A longitudinal study of domestic water conservation behavior

A Longitudinal Study of Domestic Water Conservation Behavior

Susan Moore Monash University

Margol Murphy Ray Watson

Ballarat University College

A 1988 study of a school-linked sample in a metropolitan and a regional urban area established baseline data for knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and behavior with regard to water management and conservation (Murphy, Watson, & Moore, 1991). This paper reports on a 1991 follow-up, utilising both longitudinal and cross-sectional samples of students, teachers and parents, which aimed at identify- ing changes within the community since the initial study. In addition, the study sought to identify factors influential in change and the extent to which the pattern of relationships between knowledge, attitudes, intentions and behaviors had remained stable over time. The results indicated that there was a move towards greater conservation as measured by the variables studied over the three year period, that media interventions and water costs were perceived as influential in this change, and that reported conserving behavior continued to be better predicted by stated intentions than by knowledge. Little difference in the pattern of intervariable relationships was observed across the time span studied.

Providing a water supply for a growing urban population is a problem experienced by many water supply authorities in different parts of the world. When population growth is combined with an increase in per cap-

Please address correspondence to Dr. Moore, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia.

Population and Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies Volume 16, Number 2, November 1994 �9 1994 Human Sciences Press, Inc. 175

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POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT

ita water consumption, there is an exacerbation of the problem. When there is no easy way to obtain the additional supplies of water needed to meet the increased demand, the problem becomes acute.

This was the situation in the early 1980s in the metropolitan area of Melbourne, a large Australian city with a population in excess of two mil- lion. A prolonged drought in subsequent years served to further worsen the situation. However, one beneficial side effect of this otherwise calamitous event was that it focussed the community on the inherent impossibility of continuing unchecked delinquent patterns of consumption growth. More- over, the restrictions imposed during the drought showed the community that savings could be made. Following the drought, the exploding, incre- mental, per capita consumption patterns of the predrought years were checked. Nevertheless, the new prevailing pattern was still one of incre- mental per capita water consumption (Duncan, 1991). While media reports of drought alert people to the need to save water, and are sometimes accompanied by financial disincentives toward water wasting such as water pricing schemes or fines, Duncan's study showed that predrought levels of consumption gradually return when drought conditions dissipate. Thus it is important for communities to develop continuing strategies to check water consumption in non drought periods when, as is the case in Mel- bourne, the source of supply is relatively static and limited.

Thus it is timely to ask what other influences, apart from natural ca- lamities like drought, might act as forces for changing water consumption patterns. The present research was designed to investigate this question, by monitoring individuals' domestic water consumption patterns over a three year period (1988 to 1991), and assessing factors which contribute to stability and change in these patterns. Following the model of prediction of social behaviour postulated by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), the role of knowledge of water conservation and management principles, attitudes to water conservation, and intentions to save water in the future (behavior intentions) were measured as potential contributors to behavior. Further, individuals' beliefs about their own levels of change and influencing factors were sought. Several age groups were surveyed (primary and secondary students, teachers and parents) to evaluate age and status factors in level of water saving activity and its predictors.

An implication of using such a wide age range of participants was that the measuring instrument used to assess changes in attitudes, knowledge, intentions, and behavior had to be simple enough to suit the lowest age targeted (Year 4 in upper primary school), but complex enough to evaluate meaningful change in the adult generation. A Water Survey Question- naire was developed (Watson, Moore, McLachlan, Bradley, & Murphy,

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1988), and used to collect baseline data in 1988 from a large school-linked sample of students, parents and teachers from primary and secondary schools. The method used for selecting the sample (see later) was such that it could be considered reasonably representative of the community at large. High to adequate reliability of the measures used in the baseline questionnaire was established with a pilot study (Watson & Moore, 1989). Thus it could be assumed that any significant changes between 1988 baseline data and that collected in 1991 reflected true population change in conservation-related variables. Factors such as drought, water costs, media campaigns and education programs may mediate change in these variables.

