A linguistic and ethnohistoric approach to Bella Coola...
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Transcript of A linguistic and ethnohistoric approach to Bella Coola...
APPROVAL
Name : James W. E. Baker
Degree: Master of Arts
Title of Thesis: A Linguistic and Ethnohistoric Approach
to Bella Coola Prehistory.
Examining Committee: Chairman: K a r l P e t e r
a l i . Hobler) Examining Committee
(Neville Lincoln) External Examiner
Assistant Professor Simon Fraser University
~I IEI :ACE
Thc a r chaeo log ica l f i e l d work t h a t focused on t h e problem o f t h e
anomalous p s i t i e n of t h e Bel la Coola iias i n i i i a t t - d b y iir. Caris011 and
Professor Hobler of Simon F r a s e r Un ive r s i t y . D r . Carlson and P ro fe s so r
Hobler provided me wi th t h e oppor tun i ty o f t a k i n g p a r t , a s an undergraduate
s t u d e n t , i n t h e 1968 survey o f t h e Be l l a Coola r eg ion under P ro fe s so r
I iob le r ' s d i r e c t o r s h i p . In t h e summer o f 1969 I conducted excava t ions , a s a
g radua te s t u d e n t , a t a l a r g e midden s i t e i n t h e Be l l a Coola r eg ion , aga in
under P ro fe s so r H o b l e r f s d i r e c t o r s h i p . I would l i k e t o thank both D r .
Car lson and P ro fe s so r Hobler f o r t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n , guidance and
d i scus s ions which r e s u l t e d i n t h e fo l lowing s tudy .
Funds f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch were provided by Simon F r a s e r
Un ive r s i t y through t h e Archaeology Department 's F i e l d School Programme.
Library r e sea rch was conducted under a Simon F r a s e r P r e s i d e n t ' s Committee
Research Award (1969) and gradua te s t i p e n d s arranged by D r . Car lson. I am
g r a t e f u l t o t h e s e funding agenc ies .
A s t h i s i s p r i m a r i l y a l i b r a r y r e sea rch paper I would l i k e t o
acknowledge t h e many h e l p f u l l i b r a r i a n s I have d e a l t wi th du r ing t h e course
of t h i s s t udy . P a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l and e f f i c i e n t were t hose working i n
t h e Northwest Room o f t h e Vancouver Pub l i c L ib ra ry , t h e Spec i a l C o l l e c t i o n s
Library o f t h e Un ive r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia and t h e P rov inc i a l Archives .
I would l i k e t o thank e s p e c i a l l y M r . G . A . Mintz of t h e B.C. S tud i e s
Library a t Langara f o r t h e many f r u i t f u l d i s c u s s i o n s on Northwest Coast
e t h n o h i s t o r y , and f o r h i s i nva luab le a s s i s t a n c e i n ob t a in ing obscure
e t h n o h i s t o r i c m a t e r i a l .
I am extremely g r a t e f u l t o Mr. Bruce Ba l l f o r h i s kind a s s i s t a n c e
on t h e map work, and t o Mrs. Barbara Maes t r i f o r h e r long and arduous job
of t yp ing t h e f i n a l d r a f t of t h i s paper .
i v
present p o s i t i o n of t h e Coast S a l i s h i n British Columbia;
2 . That t h e Be l l a Coola were a t one time cont iguous wi th o t h e r Coast S a l i s h ;
3. That a l a t e r Wakashan i n t r u s i o n from t h e n o r t h i s o l a t e d t h e Bel la Coola i n t h e i r p re sen t p o s i t i o n .
The First p ropos i t i on d e a l s wi th a t o p i c t h a t has been much
d i scussed , Smith, Boas, Kroeber, Drucker, Borden and a number of o t h e r s
have a l l d e a l t with t h e o r i g i n s of Northwest Coast c u l t u r e . Archaeo-
l o g i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c evidence w i l l be o f f e r e d i n support o f t h e
above proposa ls . L i n g u i s t i c evidence b e s t s u b s t a n t i a t e s t h e second
p ropos i t i on . E thnoh i s to r i c sources have been used t o o f f e r support
f o r t h e t h i r d proposa l .
T e r r i t o r y
The a h n r i g i n s l t e r r i t s r y o f t h e i k i i a Zooia Indians included
v i l l a g e s of t h e Dean and Kimsquit r i v e r s a t t h e head of Dean Channel,
on t h e Be l l a Coola r i v e r a t t h e head of North Bentinck A r m , on South
Bentinck A r m , and a t Kwatna Bay o f f Burke Channel. This t e r r i t o r y
l i e s approximately between 52-53' n o r t h l a t i t u d e , and 126-127O50 ' west
longi tude . The Be l l a Coola had a s neighbours t o t h e n o r t h , west and
sou th , va r ious branches o f t h e Kwakiutl, and t o t h e i r e a s t , were t h e
Athapaskan speaking C a r r i e r and C h i l c o t i n .
Boas (1898:48) records 29 v i l l a g e s o f t h e Be l l a Coola, i n t h e
t e r r i t o r y o u t l i n e d above. MacIlwraith who worked with t h e Be l l a Coola
i n t h e 1920's l i s t s t h e fol lowing 45 v i l l a g e s a s Be l l a Coolan:
(1) Qarneix: on t h e west bank o f t h e Necleetsconnay about t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of a mi l e from t h e sea .
. , ,
7 . - . *
v i l l a g e s ) uefe7 b i 1 irigual (Mac I lwraitfi 1948-: $9) . + k , , . -
-- , - - - ". . Kwatna ~ a y is approximately for tyL mile_s_srqm-B~lla+C_oola, but I , ,
- , , . , ' C
\ . >
, , . ; MacIlwraith may. have 'been wrong i n considering, it Be0l.la Bel la
.6' I r
t e r r i t o r y . As i n d i r e c t evidence of Kwatna being Be1 a Coola t e r r i t o r y , ,
- t . Tolmie says:
w . . , . 9
' . . some .of t h e Bil l iChoola t r i b e he re today, qraded * . ,
-from them somk cakes made, from the inner bark of t h e ,
hemlock . . . 'Th is branch ,of .BiPlichoola ar'e ca l l ed 1 i . . ,Kummuchquetoch Ei t h e i r v i l r a g e i s , o n e n igh t d i s t a n t -
L . - . [19s70 : 2 9 2 ) . - L , 7 , , " - - - - - - - - B
, . The above quote i s • ’ r g m ' ~ o l m i ~ ; s journal kept' while he w i l a t Fort . ' '
4
46 . .
~ c ~ o u ~ h l i n ( t he present town bf Bella Beila) land =s.dated+ loiember. Z
- 4 21'"; 1834. . Later whiIe he, was s t i l l a t Fort'McLoughlin, - i n - h i s en t ry , . - .
dat& J.anuary 14, 1835 he says : I . -
b u s y w i t h t h e ~ i l l i c h o b l a all day. They. c a l l thkm- 6
silves Srom t h e i r river (Nowhal i ck ) Nowhalikim'ieh - t
, those here under t h e comnand .of Nooshimadh inhabi t - . . . * t h e entrance of t h e r i v e r md a r e cBlled Koomkotash'.,. . - . . .
- - - January 16 - - - - - , . . . . Before depar t ing they requested me. t a make t h e
. weather moderate f o r t h e per iod of t h e i r ensuing -
I - - - -
voyage - two days! ' (Tolmie 1970:301) . .
Tolmie i n t he above quote i s most & f i n i t e l y r e f e r r i n g t o the-people '
. . bf the Bel la ~ o o l a va l l ey , . ca l led h a l h by ~ a c ~ l w r ~ i t h [1948:jl], 3
* and Nookhalk by Palmer (1863:s). ~ o & & o t a i h must be ~ o m ~ o t s of ' . -.. , ' . . .
, . , ,
MacIlwraith (1948:ii) &nd.Ko+orn-kp-otz of Palmer [1863:5'), both'who , I .
. *
3 L . - place t h i s , v i l l a g e n e a r the mouth aE t h e Bel la Coola River.
L - - + - - " - L - - - - * -- - -- - - --- f -A/- - L- -+---+ - --
There*~-a b k i i t t l e 'doubtr t h a t Tqlmie was .able t o recognize t h e - = --- . -
L L - - - - +--
, Bella coola a s ' d j s t i n c t . f i p t h e Kvakiutl, or 'more, specifically, .thek> t
i ' - Bella Beyla. h e people called- ' Kmmuchqueto& by Tolmie must have - ,
.. 3.
- a .
, . . ,
afier TOIMIE and
DAWSON
Figure 2 .
( a f t e r Tolmie and Dawson 1884)
been t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e Dean River . Olsen says :
. . .Long aka iiie 3e i i a h u l a i i v e c i only along t h e Dean River , t h e Kwakiutl a t t h e mouth of t h e r i v e r . In Kwakiutl t h e Dean River i s c a l l e d Kimxaku ("Canyon") , and t h e Be1 l a Coola people Kimxakwidox (1955 : 321) .
