and instructional design teams to work on the production process--including the storyboard and script.

Preproduction: Documentation, Accountability and Tracing the Process

Before any shooting, it is important to plan, vi-

sualize and develop a written framework based on a thorough knowledge of the intended audience. An organized approach to even very simple video productions includes a clearly stated problem, or objective. Problem posing and formulation has been shown to be a crucial link to problem solving and solution. It requires an analysis of the situa- tion or message to be presented, including re- sources and goals.

Use of a log, flowchart or a computer program like Storyboard or Filevision provides a visual ref- erence as well as a written commitment to time and resource allocations. This visual thinking and written planning at the outset facilitates intelligent decisions, scheduling facilities, handing out assign- ments if applicable and time management.

Writing an outline or overall framework for the project helps determine how much time will be spent on each part of the production including the actual filming. Scenes that are well thought through are much easier to film. It is helpful to use a storyboard as a visual sketch of what will take place. Pages can be revised and decisions made about how to move what was in the script into video and sound.

Techniques for Inhouse Video Productions

Holding the camera steady is one of the most difficult things for beginners. It is important to use a tripod, and learn how to brace the camera to get a steady shot. Learning how to figure zones of coverage and how both cameras and people will move is also important. Although video allows you to go back and forth, you usually move up or down with cameras--and usually you move right or left, but not both in the same shot.

Natural or artificial lighting is a key to control- ling the mood. As students learn how to control how light falls on a subject they shorten the dis- tance between ideas and the video screen. Have students experiment with several light sources to see differences. It 's a good idea to show several professional productions and identify lighting sources, changes, and how these techniques con- vey messages.

We also teach clients who want to produce their own training material how to pan, tilt and zoom. A panoramic or "pan" shot is a horizontal move of the camera. A "t i l t" shot goes up or down. (We teach students to tilt up, pause, change cam- era angle, and tilt down.) To zoom, we start with a long shot, (to establish where the action is tak- ing place) and then zoom in.

There are other production techniques which amateur video producers need to experiment with. Some of these include:

1) learning how to stop and start action and bridge sharp changes between scenes.

2) allowing visual action to carry the scene. 3) using sound as a motivator. 4) pacing the production. (On a video, tape in-

formation can usually get through to people at a faster pace than most believe.)

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Conceptually students can be encouraged to: 1) treat one concept at a time, 2) introduce their topic immediately, 3) break subjects into clearly defined sections, 4) plan how the viewer is to be involved.

Assign each student a specific responsibility as part of the crew, and hold them responsible for their area. (Make sure they get the credits for what they do.)

With all of these techniques it is important that the camera isn't moved without a reason. Remem- ber the very amateurishness of student produc- tions can be refreshing. Enthusiasm and heart can communicate to people. With just a few of the ba- sics, students' experimentation and commonsense will take them further than some mechanical pro- cesses.

Editing

Despite reluctance on the part of many begin- ners, it's best for local producers to do their own editing rather than "sending it out ." Hands-on editing is essential to ensure the footage has been used to best advantage, proper pictorial continuity has been achieved, and the goals of the project have been met. The cost of editing equipment for beginners using 8mm or super 8 is inexpensive and easy to rent. Operating the editing equipment is no more difficult than loading the camera and setting the exposure and focus. Like filming, one does not get good at editing without working at it. To learn the craft you must practice it.

Editorial judgement during shooting stamps the cameraman's individuality on each scene. Editori- al judgement is exercised before shooting by means of advance planning. Pictorial continuity has a strong influence on the form and the internal structure of video, A cameraman needs to visual- ize the footage before and while shooting to give the editor everything he needs. Complete footage is absolutely necessary for doing a good job of editing. This means shooting all important second- ary shots, especially cut aways. The final expres- sion of editorial judgements is in the editing proc- ess. All superfluous footage should be eliminated. Even well shot photogenic scenes can have a neg- ative effect if they complicate or throw the tempo off. Placing cut ins, cut aways and other shots in their proper order, matching action, eliminating bad footage, and adjusting tempo are crucial edit- ing decisions.

Video cassettes can't be edited like film, by cut- ting and splicing. Even audio cassette tapes can be cut and stuck back together again. But video is not a series of linear frames. Video images go across the width of the tape at an angle that makes cutting and splicing nearly impossible-- even if you pull the tape out of its plastic contain- er.

The electronic editing of videotape is done by hooking up the camera recorder (camcorder) to a VCR. Nearly all camcorders have connection ter- minals and the necessary cables. By plugging into the "line input" selector on the VCR to the "l ine" position you can start transferring scenes

from the camcorder (or another VCR) to the VCR. With a little practice the playback and recording machines can be started and stopped simulta- neously at the beginning and end of each tape seg- ment you want. If you really want to do serious (amateur) editing you can get devices such as Sony's RM-EI00V editing controller for less than $200. This easy to use video editing tool makes for smooth transitions. It is also easy to review and preview your work with these editing controllers because data can be called up from a computer- type memory.

Small Format Video Gives Us a Life-Long Learning System

The approaching world of the 21st century is full of challenges whose resolution depends largely upon the unrelenting quality and quantity of life- long learning. Fifty years ago, just about anybody could take the professional knowledge they learned in school (or skill knowledge they learned on the job) and apply it throughout their profes- sional careers. Now workers have to be constant- ly updated. The "narrowcasting" made possible by ubiquitous VCRs and less expensive produc- tion equipment makes it possible to zero in on fairly narrow training targets with the products and processes of video technology.

Tapping a mix of electronic learning resources is important for improving human capital. A na- tion's advancement--or decline--is increasingly determined by the quality and number of educated people. TV is the best medium for reaching di- verse populations with individually tailored les- sons. It is also the best medium for reaching geo- graphically diverse post-graduates.

Changes in television technology is changing the way TV is produced. The process can now rely on equipment that is relatively inexpensive and easier to operate. Money can now go directly for what appears on the screen. Whether its industrial, edu- cational, personal or more professional network broadcasting, small-format portable equipment can be useful. To communicate to a target audience requires an understanding of visual aesthetics, message design, video technology, and the charac- teristics of effective instruction.

The electronic instruments can be refined by a wider range of professionals---or even amateurs. There is no substitute for thorough planning and continued follow up. The nature and needs of the audience should shape the programming all through the process.

Smaller companies and public agencies are find- ing that they can keep their workers up-to-date with effective small-format video productions. In the search for deeper and more coherent learning systems smaller shops may even have an advan- tage in tailoring instructional material for a very specific clientele that they know intimately. By avoiding a bureaucratic structure with huge over- head costs, low cost instructional TV production can help cut the disparity between large/small companies, rich/poor citizens and urban/rural ar- eas. �9

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