Two areas were studied for comparison purposes. A population was drawn (in a similar manner to the Melbourne population) from a large regional city, 100 kilometres from Melbourne, but geographically similar and with corresponding rainfall patterns. Measurement of baseline data from this sample could be compared with baseline data from Melbourne, and community changes with respect to water conservation monitored over time for both cities. The extent of this change was evaluated in two ways. First, data from the 1988 baseline sample was compared with data from a new sample, drawn in an equivalent manner, in t991. Second, volunteers from the original sample were retested in 1991 in order to assess the magnitude of individual change. However, we were mindful of the fact that those who were prepared to be involved in a study over a three- year period may be 'different' in some important ways from those who showed less interest. Hence, the patterns of change among retestees were compared with the patterns of change exhibited across independent samples drawn in 1988 and 1991.

Results from the 1988 baseline data study have been fully reported elsewhere (Murphy, Watson, & Moore, 1991). These data revealed fairly consistent patterns of relationships between four variables across all groups in the sample. Specifically, knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intention were all positively correlated with reported behavior. For knowledge, the correlation was small. However, for attitudes and behavior, the correlation was somewhat higher, with the association between intention to save water and reported water saving behavior being the highest.

Although this relationship pattern Was consistent across subsamples, there were differences between locations with respect to the levels of the variables of interest. The metropolitan sample was more conscious of water saving than the regional sample, as evidenced by their generally more positive attitudes. Regional secondary students were less knowledgeable than their metropolitan counterparts. Across both regions, parents and pri-

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mary students had more positive attitudes toward conservation than teachers and secondary students, knowledge was greatest among teachers, and intentions to save water among the secondary student group were less strong than among the other subsamples. It was of interest that the relatively high levels of knowledge among secondary students in the metropolitan sample were not linked with better attitudes to water conservation or stronger intentions to save water. In terms of reported water saving behaviors, however, there were few variations between the locations and age categories.

The 1988 study therefore yielded data about the relationships between attitudes, knowledge, intentions and reported water saving behaviors for the whole sample and for subgroups within it, revealing some interesting initial patterns and differences. The extent to which these results repre- sented enduring rather than transient patterns is explored via the comparison of 1988 data with the 1991 data collected in this study.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was, therefore, to find out whether there had been changes in community knowledge, attitudes, behavioral intention, and reported behavior since gathering the baseline data in 1988. A second purpose was to assess whether the patterns of relationships between water knowledge, attitudes, intentions and reported behaviors remained the same in 1991 as they had been in 1988. A final purpose was to ascer- tain which of a number of environmental factors might have influenced change.

METHOD

Participants The original 1988 baseline sample consisted of t,800 persons, 326

primary students, 419 secondary students, 339 teachers and 716 parents. The sample for the 1991 study was pr6vided by 736 new and 476 repeat participants from the metropolitan area together with 220 new and 123 repeat participants from the regional area, a total of 1,555 (287 primary students, 331 secondary students, 334 teachers, and 603 parents). Repeat respondents were gathered from among those who had indicated in 1988 their willingness to participate further in the study. The 1991 repeat sample

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for both the metropolitan and regional areas consisted of about one-third of those who responded in 1988.

Materials

As was the case in the 1988 study, data were collected through administration of the Water Survey Questionnaire (Watson, Moore, McLachlan, Bradley & Murphy, 1988) which consists of scales measuring attitudes to and knowledge of water conservation, intentions to save water in the future, and reported water saving behavior. Knowledge was assessed through a 15-item true-false scale in which participants' grasp of the water cycle, strategies for conservation of domestic water, and amounts of water used on various household activities (e.g., having a shower) was measured. Attitudes were measured by asking participants to rate, on ten bipolar adjec- tive scales, five hypothetical situations in which there was the potential to express pro- or anti-conservationist values. Intentions to save water in the future were measured by five items each consisting of a four-point rating scale, items were based on Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) guidelines for assessing future intentions to engage in particular behaviors. Actual water saving behavior was assessed through five items in which participants were asked to rate the extent to which they had engaged in particular water saving strategies within the previous 12 months.

All measures were piloted before use to assess their readability and comprehension for the large age range to be tested (Year 4 to adult). Inter- nal reliability for each scale was also assessed during the pilot study and judged to be adequate in each case. Full details of the measuring instru- ments are available from the authors. Some additional items were included in the 1991 questionnaire. In these items, respondents checked from a list of environmental factors (such as advertisements in the media, or personal experience of water shortage), any factors which they believed had influenced them to change their water conserving behaviors.