The Kummuchquetoch of Tolmie l i v e d one n igh t d i s t a n c e , and t h e
Koomkotash two days , o r one overn ight camp, which may be t aken a s
approximately e q u i d i s t a n t from Fort McLoughlin, which t h e Be l l a Coola
and Dean Rivers a r e . Tolmie can be considered c o r r e c t i n p lac ing t h e
Bel la Coola on both t h e Dean and Bel la Coola Rivers . I t i s t h e r e f o r e
s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t on a map publ ished i n 1884, Tolmie inc ludes Kwatna
Bay i n Bel la Coola t e r r i t o r y ( see f i g u r e 2 ) .
Vi l l age number 38 of MacIlwraith a s l i s t e d above i s c a l l e d
Axet i , l oca t ed one mi le from t h e s e a on t h e Dean River . The name
(which t r a n s l a t e d from t h e Be l l a Coola means tlOccupied Mound") i s
der ived from t h e small mound on which it was b u i l t (MacIlwraith 1948:lS) .
In Kwatna Bay where MacIlwraith l is ts 7 v i l l a g e s ass igned t o t h e Bel la
B e l l a , t h e second v i l l a g e on h i s l i s t is c a l l e d Axe t i , "Occupied Mound",
(MacIlwraith 1948:20).
NacIlwrai th accep t s t h e Axet i o f Dean River as being a Be l l a Coola
v i l l a g e , but a s s i g n s t h e Axeti o f Kwatna Bay t o t h e Be l l a Bel la . There
is no evidence t h a t Axeti i s a Kwakiutl word adopted by t h e Be l l a Coola
and app l i ed t o both v i l l a g e s i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s . The s i x t h v i l l a g e i n
MacI lwra i th t s l i s t f o r t h e Kwatna River i s Wakwas, he says : " the
meaning i s unknown, and it i s thought t h e name, Wakwas, i s i n t h e Be l l a
Bel la language ." (Mac1 l w r a i t h 1948: 20) . No such exp lana t ion i s given
f o r Axet i .
Figure 3 .
( a f t e r Boas and Haeberlin 1927)
S a l i s h D i a l e c t
G r o u p i n g s o f
t h e L a t e
19th C e n t u r y
i iei ia LooLa Coast Ti1 lamook
Coast Division . . . . 4.5-6.5
Tillamook ........ 6.0 4.5-6.0
I n t e r i o r Division .. 5.0-6.8 3.9-6.9 4.6-5.5
Table 1. ( a f t e r Swadesh 1950)
L ingu i s t i c d i s t a n c e i s i n d i c a t i v e of physical and c u l t u r a l
separa t ion . From t h e above d a t a , it would appear t h a t t h e Bella Coola
have been i s o l a t e d from other S a l i s h speakers f o r a considerable length
of time. The extreme ranges of l i n g u i s t i c d i s t a n c e favour, s l i g h t l y
c l o s e r a f f i n i t i e s with the Coast S a l i s h over t h e 8 I n t e r i o r S a l i s h , but
t h e d i f fe rence i n range i n Swadeshls d a t a alone i s not s i g n i f i c a n t
enough t o s t a t e unequivocally t h a t t h e Bella Coola a r e an i s o l a t e d
pocket of Coast Sa l i sh .
More recent s t u d i e s of t h e S a l i s h language (Diebold 1960; S u t t l e s
and Elmendorf 1963; Jorgensen 1969), tend t o confirm Bella Coola a s a 4% :
Coast d i a l e c t . Jorgensen (1969:lO) says :
Bella Coola has been demonstrated t o be d i s t a n t from a l l o the r groups, but more c lose ly r e l a t e d t o t h e northern- most Coast languages than t o those of t h e I n t e r i o r . On the b a s i s of synchronic l i n g u i s t i c ma te r i a l s alone it i s reasonable t o th ink t h a t Bella Coola moved nor th i n t o t h e i r a rea from a more souther ly homeland.
Diebold (1960:lO) using Dyenls language Migration Theory sees the
probable homeland f o r proto-Salish i n the Gulf o f Georgia region and the
adjacent I n t e r i o r . He pos tu la tes i n t r u s i o n o r migrat ion a s the two
most probable hypotheses t o account f o r t h e separa t ion of Bella Coola
from t h a t a rea .
i n t h e s u r v i v o r s moving t o t h e Be l l a Coola Val ley. Indeed,
palmer (1863:7) remarks on t h e d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s of a smallpox
epidemic which had j u s t begun amongst t h e Be l l a Coola when he a r r i v e d .
~f a smallpox epidemic was sweeping t h e Bel la Coola t e r r i t o r y a t t h e
time of h i s v i s i t , Palmer's e s t i m a t e may have inc luded people who had
moved t o t h e Val ley from o u t l y i n g a r e a s . Thus, Pa lmer ' s e s t i m a t e f o r
t h e two v i l l a g e s may have been a c l o s e count o f t h e e n t i r e Be l l a
Coola popu la t i on , but i t can only have been made a f t e r t h e popula t ion
had been very d r a s t i c a l l y reduced. Perhaps an a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e o f
t h e e n t i r e Be l l a Coola popu la t i on , p r i o r t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of
d e v a s t a t i n g d i s e a s e s cannot be made. Whatever t h e c a s e , by t h e e a r l y
1900's most of t h e Be l l a Coola Ind ians r e s i d e d a t t h e i r p r e sen t
l oca t ion i n t h e Be l l a Coola Val ley.
Cl imate , F lo ra and Fauna
The Be l l a Coola t e r r i t o r y is included i n t h e ~ i t t o r a l of Kendrew 1
and Kerr (1955), which i s t h e c o a s t , west s l o p e s and uplands of t h e
Coast Mountains. The coas t i& remarkable f o r i t s long narrow f i o r d s ,
some of which reach n e a r l y a hundred mi l e s i n t o t h e uplands. The out -
s tanding f e a t u r e o f t h e c l i m a t e is t h e mildness and humidi ty of t h e
win te rs .
The c l i m a t o l o g i c a l t a b l e f o r Be l l a Coola (Kendrew and Kerr 1955:
116) shows t h a t t h e Be l l a Coola t e r r i t o r y f a l l s w i t h i n t h e Cfb c l a s s i -
f i c a t ion o f Koppen , where :
C - warm tempera te r a i n y c l ima te s (mesothermal). Average tempera tures of c o l d e s t month i s less than 64.4OF, bu t more t han 2 6 . 6 O ~ .
6 c .. I
< , 'i . . . t * .
I , - . . '.
I . .
. I1 ( * . .
c . , , . . - - 3 ' v- . . /-
. I
c -' EWOHISTORY, - - . - - - ----, lLd-LL-- .--
%
There a r e two p i i n c i p a l d e f i n i t i p & of ethnohiskor;: , '
,
. r e
- 1) The us6 of wr i t t en h i s t o r i c a l mater ia ls in. preparing an ethnogrqphy or t h e use .of h i s t o r i c a l J
- mater ia l s t o show m l f u r a l -chwge. ,E i the r a syncfironic or diachronic study. ,
. 2) Use of a people 's o r a l l i t e r a t u r e i n r e c m s t r u c t i n g - . t h e i r own' h i s t o r y (Lantis 1 9 7 0 5 ) ,
, . L 1
, - - Ttre f o ~ l&ng mat&riat' wi1.1- be a s h c h r o n i c s tudy of the g e l l a - +-
8
. , coola IndiAm, u s i n g h i s t o i i c a l materia1 for an ethnographic- , ,
I ,
, * , .
, descr ip t ion of a past. s tage of t h e i r c u l ~ u r e . - As S t u ~ t e v a n t (1966 : 7 ) * L .
remarks on t h e use of h i s t o r i c a l ethnography:'
. . . The Am i s t o 'produce ,a descr ip t ion ' pa ra l l e l i ng ' a s c lose ly a s poss ib le %hat would be p s s i b l e i n
I $ .
f i e l d ethnography, even though the evidence i s not what t h e anthropologist has h i m e i f observed, over:
. heard and *been t o l d ; b E - r a t h e r what '&hers, '
nonanthropologists , have learned- and wr i t t en down. I .
. , For t h e 0 e l l a Coola, a coo construction of an ethnographic ',
- , A - L - - - - . .
' d e sc r ip t ion o,f a past s t age of du l ture must include sone d a t a recordkd .
. , '.by recognized ~ t h r o p o l o g i s t s . Ther h i s t o r i c a l ma te r i a l & i t t e n by
1 nonantfiropologists is somewhat Limited espec ia l ly when atternit s a r e
made t o i n f e r s o e i a l o iganiza t iod or. re l igion: The r,&etse -is tm'e '
I
when attempting t o r eco f i s tmc t an ethnographic desc r ip t ion of mater ia l
cu l tu re 'using da ta 3recorded by e a r l y anthropologists. By 'combining , , . .