Procedure

The participants followed up from the 1988 study were contacted di- rectly by letter and responded by mail.Selection of the nonrepeat, new participants, followed a process similar to that used in 1988. This involved selecting stratified samples of government and nongovernment primary and secondary schools from the telephone directory. Within each of these categories, principals were contacted in seriatim fashion until a quota was filled. Within the schools, participants were selected according to a pro-

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cess involving both nomination of year level and also place of surname within the alphabet. Each principal was given instructions by letter about how to randomly allocate participants according to year level and alpha- betical surname category within that principal's school. In this way it was hoped to contact samples of students in the four school types available in Melbourne (government and nongovernment, primary and secondary), across school year levels of students considered old enough to complete the survey (Year 4 to Year 12). Sampling via initial letters of names was used to approximate random sampling while providing a simple organiza- tional procedure for school principals. Parents in the sample were parents of the students tested. Teachers were randomly selected across year levels in the primary schools and according to their subject speciality in the secondary school, as we were particularly interested in secondary teachers working in areas related to environmental studies.

RESULTS

Differences in Water Conservation Behavior, Attitudes, Knowledge, and Intentions between 1988 and 1991

Tables 1 and 2 show, for the metropolitan and regional samples re- spectively, mean scores on the four variables of water attitudes, knowledge, intentions and behaviors for 1988 and 1991 for the total samples,

TABLE 1

Mean Attitude, Knowledge, Behavior Intention and Reported Behavior Scores in 1988 and 1991: Metropolitan Area

Primary Secondary All Parents Teachers Students Students

Attitudes 1988 47.0 48.0 46.8 48.0 45.1 199t 48.8* 49.5* 47.7 49.7 47.9*

Knowledge 1988 9.3 9.8 t0.8 7.2 8.7 1991 9.3 10.0 10.8 7.3 8.4

Behavior 1988 15.8 16.2 16.0 16.4 14.6 Intentions 1991 16.6' 17.1" 16.6" 17.2" 15.6"

Reported 1988 11.3 11.6 11.4 11.0 11.0 Behavior 199I 12.1" t2.3" 12.5" 11.5" 11.6"

*p < .05 between 1988 and 1991 scores

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TABLE 2

Mean Attitude, Knowledge, Behavior Intention and Reported Behavior Scores in 1988 and 1991: Regional Area


Attitudes 1988 44.2 44.4 43.6 47.0 40.6 1991 48.3* 49.5* 47.0* 49.4 46.4*

Knowledge 1988 9.1 10.0 11.1 7.3 7.6 1991 9.4 10.2 10.5 7.8 8.5*

Behavior 1988 15.8 16.0 15.8 16.2 14.5 Intentions 1991 16.4" 16.5 16.9" 16.8 15.1

Reported 1988 11.0 11.3 10.8 10.9 10.7 Behavior 1991 11.5" 11.8 11.5 11.5 11.0


and separately for parents, teachers, primary students and secondary students. Variables for which significant differences existed between 1988 and 1991 scores are marked. While knowledge levels remained steady in the two samples across the three-year time-span, scores were significantly higher for both total samples on the other three variables.

Within the metropolitan sample there were significantly higher scores in 1991 for parents' and secondary students' attitudes to water conservation, and, for all subgroups, on intentions to save water and water saving behaviors. In the regional group similar positive differences emerged, with significantly higher scores in 1991 than 1988 for parents, teachers and secondary students on attitudes, secondary students on knowledge, and teachers on behavioral intentions. Note that all subgroups in the regional sample showed a tendency to higher 1991 scores in behavior intentions and attitudes, and although these trends were often of a similar magnitude to those shown by the metropolitan group, they did not reach statistical significance as often because of the smaller sample sizes.

When the repeat samples are considered separately, it is possible to draw conclusions in terms of individual changes between 1988 and 1991 as opposed to differences only, which could have been a function of sampling error. Tables 3 and 4 show mean scores for the four variables of interest for the repeat samples only in the metropolitan and regional subgroups.

Positive changes occurred in both regions for attitudes, knowledge, intentions and behavior. Among the separate subgroups, these changes

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TABLE 3

Mean Attitude, Knowledge, Behavior Intention and Reported Behavior Scores in 1988 and 1991: Metropolitan Repeat Sample


Attitudes 1988 47.7 48.5 47.3 48.5 46.0 1991 48.7* 49.7* 49.5* 47.7 47.0

Knowledge 1988 9.8 10.1 11.4 7.3 9.5 1991 10.3' 10.4 11.5 8.5* 9.9*

Behavior 1988 16.1 16.5 16.2 16.5 14.9 Intentions 1991 16.5" 16.9" t7.0" 16.2 15.3

Reported 1988 1 t. 6 t 1.8 11.3 1 t. 5 1 I. 4 Behavior 1991 12.3" 12.6" 12.4" 12.0 12.0"


TABLE 4

Mean Attitude, Knowledge, Behavior Intention and Reported Behavior Scores in 1988 and 1991: Regional Repeat Sample


Attitudes 1988 45.3 45.1 43.2 47.8 43.4 1991 47.6* 48.0* 48.0* 48.2 44.7

Knowledge 1988 9.2 10.3 11.4 7.5 7.4 1991 10.0' 10.6 11.0 8.8* 9.4*

Behavior 1988 15.7 15.5 15.5 16.8 14.0 Intentions 1991 16.2' 16.7" 15.7 16.2 14.9"

Reported 1988 11.1 11.2 11.0 11.t 10.9 Behavior 1991 11.6* 11.7 11.7 t t .5 11.2


were significant for metropolitan parents and teachers on attitudes, intentions and behaviors, and for metropolitan secondary students on behavior. For regional parents and teachers, improvements occurred on attitudes, as they did for regional parents and secondary students on intentions. All students, primary and secondary, metropolitan and regional, improved in knowledge.

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Across all samples, as shown in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4, it is interesting to note that while reported behavior scores were similar for all subgroups, intentions to save water in the future among secondary students were con- sistently lower than intentions among the other groups, both in 1988 and 1991.

Sources of Change in the Three Years

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the relative strengths of perceived sources of change in ideas about water conservation in the years between 1988 and 1991. Seventy-four % of the metropolitan and 70% of the regional sample indicated that they had changed their ideas about water saving over the three years of the study. As can be seen in the Figures, the patterns of influence were very similar for both regional and metropolitan samples. Media sources were most influential, especially television. The cost of water was the second most important influence for both samples. School-based information impacted upon the metropolitan sample to a greater extent than on those in regional areas, it being the fourth most

FIGURE 1. Factors influencing changes in attidude to water conservation: Metropolitan area.

23.1

ll.!

News- Radio School Cost T.V. Pamph- Talk Water Other papers tnFo of lets wtth short-

water others age

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FIGURE 2. Factors influencing changes in attitude to water conservation: Regional area.

41,0

30,1

C I |0.5

| a,

IO.!

0,0 Hews- Radto School Cost T.V. Pamph- Talk Wzter Other

papers lnfo of lets with short- water others age

important influence for the former, but about seventh for the latter, behind experiencing a water shortage, talking with others, and pamphlets about water conservation.

Stability of Relationships Between Variables

In 1988, there were significant but quite low correlations between attitudes and reported behavior. Somewhat higher correlations emerged between intentions to save water and reported water saving behavior, and attitudes and behavioral intentions were also significantly linked. Knowl- edge showed a weak link with reported behavior in the metropolitan sample only, and was not correlated with attitudes or intentions. In 1991, the correlational patterns were almost identical, and are shown in Table 5. Once again, intentions were most strongly associated with reported behaviors, and both attitudes and knowledge, while correlated with behavior, were less strongly linked. Attitudes and intentions were significantly associated for both regional and metropolitan samples.

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TABLE 5

Intercorrelations Between Attitudes, Knowledge, Behavior Intentions, and Reported Behavior: 1991!