. . data from both, it, should be poss ib le t o recoiistruct an ethnographic ,
x .
- - - - - - -- - ------ - +- .-- - LL--
descr ip t ion of - the 3 e G a Coola f o r t he t ime ju s t p r i o r ' t e c o n t a c t ,
* . -A
, Tke j u s t i f i c a t i o n •’of t h i s synchronic approach i n ethnohistory- - z -
. . i s simply t h a t no t enough is known af the Bel l s Coola c u l t u r e t o apply 't -
. . the diachronic approach. It must: f i r s t be es tabl ished what t h e . B s l l a :
1 . , ' Coola c u l t u r e was, 'at. a . g iven point in . t i rne , .before changes i n t h e - - -
. . I
7 I
r
-,9
" \, I , 21 . \ - < ,. a \ . . , - .
. \\,
a culture, ' from t h a t poTnt i n time can 'be show. ~ ikkerson . (1970:7) 2 - L _ " I _ L _ _ __ _ -_ &Ai -- _--. .
\ . y , . . ' says : ' . . \, I
, " , 3 3
h ' . .
' ~ thnoh i s to r i ans , then, appiy t h e pethods of ' A r hi$torio&aphy to the gultures in which they a r e ' I
&I
,' in teres ted in the light .of ' t h e i r general , - anthropof ogidal axperien,ce; t o gauge change . I'
. . tha t . has taken place i n them and t o comprehend ,
h i s t o r i c a l f ac to r s involved i n and determining , change . . . Ethnohistory, ,theh, i s . t h a t sub- . J . . . ,
branch ~f ethnology which e&tloys tristoriograph- 1.
/#* ' ic3L: nfethods to -lay- a f ' o d a t ion ,f or the . f ,/ . - - - - Lu.u L-L-+ :. - -,
ula t f on of general 'laws : in a word,, ideographic I , ,/ , , ..mews t o nomothetic ends. . ,
. . 9 ,
, - ,
*
~ombthe t i c ends cannot be reached fiom a vacuum. The pdrpose df . ,
t h i s paper. is, t o lay t h e fouqdation, or t o a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y f i l l 1 , ,
' t h a t - vacuum i n regards t o Bells Coola , . culture. subsequent f o r n l a t i d n s - ,
of genersl laws may resul t , . but they a re outside the scope 'of t h i s
study . . .
, - - -
Ethnographic fiegcription - , . I
. The la rge plank 'house, typica l of the Northnest. Coast qul ture 1 '
area; was the charac te r i s t i= , habi tat ion of the Bel l a Ccola Indians .*- 6 .
Mackenrie gives"a lengthy d e s & i p i o n of a ~ e l ' l a *a house: . = , . ,- /,
I now made t h e t o u i of the v i l lage , vhi&*consisted',of fou r elevated houses,, and seven built. on t h e ground, . . besides- a 6on,siderd&le nmber of other buif dings o r . sheds, which m e . used only as kitchens ,. and .places fo r <
1 I
curing t h e i r fish, Tfre f o m e r are constructed by , '. f ix ing a certain rider of posts in ' the , ear th , on some - , +
3 of whit& a r e IaiZt, 5ncK topGthGs f Sfe%ectfLfke - ~ ' i p O r ' t - ~ . -e rg of. the fIoor , at about twelve fee t abpye the
, s u r f a c e ' ~ o f the g&md; thefr. f mgth froa-an fiundrecf - - - - -
$0' a+ h&dred and twenty f e e t , and they are abwt - f a r t y -.'in breadth, Alang thd c m t r e a r e ' b u i l t three, four or . .
I . f i v e hearths, f o r the ~ o - f o l d purpose of giving warmth, ,
and 'drw'sing the iz fish, The-whole, length of the building bn e i t h e r side is divided By c&ar planks, i n t o
. '
. . /
. ,
j ,
. .
L t
. . . , , ,
2 3 ' , ,
F A
.. On the eas te rn s2deidf t h i s c a n a l , n e a r the he& o f a -2 - small ' r i vu l e t , they had-not iced on h e pmceding evening . .
. , a' h w s e of very ar -eonst~&hn- ; . ;- These-were--- ., -- --- . - / ,
. , found t o be of a d i f f e r e n t eons t iuc t ioa from any otfiey , had before Seen; they we& .erected-un a platforip similar to t h a t seen i n my l a s t excursion, and mentioned as being r a i s e d md supported nea+ thirty' f&t from the ground by ,'
, , perpendicular sp&s of n very la rge ,si,ze . . . each baving
a Separate access Eormed.by a long t r e e i n qn inc l ined - ' ,
pos i t i on .from t h e p1,atform t o the ground, with notches a t i n .by w a i o f s t e p s ; about a foot and a h a l f asunder [Vancouver, 1967 : I 1 -274,) . -
' ' ,The above quoted passages fram .volume, two of Vancower's - j o m a t . ,-. - 4"
_ I_I-IX__i-li
; ' y ie ld , i n r e l a t i o n . f o house construct ion; 'The construct ion o f t hese
, was very cu*ious ...'; 'of very s i n g u l p cons tmct ion . . . I ; and 'a . 9 .
ai5ferent construct ion , , -fro@ any they had befork seen . . . , 1 con'c&n- , - i
. 9
ing' housks i n what has , been est ,ablished a s being Bella Coola t e r r i t o r y . , ,
It. should be ob;ious. from t h e above thq t ne i the r Vancouvir, nbr any of . . '' I . - .- - ----- - .- - - - - -- - - -- - - -- . - -- - . . -- --
his* crew, had previously encountered p i l e b & i t d w e i ~ i n ~ s . q
' Despite the evidence as quoted, N ib l ack (1970) .mistakeniy 'inciudes , . , -I . I .
the . ~ w a k i u t l , among those dn <he ~ o r t h w e s t ' c o a s t who inhabit r a i s ed - 9 ,
- ,
, . - - - - , - ? 7 -- . - houses. H e says : ,-
,-' . .
' k c o r d i n g t o Yqcokver , amongst the KWaki~tS of *
Johnstone S t r a i t , there were dwellings f t $ a i ~ e d -and supported near 30 f e e t from t h e ~ ~ i % ? d by perpendicular ' , ,
* . - spars of a very l a r g e sizeTf with "access formed by a long t r e e , in an imzlin'ed* position .from t h e plaifo'm to . the ' ground, with notches. c u t in *it by way of steps about . a, fd& &d a h a l f assunder.": .(Nibl&k,- 1970:305). ,
I. 4-
. I ,,--%iblack gives as h i s source; 'Yatcouver, Voyage, vol . 11, p.274" /,
+ '
miblack 1970 :305). H e has indeed quote3 hi; Source co'rrectly, b u t h e . . \ - - - -- -- & - - - - - - - - - - _ I
i s incoTrect 2s ' to Vancouverls posit ion-. ~ a n c o u v e r descr ibes the - - - -
Johnstone ~ t r a i t region in,vqlume I , Cape Mudge t o Nimpkish River,
pages 331 t o 355, y i s i t e d i n July 1792. Dueing t h a t t ime Vmcouver . ,
I
I' . ,/
, I*
., , - , , .
A'
. ( 7 ) 425 ' ' , , I- , . , . . 1- ", 1 .
. . - -
,
, . I,,- .
y . h i s ~ w e x a informant w a s incomet i n replying i n t h e 'negative. Wikeno 2 ,
--- ----- --- A_- , f
, . and Xais Ia &&iiitl, & d L t w ~ A f k & i ~ h i a n infbrmants r ep l i ed . t h a t p i l e : . -
dwe,l l ings were sometimes' used. . A l l others ' replihd in t h e negati;e. ..- . .
'Xn a l a t e r *publ4cation, when discussing houses, Drucker says ~ t h a t . , . .
- - among Bella Coo,la, . K v a k i i & l = , Coarit ~ s i m s h i a n and possibiy T l i n g i t , , '
< . , " . ;. a special ized &&ant' f o ~ of house was mad; . . . Thege were p i l e . .
b= dwellings, b u i l t p a r t l y or e n t i r e l y over waterJ. Alexander .Mackenz i e
- I
L u - - . . - - - - - - -+AL
descr ibes i n some d e t a i l t h e B e l l a C o d a houses o'f t h i s type . . . t f
. ' (Drucker 1955a:69), - , ,
, Wckenzie does indeed descr ibe p i l e dwellings for the Bel1,a ' C ~ o l a , , * I r
but most ce r t a in ly does not describe ,them a s being b u i l t br ' . , - -
e n t i r e l y over. the water." The p i l e b u i l t dwellingk described by . .
I I
- I
r - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - ---- _ - _ _ _ - - - - ---- -- MacKehrie i n the Bella. coola vallley ,are all reqched only a f t e r a - walk
, . , . , ' . -
o f some dis tance through the woods. After. being transported by canoe ' i
a I
t h e leiigth o f t h e ~eila Cooia va l ley , pot once mentioning houses b u i l t -
' , - - - -
over ' the w a t k r , ~ a c k k n z i e desci ibes a ; i l lage near t h e mouth cf the , .
' Bella Coola Riter: . I .
. , . , . we l e f t our canoe, and c a q i e d our luggage along a road through a wood for ' s o b hundred yards; when we came t o a v i l l a g e , consis t ing o•’ six very l.&ge houses;
,erected' on pa l l i sades , r i s i n g twentyfive fe& from t he grPund, which differed i n no *one cireuinstance from those already described, but zhe-heikht of t h e i r !
L ' e l e ~ a t i o n . . .' If 1 were t o judge by the heaps ,df f i l t h , . beneath these buildings, they must haye. been, -erected a t a m r e d i s t a n t period than any which de had passed
- , Qbckenzie 1971.:339) + . - - . ? - -. - - - ---- -. - - - - - ,
' . .'The &ye quore pmbgtrly describes the third VS lage. on -, - - A- . A -
> h
5Mac~lwrai thrs list of Bella Coola t o m s , the. tr-lation b f t h e n*e of , ,
which he gives as "'The ~ e n c e d om'^, so ca l led because i t was t . *
- - t
I .
. , t o
> .
culture during the period being described. 1
>
. -
I * ( . . I . '
1
, , ' . . - -37 *. r .
-I ' - -
1 . I - - , . above omatnenf s are made o f , but copper, brass , i ron, bone and s&ll -
r , . * A , - - + -+* -- -L- ---------
are a l l mentioned.' Mackenrie (1971:37@] ' says they have wedge head;. , ,
(.
, The men wear t h e i r h a i r long, %oms. keep it well combed, and let it - , ' I
hang loose overa.their shoulders, . . .. others arrange i ts plaits and , .
> e .
bedawb i t with bro'kn ear th , the ,women wear t h e i r h a i r >hortV1 (197.1: . ,
. 8 '
. 370:71). 1
. Ceremonial. dress is not mentioned by kckenz le , obviously he w a s , , " 2 li
+ L -. + - L -
l i m i t k L i n h i s observ&io& b y ' t h e time of year he v i s i t ed , and by .' . . -
the short length b f his stay., : . o x '
, ,
Social Qrganization
Mackenzie - i s .of cautse not exp l i c i t with regards t o Be l l a Coola . ,
social organization, but it is possible ' t ~ make some inferences i n t h i s ,
regard on t h e bas is bf h i s observations on Bella Coola government. He Q
says : . , a a - ,
- - - --
. ... It is i n t h i s r i v e r alose t h a t one man.appears t o have an e x c u s i v e and.heredi tary r igh t to what was necessary t o
, athe existence of those who a re associated with him., I al luae t o the salmon weir; >or f i sh ing place, t h e :sole
. . r igh t t o which confers on t h e chief an a r b i t r a r y power. Thqse embankments -could not have been formed .without a ' , >
very2great and associated labour; and, as might be I' ,
supposed, on t h e condition t h a t those who ass is ted i n + = " constructing it should^ enjoy a p w t i c i p a t i -- -I
advantages t o be, derived fro& it. Nevert - evidently appeared t o me, that the,chiMpowey over. it,
arid t h e people, w a s unlimited, without control. No' =% one could f i s h wi$hout hi$ pewissi x i * o r car ry home a '
larger - porriori of wbG be kad caught-,*kart w a s - s e ~ apart- - - - for him. 'NO o n ~ - c o u l d build an house without ,his consent; and ' ail h i s r o d s . appeared t o be folloved-with imp~&it - . - - L _ _
,- obedience.' The p k ~ l e a t large seemed t o be on a perfect . , -- equality, while the s t rangers among t h a were obliged t o obey the.commands of the nhtives i n general, o r q u i t th'e
'vi l lage (Mackenzie 1971 :3?4-3,751.
The above quote gives t h e t o t a l exp l i c i t remarks d e by kckenzie ,
, . . ,
, . &. . !"
- .
, ,
- L
'with zegards t o Bella Coola soc ia l organization. A rmaber of ? + - 1 - - . - -AL- / ----- - - LA +---
I /
inference? c& be drawn ,other remarks i n B&ickewiets jburna~ . Mackenziefe first encounter with the ~ h l a Coola was whenshe walk+ '
. , unikbounced in to a v i l l a g e where he shookehands wi th ' a number of .
3 . . . . . . inhabitants who soon conveyed t o him by s ips t h a t he should'go t q
A ' . * tlie l a iges t 'hdusk i n t h e b i l lage . There ~ack;nzie met ' the chief of a '
I 4
the'viTlage. After spending some time a t th is . v i l lage , mckenzie was 1 / _ " * . - A
- . , * ' - - , - L .... -+ - - - *-
t~Zmsp0rted b y ' c w e downstream t o another v i l lage . He was greeted by A
&other village ch ie f . &id .%as introduced t p t h e lat ter s two sons, the I
% . ^ . . f
- , eldest. of whom presented Mackenzie with ', a r be; d
I
" ,
' . ,
\ . . . . I insta&ly stepped . f & A r d to e t him, and presented -i
my hand, whereupon he broke the s t r i n g of a very h'andsome robe af sea o t t e r skin; which he had on, and covered me
" with it. This w q s as f l a t t e r i n g a reception a s I could passibly receive, especial ly as $ considered him $0 be t h e eldes t son of t h e chief (I971:326).
* After t h i s - reception - Mackenzie- was' entertained i n a hou-se of , . , -
greater dimension and b u i l t of b e t t e r materials t?qn any he had . '
pf eviously encountered. The entf r e Gil lage. stayed a t the. reception
f o r Mackeazie, "sxckptP a par ty of t en or twelve ,o f them, .wh& the
chief ordered t o go &d, catch fish," i1971:327) .. q
I- * . . . . e Mackenzie' was then conveyed by !canoe down the val ley with ?he ' \
"-.. chief Fs son--.+s guide. The chief ' of each v i l l age v i s i t e d was
i r
thoroughly infarmed beforehand ,of all par t iculars concerning ,
'
- - - ? , A L - - - - - - -- -- - -- - Mackenziets party. The settlements encountered by Hackenzie on h i s . , .
- L - - - - -- - - --- journey.dawnriver, varied i n s i z e ~from vi l lages consist ing of
, , 0
5' several hundred inhabitants , t o single ~ & s e sites, He was made tb '
7 .
s top and v i s i t a t m e spot fiere there were only two house?, as he .
, . , w a s info- the owner o f t h e h&sqs was "a person of consideratioiP
1
.+ to stop a t a v i l lage of only two'houses asethe-cbi$f,d&ere, . , - + A , [email protected]*--. 3 a s ,,,, . - -\1 r3
of m e consideration. I; laight be inferred from &is thaf the Bella 4 ' 3 . b.
. <6-
d h
d
6 .
42 ,
. . there is no fixed structure of anon;, thB *Bells, : ( ' I Cooia. The position of a e t e f 3s orme ,open tp: ' + , ~ _ - , , -
- - - -
i h d i v i d a l defin'ition and in i t i a t i ve than among other ~or thwes t Coast t r i b e s . . . (1971 : 112) . . . .
, - But within t& household do:&n and R+el say the authority if 3 : t
.. , . <
chief a& head of *.the hous6hold was ' clear-cut (1971 : 115) . ,
,
V
I ,
The lack of exkerrial ranking, or any s o r t bf central aqthority ~
> . .
wed i l l fo*~the Bella Cooli in time of w a r . MacI lnai th considered , .