Behavior Reported Attitudes Knowledge Intentions Behavior

Attitudes - . 03 .37* .25" Knowledge .04 - .01 .20* Behavior Intentions .37* - .02 .37* Reported Behavior .18" .15" .34*

*p < .05 TMetropolitan sample correlations above and regional sample correlations below the diagonal

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The overwhelming finding of this longitudinal study was one of positive change. For both the new and the repeat samples, improvements in community attitudes to water conservation were shown, as were stronger intentions to save water and improvements in actual water saving behaviors. The use of two types of sample meant that these changes could not readily be attributed to sampling error. The changes occurred in the regional as well as the metropolitan sample, and were recognized by the study participants as reflecting their personal reality, given that about 70% said they had altered their ideas about water conservation over the study period.

Improvements in knowledge about water conservation and the water cycle occurred among most in the repeat sample. There are questions, therefore, as to whether this sample was different to start with, or whether completing the knowledge test twice led to an improvement in score. With respect to the latter issue, the likelihood of test-retest contamination seems low when the test sessions were three years apart; however, it is possible that after the first testing, those interested enough to volunteer to be tested in the future were also interested enough to find out the answers to questions about which they had been unsure. As to whether the repeat group were representative of the community in general, it can be noted that their initial, 1988 knowledge scores were not very different from those in the new sample. However, their volunteering for further participation may in- dicate greater interest in conservation matters. Higher knowledge scores did occur in one of the subgroups of the non-repeat sample as well, this

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being the regional secondary students who in 1988 had been inferior in this area to their metropolitan counterparts. This change brought them to the same knowledge levels as their city peers. We can conclude safely that while there is less evidence for community improvements in water knowledge than there is for improvements in attitudes and behaviors, improvements have occurred in certain groups, especially those who have shown themselves to be interested in water conservation.

What is perhaps most worthy of note with respect to the knowledge variable is that behavioral and attitudinal improvements were not necessarily the result of knowing more about conservation, and in fact it may well be that the direction of influence is the other way--those who develop more strongly conservationist attitudes are motivated to learn more. The correlations between attitudes, knowledge, intentions and reported behaviors, which remained stable over the three year period, indicated that while knowledge was linked with behavior, the association was weak. The most powerful correlate of reported behavior was intention to save water, which was in turn associated strongly with attitudes to water conservation. The implication of this for those planning interventions designed to encourage the public to save water is that it may be more fruitful to try to change attitudes and to influence intentions (for example, through water costing and incentives to conserve water) than to embark on large-scale knowledge-based education programs in schools. Such programs of course have intrinsic value, but their effect on short-term plans to encourage the community to save water is unproven.

With respect to subgroup differences found in 1991, some patterns remained stable while others fluctuated. Metropolitan-regional differences were far less evident, and a possible reason for this will be discussed in a later section. Parents and primary students still showed the tendency to have more positive water attitudes than teachers and secondary students, but this was not such a consistent trend across each sample as it had been in 1988. Knowledge remained highest among teachers, followed, as before, by parents, secondary students and primary students. Intentions to save water were less strong among secondary students, as had been the case in 1988. Thus across the three years of the study, it was the secondary school group who were discrepant attitudinally, a reflection, perhaps, of adolescent negativity, or conversely a response to age-inappropriate teach- ing methods in the schools. This 'developmental dip' in positive attitudes and intentions with respect to conservation is worthy of further investiga- tion, especially if appropriate school-based interventions are to be designed.

The basically positive changes in attitudes to water conservation and

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water saving behaviors shown by the community over the three years of the study were perceived by that community as strongly influenced by what they had seen on television. Although we did not ask about specific programs, it is likely that the major influence here was a series of television advertisements implemented by the Melbourne water authority over the years of the study. These advertisements presented factual information about the seriousness of water shortages, and showed practical ways of not wasting water. Material was presented in a manner designed to influence attitudes as well as give information. The most often used technique was to present in an amusing fashion, the follies of a water-waster called "Wally" who squandered water resources through his thoughtlessness. The slogan accompanying these advertisements was "Don't be a Wally with water". While the advertisements were targeted for Melbourne audiences, they would have been viewed almost as frequently in the regional city, most areas of which receive Melbourne television channels. We can speculate therefore that this advertising program may have been at least partially responsible for the regional 'catch-up' in positive attitudes to water.