. A
i
. . - , - - , the W l l a ' ~ e & a unlikely-to have engaged in' aggressive war, ran ' A - a - L "
enterprise; ":. . f o r which they bere unfi t ted both on ac,count of the i r . .
m i l i t a r y a t t i tude and the i r lack of central authorityvr :(194811:339). ' . + . -
, . ~ a c ~ i w r a i t h is most ,emphatic i n s ta t ing t h e ch&acterist ic m i l i t a r y *+
a t t i tdde oE the Bef l a hu l a and t he i r lack' of central authority that . , ' .
made . it d i f f i cu l t f o r them t o wage 'war. . I
, * - The following .le&thy quote frflln k c l l w r a i t h w i l l ' s W e t o -- - -
delineat'e Bella Coola warfare: *
, - - ,
. . . .Lack of ~a strong government was 'a serious handicap t6 the Bella Coola. After being assailed, the members ,
of the town would discuss re ta i l i a t iun , .and i f 'unanimity of opinion was' reached, tha t c&se was decided tipon.. Public opinion alone selected the leader, usually a man . who had .given a number of potlatches, especialIy one whose+position had been made stronger by previous , ,
(I
validation as a w q i o r . Svch a chief had no command over h i s followers. If he w e r e a & pf great prestige, \
. L
nany wuald be dl l ing t o serve under him, M t , he could . . not coerpel the services of anyone except h i s o m
slaves. A few individuals often iIec1ined:to folfow .. t h e i r fellows t o w a r , a l t b u g h the force of public . .
upifion usually p e v e n t d a too i n d i v i d t d i s t i c coluse. z*-i of-er.--& *ai*DWIT&-* - - - --- wftetkr or not t o jo'in the party, i f sane of t he i r zpf aives bd&een sf G p in-*@ -prevlaus- e t a & - - - - ' - - - ,- -
revenge influ&ced them t o share i n the re ta l ia t ion , -- otherwise only t h e prestige of a mighty chief cduld
attract them. EiIo case i s ,known +ii which al l the Bel.la Coola vil lages joined i n a single expedi.tion; ther&
r .
- . P . I
. ,
' a , 4 .
* -.>* . > ' I i . %
, 43 .. . . - ,
' #
were often temporary al l ianc6s ' b h e n neighbur& ' , '
-
, settlements., but complete lack sf cent ra l organiz- . . . - -atixm . . . The so-caHect"-iwckr h&-TitxTe aut lrorhy- -- - --- ---
, a $ over h i s mefi, *aL could desert a d re turn home a t + .
q y tine. . Lack uf martial a b i l i t y among t h e i r own -
, chiefs sowtimes Led t h e Bella Coola t o pl&e thegn- . , , s e l v e s under t h e authori ty of a Bella Bella i n a way ' .
' which would: be iapbss ih le f o r a war-like people. Frequently such 6diVided leadership led t o d i s a s t e r , &d;is t h e surest proof t h a t the Bella Coola were ,
. ndf as aggressive o r be l l icose as other coastal t r i b e s (194811 :340-342) .
t ' . ' *
Though the &!la Coola+, a s Aekidenced i n t h e ab~vs. ' '~uota, . were . . A - - - - -- . ,
not.. rnil5tarlly organized t o wage war, t h e i r geographiC,al posi t ion ' - ,
> ? . prevented them from being 'annihilated by more aggressive coastal , - . .
t r ibes . MacIlwraith says ; :The narrow el la' Coola va l ley , however, ' I
far reiuoikd from t h e opqn sea, and densely was d i f f i c u l t
to -attack (19481'1 :339), Such' was the case for' the v i l lages i n t h e '
--- - - -- A
. . Bel-la-Coo1 TvKI rey-prtipe~ ,- bm the m t l y k r r g B&Ja € p o h -viM age s w 0 r e
subject t o qui te f&que*t r a ids by the ~ w a k i k l and Tsimshian.
MacIlwraith mht ions specifics .'for the recourse t&en by one , - - - . . 9 ' ,
such outlying Bella Coola village,. He says: ' , k
. . . Belliz coola i t s e l f w d too h i f f i c u ~ t of gFcess. . '
and too densely p q k l a t e d to be successfkl2y attacked, but Talio was sUWject t o constant r a ids ... The ra id- . 3
ers became sa 'bold- t h a t the inhabitgnts of one of fhe , Talio v i l lages decided to defend t h ~ g l v e s by build-'
ing a stockacfe. Everyone ass i s t ed i n the task , so t h a t the for t i f . ica t ion w& soan completec). 2t --,- -
-%. - -+-
consisted of o- fence of v e r t i c a l logs with a, platform naming around near the. top, on t h e inner s i d e , on which t h e defenders could stand, and a wat,er-gate &rough whia qumm coficL e W r a t , I_h igh- t ide I_t: *- -, ----L-_. - su-oundeq-five as s i x %ousas and w e p 1 a m e d . a ~ a place of rgfbge- for a l l the tali^ v i l l a e s ,, , 1/194_811:_342), . + - + -- ---
, . Apparentiy MacIlwraith i s speaking o f - a more recent time than Vancouver
for 'no stockaded v i l lages &re mentioned by Vancouver i n . South Bentinck
. . . b
I .
. . 4.
D
, .
. . b , considers the 0id ~otdillekm cult& to be manifest. These k s :
2 .
- :\ /. : . . , L.
4
b I - r
* .
from 6060 to 2506 B.C. Of t h i s he says: 8; * .
. . -
I
t he Cascade Phase which existed during that time represents
. . 1 . - .
# *
I , . . . . , - 2' , ,
, p'
5zr. I 1 ) + - . , . ' B * T
' seas&; This is the &slential' coasfal spattern * fl!k0:7l). 4 + - - - _ _ _ _ _ - _ -- --
a * ,
, The s i t e s describkd from the, Ccllrmbia Plateau: included i n ~ u t l e r ? ~ . - ,
. - (1961) Old Cordilleran Culture a re given wider geographical d i s t r ibu t ion 5: .
by Boraen (1969) he sees them occuring 'a lso i n Nevada, California
and. Mexico. Of these borden says : - . " 7 ' - . . . Though regional and lacs1 sptzcializatf ons are. of ten
. I apparent, such assemblages commonly fea ture . large biface , . knives a d leaf-shaped points , scrapers i n a wide range
- " . - - 2 -<-,- - . af- she h d : type, oe6a~llaiialIy crude.. o r 'even Gel'l-made .
bIades, but.never microblades. Varying quan t i t i e s of - ,
pebbld^pools are usually present. One example of such 0 - --an assemblage is . that of the Milliken phase in south-
western Br i t i sh Columbia, dated a t 7100 .to 6200.B.C. ... 6 ,
Undoubtedly of e a r l i e r more southerly or ig in , the , 7 .
Milliken cu l tu re i s a t present the northernmost exponent'+ of these cu l tu ra l manif estat idns. Farther south, Cres~rnan's c1960) Early I ,component a t Fivemile Rapids, dated a t 7800 B.C. . . . probably represent e a r l i e r mani@estations of thid t r a d i t i o n (1969:8).
6 . I
' 1- ' , .
, These widespread gepgraphically d is t r ibuted s i t e s which Borden sees as
dating t o as mu& 6s ZO,QOO years ago i* t h e i r most southern reaches - . . , -
. ' have been nambd by him the ~ r o t o v e i t & r n c u l t k a l t r ad i t ion (I969:9).
' . The nonhward movement of conveyors, of the Protoweste3n t r a d i t i o n brought ' , . + : .
i
' F, ' t h k m i n t o Br i t i sh Columbia irhorrly af ter ' t he a r e s had been deglaciated. J .
Of t h i s Borden says: , , , $ .
- A
. . . It is significant gin t h i s context t h a t 8,000 t o . 9,000.years ago the Iwer valley of the Fraser was still ,
depressed from t h e last and recently terminated local '
' g lac ia t ion and $hat a long i n l e t extended from the Gulf ' '
.of Georgia t o the v i c i n i t y of Hope . . . Thus;-the Indians - --- - who Afished iii flie FrZ3er Canyon st tfikt-time were l i t t l e
, mre than twenty miles from the m u t h ~f the ~iv,er qd, + - - --- - - - - - - - 7
, %U salt water . . . f 196T:lT). . .
From the above it is evident t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t inhabitants on t h e C ~ a s t , .
, ,
arrived from an area ta the south and eas t . The problem rfow remains to -
1 ,
. - . .- , .
' 55 ,
. > ' 3 . +.
d . 6
.. . , shdu t t t a t . t hese first inhabi tan ts &e indeed the progenitors of the -
ethnographically keam Salish, - . -and ' that - t h e i r n & q v f -b-k- -- ---- + I ?
. . , - . . , i
. them along t h e coast t oya t l eas t . as, f a r a s t h e Bella Coola t e r r i t o r y . i
f . .. - , * A .- T+e cul ture cont inui ty a t t he Milliken s i te i n , t h e - l o w e r Fraser +
. b . Cayon from ,7500 B.C: 'to 4500 B.C, -does not appear t o be i n question. - . ~
* I > , . . . . ,
, ' This t ime-period- encompasses two phases i Milliken Ca. 750&6060: B .C ; . r "
and bfaz&aa Ca. 6000-4500 B . c . ~ :The Milliken phase is d iser ibed above. . <
Bord& says of the. Mazamzr Phase: . ; ' .J - 7 + - - _ -, , -- A - L - - 2. ".
he a n i f a c t co l l ec t ion of t h i s phabe is not large; and > < in-general pa marked change from t h e preceding phase is
indicated (1968': 14) . . r
,-
However- the succeeding phase, Eayem Ca, 3500-1500 B.C., shows an in t ro- , - 3 . -
b . . . duction of a ?numbeT of ' new t r a ' i t s . The . phase . is described by o r d = n :
. . - I
Certain important terhnological advances occurred i n t h ~ s e '
tl period. P r o j e c t i l e poin ts provided with stems. t o . f a c i l i t a t e haf t ing make t h e i r appearance. D r i l l s of vajrious types a r e a d d e d ~ t o ~ t h e tool kiS ... A small fragment of t h i n s i l t b t o n e plaque decorated with Incised
? c
cross-hatching w a s recovered, as well as two small _ - -
- spindle-shaped . s tea t i te , -objec ts 9 i t h en'circling l ines . Possibly the latter a r e g a i n g pieces used i n s lahal , " ,
a guessing g a e still passionately' played by t h e Indians 6f today. b o n g the most s t r i k i q g developments b f t h i s phase was t h e beginning of t h e ground s l a t e industry . . E . . 'Fhe Eayem deposi ts a t Es'ilo have yield-ed a s e r i e s of ,
chipped and partia1,ly ground s l a t e p ~ i n t s and fragments of exceedingly well-made gromid and golished knives
' 61968:14): ' , . . .
The da tes tEat bracket t h i s , a l so bracket tde e a r l i e s t dated s i t e s . -
. i n the Fraser Oelia and Gulf of Georgia reg i ip , T h e s e s i t e s a r e I 1
-- -- . p---L
, st. M g o ~ a n n e r y i f a t e d t o 2300 0 .C. and .%yne island datL& a t % 0 0 - ~ x ~ - -*
. . I
- -- -' Of t h e material a t St.' M g o Calvert says,: '
' . b - . . . The bdsic e c i n e c r e l i a n c e on f i s h , molluscs and
4 w@ wfFich i s so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of l a t e r ~or thwegt"Coas t , cul tures i s well-defined, i n t h e e & l l e s t l+evels . . .. m e - -
, .
. , . ' .
, \
d ' C ,
: ' , i , , . , ,* , + -
1 I ii . ,
5 4 ' 2 I .
,+ / '
- . - < --
. , '
lowest teveld of the- aeposif show aff l~kt ie$ ~o--th&!aYem-~-; - Phase of t h e F~asef"Cmyon, with which- they are' roughly cpntemporary. The p e ~ p l e were. apparently kell acquainted , - with wood working techniques and depended on r iver ine , i f i ter- t idal and land resources f o r food . . . This ee~nomic . .
. . - ' p a t t e h see*, t o p e r s i s t with. l i t t l e change. It is ' &ccompanied by a gradual cu l tu ra l .dev&lopment, marked by , .
an increase i n &t icu la r .decorative forms and the first s l i g h t ' indications of a inore marit+me or5;ented way of -
> ,
life . . . . .
A s . a f i n a l remark,, one might paint* out t h a t t h e presence of 'a Frasezr Delta -wmponent. bf t h e Eayem Phase suggests ' - - -- - - - -- -
' t h a t other ea r ly Canyon Phases may be jus t as wide-spread and tha t the cu l tu ra l s imi la r i ty found along t h e lower Fraser i n moreVreceqt times has a great ant iqui ty. - [Calvert 1970 t 74-75). 8 .
. : The material from Mape Island i s represented by th ree phases. The
pearliest bf these hiss- beeeLnamed by Carlson (1970) the Mayne Phase, . . , . ,
and consists of : , . .
Flaked basa l t a r t i f a c t s and debitage i n <uant$ty, l ea f - . I , shaped basa l t poin ts , stemmed &id shouldexed basa l t ~ o i n t 3 ,
a
scrapers and knive-s, pebble choppers, "thilky quartz and quartz - crys ta l flakes and nticrobhies , obsidian flakes and -. -- - _ _
I '. mic'roblades , ground s l a t e points and knives present but - ra re , chipped s l a t e points', b i l a t e r ~ l l y . barbed ,harpoci.n heads .
of an t l e r , un i l a t e ra l ly barbed a n t l e r points with lashing .' . gropves; a n t l e r wedges, sandstone abrading s labs and -
whetstones, labre ts and other polished s t s n e ornaments, bone . pendants, long, upbarbed, bone paints , red ochre, extended bur ia ls , c i~cular ;@ear ths , sock slab features (1970 : 115).
I , * I f
The &me F'hise material. as described & w e const i tu tes the f i r s t - , -
) I * .
reco;ded ?vidence for such.' an assemblage on the Northwest Coast. ,
I #
Carlson (1970: 1173 sees s i m i l a r i t i e s between< Mayne Phase wi te r i a l , and '
- - - --- * - - - - - - - - - - A - - - - P A - - - - - - - P
I *
material ex&ated on T&l% Island dff the coast of the Al&ska - - - - -
~ e n i n s u l a , dated between, 2500. and' 1OOO 0 .C, . Wlt ~ar'lsbn. a l so says :
,, %re are some s i m i l a r i t i e s between the Mayne phase A
pro jec t i l e points and those frm t h e Gayam phase at . , Yale and at the S t . W g o s i t e . . . The St. W g o s i t e . . a l so yiel'd& one b i l a t e r a l l y barbed harpoon head of a
, . di f fe ren t s t y l e ,.. A Fraser River s i t e which~might I *
. n ,
b d
s i t e s , Schooner Passage a t t h e mouth of Rivers I n l e t , was t e s t
says :
The midden fo l lows an i r r e g u l a r s h o r e l i n e around t h r e e coves and out on t h e western po in t of t h e i s l a n d f o r 1,050 f e e t ... In width it averages a t p re sen t about 60 f e e t , except i n one p l ace near t h e n o r t h and where it c u t s back ac ros s a narrow neck t o a cove on t h e shore f o r 150 f e e t . . . The e x t e n t of a c t u a l d e p o s i t v a r i e s from 10 t o 17 o r 18 f e e t , 15 f e e t probably being t h e average e x t e r n a l he ight (1943:lOO).
The a r t i f a c t y i e l d from t h e t e s t t r ench was moderate, bu t t h e composition
of t h c midden d e p o s i t i s o f i n t e r e s t . Drucker s ays :
A t 108 inches a block 5 f e e t long (from t h e inne r f ace ) was l e f t , and t h e t r e n c h wa l l s were brought i n s l i g h t l y s o t h a t a t t h e bottom t h e cu t was 2 f e e t wide. A t t h i s l e v e l seepage prevented f u r t h e r excavat ion , a l though depth t e s t s put down 36 inches showed t h e midden ma te r i a l t o cont inue ( i . e . 227 inches ) . The bottom of t h e t r e n c h , a t 191 inches , was 47 inches below h igh - t ide l i n e . Severa l depth t e s t s were dug a t low t i d e down t h e beach f r o n t of t h e s l d e , I n an e f f o r t t o determine t h e e x t e n t of t h e midden m a t e r i a l ... The upper 10 inches cons i s t ed of f i n e p a r t i c l e s of white s h e l l (apparent ly crushed clam and b a r n a c l e ) , over ly ing a t h i c k bed of mussel s h e l l wi th fragments o f whi te s h e l l . Both l a y e r s contained some a sh , and i n t h e lower l a y e r s b i t s of charcoa l and burn t s tones were noted. A t 60 f e e t from t h e datum (by eye , 4 f e e t below t h e beach l i n e ) s h e l l m a t e r i a l was found t o extend t o a depth o f 36+ i nches . A t t h e s u r f a c e was a l a y e r of beach g r a v e l , followed by a 9- inch l a y e r of mussel s h e l l with clam and/or ba rnac l e fragments and cons ide rab le ash and cha rcoa l . I n f e r i o r t o t h i s was a very compact l a y e r o f broken mussel s h e l l 8 inches t h i c k , which over lay a bed o f mussel s h e l l wi th ash ( l i g h t e r i n c o l o r than t h e preceding) which continued t o t h e bottom of t h e ho le (Drucker 1943:lOO & 102) .
The midden composition shows a very heavy r e l i a n c e on mussel a s a food
resource , which i s t y p i c a l of midden d e p o s i t s i n t h e S a l i s h a r e a a t an
e a r l y l e v e l . The p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e Schooner Passage s i t e being S a l i s h
does e x i s t , but a more thorough excavat ion of t h e s i t e i s necessary
before anything can be s a i d with assurance.
A major excavatioii h a s b c e i ~ conducted a t t he i a rge midden s i t e a t
Namu by members of t h e Anthropology Department of t h e Univers i ty of
Colorado. Radiocarbon e s t ima te s i n d i c a t e cons ide rab le a n t i q u i t y f o r
t h e s i t e but d a t a concerning t h e c u l t u r a l sequence i s not ye t a v a i l a b l e .