Community members also perceived variables such as the cost of water, newspaper articles, pamphlets, talking to other people, school-based education programs, and experiencing an actual water shortage, as influential in their improved water habits. With the exception of the latter fac- tor, all these influences can be deliberately incorporated into interventions designed to encourage water saving, often at far less cost than using the effective but costly medium of television. The strategy of targeting interventions in schools can potentially have long-term effects through educat- ing our future citizens about water saving. However, for such a strategy to be maximally effective it is important that the teachers are not only knowledgeable, but also model positive attitudes and behaviors. Further, the design of an approach which does not alienate an adolescent audience is of paramount importance if this strategy is to succeed.

One limitation of this study was the use of a self-report measure of water usage. With such measures, there is always the argument that reported behavior may not correspond with actual behavior. Data (discussed previously) available on actual Melbourne water consumption in the 1980s Indicates that following a period of decrease connected with drought, there was a rising pattern of consumption in the late 80s (Duncan, 1991). These data on consumption do not necessarily contradict the findings based on reported measures used in this study, however. Reasons for reaching this conclusion are as follows. First, the data presented by Duncan run only to 1989, so that changes after that, incorporating the last two years of our study, would not have been registered. Second, Duncan's data were ad-

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justed for climatic factors within each year. Thus, its reliability is contin- gent on accuracy in the adjustment model used. In fact, perusal of the unadjusted, raw data on water consumption presented by Duncan, as opposed to the climate-adjusted figures, suggests a relatively constant consumption pattern in the years around 1989, rather than an increase in consumption. It is also important to note that Duncan's data relates to consumption by households, rather than by individuals, whereas the data reported here concern perceived individual water use. It is reasonable to postulate that the known increase in population in the areas under consid- eration (Duncan, 1991) will be accompanied by an increase in the number of people per household. Thus, even if there is an increase in water consumption per household, it may not represent an increase in individual consumption. Taken together, the above comments suggest that the data presented by Duncan may or may not represent a more accurate picture of individual water consumption behavior than does the reported behavior measure used in this study. Further, the internal evidence of the present study indicates that individuals were able to separate reports of intentions from reports of behavior, that is, 'wishes' from 'actions', thus providing some support for the reliability of behavioral reports.

It is clear that while it is important in future research to build in measures of actual as well as reported water use, the development of an actual use measure is not as simple as it first appears. Although household actual water use can be measured relatively easily given the cooperation of householders, the researcher is faced with devising a measure of water use/ attitudes/intentions which reflects a household of individuals, rather than a single person--a difficult though not impossible task.

C O N C L U S I O N

This study indicated that community attitudes, knowledge, intentions and behaviors wi th respect to water saving became more oriented to conservation principles between 1988 and 1991, in two geographically close cities, one a large metropolis, the other a regional city. Television material stressing the importance of water conservation, plus a number of other factors, were judged to be instrumental in thechange. The study illustrated several methodological issues of importance in measuring community change. It incorporated both longitudinal (repeat) and equivalent (non-repeat) samples over the three year time period, to control for the effects of sampling error and retesting. The use of samples from two different cities led to a strengthening of the confidence with which community change

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could be judged. Measures of water conservation orientation included, as well as reported water saving behaviors, indices of attitudes, knowledge, and intentions. In this way it was possible to assess the interrelationships between these variables, and the stability of their relationships across a three year time period. The results of the study are of significance in the development of strategic plans for promoting positive change in the important area of conservation behavior in general, and domestic water conservation in particular.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by grants from Melbourne Water and the Ballarat Water Board (Australia).

REFERENCES

Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. En- glewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Duncan, H. (1991). Monitoring of urban water demand: A review of water consumption and demand management in Melbourne. Melbourne: Board of Works.

Murphy, M., Watson, R., & Moore, S. (1991). Encouraging water saving: The role of knowledge, attitudes and intention, Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 1, 71-78.

Watson, R. & Moore, S. (1989). Baseline data on water conservation and water management knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of school-linked residents of the greater Melbourne area: A technical report. Ballarat: Psychology Department, Ballarat C.A.E.

Watson, R., Moore, S., McLachlan, A., Bradley, G., & Murphy, M. (1988). Water survey questionnaire. Ballarat: Psychology Department, Batlarat C.A.E.

A longitudinal study of domestic water conservation behavior

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