I t may be s i g n i f i c a n t t o note t h a t l a r g e chipped-stone p o i n t s were
recovered from t h e e a r l y l e v e l s . U n t i l more information i s a v a i l a b l e
regard ing t h e excavat ions a t Namu, i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o determine i f
t h e e a r l y age e s t i m a t e s d a t e a S a l i s h occupat ion.
Archaeological excavat ions i n Be l l a Coola t e r r i t o r y c o n s i s t
p r imar i ly of t hose done i n t h e Kwatna Bay reg ion . A s i t e survey
conducted i n Be l l a Coola t e r r i t o r y i n 1968 revea led a number of s i t e s
which promised t o o f f e r important a r chaeo log ica l d a t a (Hobler 1970).
Two s i t e s i n Kwatna Bay were chosen f o r subsequent excavat ion. In
1969 a l a r g e midden (FaSu 2 ) was t e s t t renched and a water-logged
midden (FaSu 1) was t e s t e d . FaSu 2 revea led c u l t u r a l d e p o s i t s t o a
depth of 2 .8 m. Of t h e s e d e p o s i t s Carlson s a y s :
The e a r l i e s t d e p o s i t i s a l a y e r of crushed s h e l l , p r imar i ly mussel, which l i e s d i r e c t l y over t h e s t e r i l e g l a c i a l t i l l below, Above t h i s i s a compact, b l ack , organic s o i l wi th numerous l a r g e and smal l g r a n i t e boulders . Rest ing on t h i s d e p o s i t i s a we l l def ined house f l o o r i nd ica t ed by a 5 cm. t h i c k l a y e r o f c l a y . Above t h e house f l o o r i s a l a y e r of f l o o r d e b r i s , and above t h i s and p a r t l y f i l l i n g t h e house depress ion i s a massive d e p o s i t of crushed s h e l l i n t o which a r e in t ruded a s e r i e s of s t a k e ho le s . A f r i a b l e d e p o s i t con ta in ing many l enses of sand and charcoa l a s wel l a s s h e l l forms t h e f i l l above. Twenty cm. of s o i l d i s t u r b e d by gardening covers t h e s i t e above t h i s (l97Ob : 1) .
Carlson d i s t i n g u i s h e s two c u l t u r a l phases a t t h i s s i t e :
. ,
, . . . . <
6 2 ,
, - I) an ea r l i e iphase lacking the hiavy pound stone tool I-
complex typif ied by the hammerstone grinders and c i r w l a r '
- stones, and 25 t h e Kwama ph-te i n which there -is a ,'- a - - -7 , s
coritinuiry of a.i-ti,fa<t t-jqys from th& ea r l i e r .depokits , )& k
plus the .heavy ground stone tools <1970b:4)~. . . ;$ , ,-- ' , ' I' : . . ' ~ n even ear l i e r phase which is :not found at F ~ S U 2 is manifest at fou i .
> . ' .
. I . , sites in tAhe area. ~ a r l s o n has named t h i s ea r l i e r phase'll~athedxalu -. . >
and sa t s : * '
I .
The geological picture suggksts &at .the s i t e s of t h i s A
phase belong i~ a period .of t ime . when sea level was 4 fowec than it is tdday, h l eas t i n the KWatna 1ocallt)i. - - -* --
. . . The s i f ;e locations' themselves . a r e , strongly indicative , ,
of a maritime coastal oriented culture with.wa.f,ercraft , .
and- u l t i l i z a t i qn of sea resources (1972 :43). .-
The Cathedral ghase material is described by Carlson'as-probably t h e . 9-
ear l i es t i n the locali t$. I t differs from the l a t e r material, i n that a
r ; . tools of the Cathedral phase were made by chipping ,or . f l a k i n g 'stone. , . a ,
, P
. - Carlson says of t h i s phase: 7 ,
Typical too l s from Cathedral phase s i t e s a& a l l made o f - f l aked stane and consist ~ f . ~ r u j e c t i l e p o i n t s , large core
- scrapers, debt &culat&s, retouched flake's, notches, &-if$ - . r -
p forators. One de 'fknite microblade fragment 'and several po h s l e ones were alqo recoukred. In addition t o thesk a r t i f ac t s
>quantit 'ies of struck flakes and a number of very-ap)l made, . prepa?ed flake cores were found fl972:43-44). .
One rqdibcarbon .es t i ia te from t h e type s i t e a t , ~ a t h e d r a l ?b.jnt yielded
a date of appi-oximately 300 B.C. , but Carlson feels' thelCathedral ,
phase W i l l eventually b e shown t d date between 4000-1000 B.C. , a
P . . (CarlsolrG.and Hobf e r 1972 :4) .
-- - _ , -
- -- The a r t i f ac t assemblages f o r ' i h e two subkequenr phases i n the
- _ 1J - - - , - - - - _ __ , _ __--__-- * ,
Kwazna rkgiona are typologically dissimilar t o t h e cathedral phase - - 7 - . -
materiai but are very s imi lw t o each other: ~ s r l s o i (1972). , , . -
%'> a differen;i?tes th; . . ear l i& Anutcix phase f om the &tna phase sinplx
7 1 dk - L-
.+ on t h e basirs of heavy ground Stone materia1,'such a s h v e r s t o n $ . .
. ,
grinders and c i r c u l q ' $ones,. perforated, and ~ p e r f o r a t e d , appearing .
5 * ' . ,
The developmental sequence as ou t l i ned by Marian Smith (1950, 1952, 1956)
i s sorncwi~ai more compiicatea than t h a t proposed by Drucker. The c h a r t
drawn up by Smith inc ludes a magnif icent a r r a y of l o c a l developments and
r eg iona l climaxes (1956:284). One of h e r l o c a l developments i s t h e
proposed " P r e h i s t o r i c F o o t h i l l Province.' ' Th i s Province extends from t h e
Columbia r i v e r i n t h e sou th , n o r t h along t h e Cascade mountain range we l l
i n t o B r i t i s h Columbia. Having recognized such a Province Smith says :
I f t h e F o o t h i l l province extended no r th through p a r t s of t h e L i l l o o e t d ra inage , an easy r o u t e was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e emergence of t h e Be l l a Coola. The Be l l a Coola would thus r ep re sen t t h e northernmost ex tens ion of t h e province, t h e people having a r r i v e d a t t h e i r p re sen t l o c a t i o n by a process d i r e c t l y p a r a l l e l i n g t h e slow down-river i n f i l t r a t i o n which marked t h e western advance of more southern F o o t h i l l groups (1956 : 289) .
In proposing t h e above, Smith e l a b o r a t e s on t h e e a r l i e r conten t ion of
Swanton (1904) t h a t t h e Be l l a Coola a r r i v e d a t t h e i r p re sen t p o s i t i o n v i a
an i n t e r i o r r o u t e .
Swanton's a r t i c l e d e a l s with t h e o r i g i n o f t h e c l an system and
s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s on t h e Northwest Coast. He comes t o t h e conclusion t h a t
m a t r i l i n e a l c l a n s o r i g i n a t e d among t h e T l i n g i t , Haida, and Tsimshian;
but t h a t s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s began among t h e Kwakiutl, probably i n t h e Bel la
Bel la a r e a . Swanton's f i n a l comment i s of i n t e r e s t i n regard t o t h e
p o s i t i o n of t h e B e l l a Coola. He says :
Morice t e l l s u s , however, t h a t t h e Athapascan Ch i lko t in , who now s e p a r a t e t h e s e people from t h e i r congeners i n t h e i n t e r i o r , once occupied but a s i n g l e v i l l a g e back o f t h e Bel lacoola and have d r iven t h e Shuswap eastward out o f t h e v a l l e y o f Ch i lko t in r i v e r q u i t e r e c e n t l y . If t h i s process has been going on f o r some t ime longer t h e i n t e r i o r S a l i s h must have bordered on t h e Bel lacoola a t no very d i s t a n t day ... I t would seem more l i k e l y , t h e r e f o r e , t o suppose t h a t some i n t e r i o r S a l i s h a t t h a t t ime e f f e c t e d a lodgment n e a r t h e heads of t h e long i n l e t s j u s t mentioned, and have g radua l ly pushed seaward, wh i l e t h e Ch i lko t in meanwhile c u t them o f f from t h e r e s t of t h e l i n g u i s t i c
s tock t o which they belong ... (Swanton 1904:485).
Lvidence w i l l be p re sen t ed t o show t h a t t h e Be l l a Coola most l i k e l y reached
t h e i r p o s i t i o n v i a a c o a s t a l r o u t e .
The working hypothes i s t h a t has been t h e b a s i s o f t h i s paper
i nco rpo ra t e s t h e e a r l i e r t h e o r i e s of Boas, Kroeber and Drucker. I t i s
formulated a s fo l l ows :
The development o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Northwest Coast c u l t u r e has taken p l a c e dur ing an approximate 10,000 yea r t ime span. The i n i t i a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e coas t a r r i v e d i n r e c e n t l y d e g l a c i a t e d B r i t i s h Columbia from t h e south and pursued an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d hunt ing- f i sh ing -ga the r ing economy t h a t was becoming r i p a r i a n . A s they g r a d u a l l y spread northward along t h e c o a s t , t hey came i n t o c o n t a c t w i th a developing mari t ime o r i e n t e d Eskimo-Aleut c u l t u r e which cons ide rab ly i n f luenced t h e Northwest Coast c u l t u r e developmental sequence.
The chronology o f even t s t h a t occurred on t h e Northwest Coast du r ing t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l , e thnographic , e t h n o h i s t o r i c and l i n g u i s t i c d a t a , does
provide some e l u c i d a t i o n .
The l i n g u i s t i c d a t a i s most c o n s i s t e n t w i t h ou r hypo thes i s . The
Mosan theo ry t h a t S a l i s h , Chimakuan (Quileute-Chemakum) and Wakashan
(Nootka-Kwakiutl) a l l have a common o r i g i n , can b e used t o e x p l a i n a
number o f even t s . The t ime when t h e speakers o f S a l i s h , Chimakuan and
Wakashan shared a common language has been c a l c u l a t e d by Swadesh (1953:42)
t o be approximately 9000 yea r s ago. T h i s d a t e s o c l o s e l y approaches
t hose ass igned t h e e a r l i e s t a r chaeo log ica l assemblages presen ted i n t h e
prev ious chap te r t h a t we may cons ide r t h e f i rst people on t h e coas t were
Mosan speake r s . A s t o t h e i r subsequent dispersment we must keep i n mind
Swadesh's admonition t o l i n g u i s t s and p r e h i s t o r i a n s . He says :
' I * P
I ,
. .. . " * . x , . - ' ; r , w
* 3 . - . 76. , * * - i
2 ' . .
- ' *
, d- 7
1
., *south ahd t h e Betla 'Bblla, Kwakiutl and Nsoxka pulations - - , . - - .. 'were, displaced , w i t h . their tmritorias &fect.;L\~aL~- fsducmL -- - , IL-- . . ---_
t o location$ they inhabit today (F4nnegan E W Z : 11). . . , , s > . .
The abdve migration model " , subs , t a t iat& t h e hypotheitsis p~opored .at t he d
i
. beginning af this chapter. t
, , \ * . 2 .
A. gradual"northward spread of grato-Wakashan and proto-Salish , .
g ,
'
s p i k i n g people 'soems best supported 6 y the arch$eologicsl , . l i , n p i s t i c , . - . * I ,
( I
cthnois&phic and ethnohis taric dhta. The archaeological ovidonco from , + - L-+
i . - t - L < . . A . -A * - . - a -
- , large m i d d h s i t e s , a i l h o w v a n cnrly -hea%y reliance on ntusscl as e
major' source of s u b s i s t s ~ c c . = Such is . i n keeping with t h e early *,
: + recoknition o f L r i p o r i a n pcop~a of river plussol as a spurce of fooii. . ell-' -
nrchaeologiwl repotiB sh iv mus.sel s h e l l t o bo t h e main s t r a t u b i n tho > ,
oar1 icst lava1 of t h e sit'e. hy new tcchni{ucs of exp1oiiration~werc
. dcv~. l ;~cd or ncguirod t h e y dif fusad thiough fho tit ire. area. ~ o c h n i ~ u c s , *
IcprneJ in ttic north ware c v c r ~ t u a l l ~ man.ifest in thc South,, Contact . ,
between > Eskimo-Aleut - arrd Wakasj~an would- - maw n di f fus ion of - cu l tu ra l , - L
elcmcqts *to .&he more 'squthcr-ly Sal i sh without 'd'irect, contact betwoen * , . -
, . . ksk ima and S,alistr'. . h
. . 'Tho cont inui ty m&ef o f ' ~ l i t c h c l 1 (1969) ha5 merit i n $'erms of. a . * , -
r o l a t i v e i y ' s t ab le population, hut i t i r daubtful that. ' ~or thvks t Coast . . I ,
I *
cu l tu re du&lopod i q s i r? , withgut 'considcrablo diffusiorl of cu l tura l
cl cmcnts from the, ~ s k i m - ~ 1 e u t ' . ' Tho toggling hurpoon , ulu , .mid the . "
'?' ' . whatin8 c m ~ l e x of t h e Noo-tka qrc too closcly rclotod to-nor thern mclrktimb
- 7- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - A - - - --- t r a i t s t a be eiploincd by fndcpendoht dovelapment. Cultural cXchange ,
3= - - r , - - - *-
must have taken placc bctwccn E s k i m o Indian, a n d ' i t i s . b a s t
.crylelncd by a more nortlwrky. t e r r i t o r y for e&ly Wakashan peoplo who .
wcrc a t the :;me t i i d in contact with ~ ~ l i s b speakcrs t o t h e south.
. , . I
t " .
. -
I
'78 ' . . . t
d i ' , i , .
(1898). e o a s ;epo$ts that t h e fir& family t o kett le Nuqleblst q b s ' - ' m
* 4 . overland from R i i s n i + k i n g c o w u Inlet. ' P i e ~ ~ ~ ~ t 3 ~ r O U t L 6 ~ E O u ~ 6 -
A- - - -PC-
have been v i a , t h e ~ l i p i k 1 i n . i ' Riyer t o Knot creek t o Knot Lake t o the I . . . I . .
, ~ t n a r k o River and thence t o t h e ' B c l l a c o o l a v a l l & . Such a rwte Ls -
f o a s i b l e , 'but i s ~ i t h o u t suppor t ing evidence. , '
T h e t h i r d p r o p o s i t i o n is. t h a t suggested by swanion (1904) b u t hoes . . . - ,
nor ;,&m f e a s i b l < i i view of Cold?anrs report regqrd ing t h e acculturation ' a La
07 e ~ t k a i c h o ~ a r r f a r ; GoTdman s a y s : * A - L - --
c,
. . i
, . A t what p e r i o d j n t h e i r h i s t o r y the ,h lk&dho Carrier . c s t a b l i s f i d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e . , ~ e l l a Coola we do no t know. , ,
Alkatcho informants c l a im t h a t . i n t h e "old dsys" t h e y used t o w i n t e r at , ~ e i l a Coala, f o r two- ma5n rgasons - f i r s t , beqause t h e y f r e q u e n t l y ran s h o r t of fwd d u r i n g t h e winfaf -months,. -and ' second, because ihe Beila Cooia furnished a market f o r - t h e i r furs ... Tho Bella Coola -
welcomcd tho ~ & r i c r , a1 though, desp i s ing them, because . ,
t h e ' fur t r d d e was p r o f i t a b l e and bccauso it them, '. t o h ~ v c s t r a n g e r s presdnt at '-their win te r ceremonies as * .
awe-s t r icken g u e s t s oldma man' 1940:339), . . , 3 . I , '
, r
, An awe-struck*pcoplc hard ly seem l i k e l y t o have wrested t h e i r t e r r i t o r y , , ,
0 - - - - - - -
by force. I'uythl'r &ui&encc of the u n l i k o l i h o a l of t h c ~ s r r i c r as I Y ' C
canqu&rors 1 s cotiGincd i n ~oldrn&'s iGpart. Lie says i - . 4
33'.~uforc t h o in t roduc t ion o f steel t r a p s , and horses - t h e carrier-ceefiornic cqvironmcnt -could k 4 y - ~ u $ t a i R t h e *
" r
-- L --- -- , popula t ion . Famines wsre' 'not ,uncommon, and most winters . . , wcrc.spent with the B c l l e Coola (Goldman 1941):351].
* .
* , And i n f i n n l r e f u t a t i o n of t h e Csrrior disl&lging cont iguous S a l i s h
, > .
pcaplc from t h o BcIla Copla; Coldman s t u t a s : , . ..
- The phiarric system in its particular rear i snts t iap -L - A -. - - A -+ --
. - which d a f i n i t a k y d i f f u s c d from t h e Coast; d i d not reach t h o Shuswap un t i 1 1850 _from tho Upper Carxier L194Q7:3401 . .
- L - - ' i .
. L : ? ' ' Th'ls l a s t s ta tement presupposes n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~distance betwben I n t e r i o r ,
" , L 1 . . >
JH J 5
{ I . S a l i s h and Bella Coola and i; scorns u n l i k e l y t h a t t h a t disranco could
I '
have been c r e a t e d by the Carrisr f o ~ c i n g t h e i r way batwoon t h e I n t e r i o r . .
' r
!< I
, $ .
9 I 1 - 1 . I ,
? ,
. , - . . ,
' . 82 I , - b . , , ,
6 . . . - + - . ~ r & r b n , n : ~ . e t 'ar -. + A - . - -_ - . A - - - - - -A PL ---A-d ----
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