A History ofFashion andCostumeThe AncientWorld

Jane Bingham

The Ancient World

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Publication Data

Bingham, Jane.A history of fashion and costume.

The ancient world/Jane Bingham.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-8160-5944-6

1. Clothing and dress—History—To500.

GT530.B56 2005391/.009/01—dc 22 2004060881

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Art Archive: 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14. 15

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Contents

Introduction 5

Chapter 1: Early People 6

Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt 10

Chapter 3: Peoples of Western Asia 16

Chapter 4: Civilizations of Ancient Greece 28

Chapter 5: The Roman Empire 36

Chapter 6: Peoples of the South and East 46

Chapter 7: People of the Americas 52

Timeline 60

Glossary 61

Further Information 62

Index 64

IntroductionThis volume traces the history of costume from the last IceAge, when people first started wearing clothes, to the collapseof the Roman Empire in the late fifth century CE. Dividedinto chapters according to region, it outlines the early historyof costume from prehistoric times to the emergence of thefirst cities, and surveys the succession of civilizations that grewup in the Middle East. Individual chapters are devoted toancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, but the book also focuseson the cultures of India, eastern Asia, and the Pacific region.The final chapter covers the rich civilizations of the Americas.

The history of costume is a vast subject, and the aim of thisvolume is simply to highlight major trends and to provideinteresting examples. Knowledge of ancient costume dependson surviving evidence (such as paintings and items of jewelry),and while it is sometimes possible to build up a detailedportrait of a culture, the picture is far from complete for manycivilizations.

Although the cultures described in this book are extremelyvaried, they all have some factors in common. Most earlycivilizations had a strong ruler, who dressed in a dramatic wayto show off his riches and power.Warriors needed weaponsand armor to help them defend their kingdoms. People worespecial costumes to worship their gods, and both men andwomen liked to adorn themselves with jewelry and ornaments.Once a society was reasonably settled, traders exchanged goodsfor precious items that were used to create fine jewelry andcostumes.

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The hunters of the last Ice Age, who lived around100,000 years ago, were probably the first people

to wear clothes. However, there is no proof of whenclothing first developed, since the materials used tomake clothing decay easily and rapidly, and the earliestexamples of clothing did not survive. Recent DNAevidence indicates that some time between 30,000 and114,000 years ago, head lice, which typically infesthuman hair, evolved a new sub-species, body lice,which commonly infest human clothing.

Prehistoric People

Chapter 1: Early People

belts, and cloaks.These weresometimes made from fur, althoughthis could be very bulky. More oftenthe fur was removed from the animalhide. However, people did wear furboots, tied onto their feet and legswith leather laces.

To make clothing, animal hides werefirst pegged out on the ground andscraped clean, using a sharpenedanimal bone or sharp-edged stone.Then they were washed andstretched out taut to stop them fromshrinking as they dried. Once thehides had been thoroughly stretched,the leather was softened before beingcut into suitable pieces for clothing.Then a sharp, pointed stone was usedto punch a line of holes along theedges of the leather pieces.The holesmade it easier to pass a bone needlethrough the hide and sew the piecestogether, using sinew.

Making ClothesThe first clothes were probablysimple tunics, trousers, string skirts,

Prehistoric people woresimple clothes made fromanimal skins, and addedjewelry and ornamentsmade from shells, bonesand feathers.

Early People

7

Early DecorationsEvidence survives from around30,000 years ago of huntersdecorating their clothes.Themammoth hunters of the Russianplains sewed seashells and feathersonto their tunics.They also madestrings of beads from shells andanimal teeth, and used ivory frommammoth tusks to make simplebracelets.Archaeologists believe thatthe mammoth hunters wore thesedecorations for religious ceremoniesand dances.

Cave PaintingsAround 35,000 years ago, peoplebegan painting pictures on the wallsof caves. Some of these early cavepaintings depict semi-humancreatures, and experts believe thatthese figures were probably priestsdressed as animals.The painted,dancing figures wear deer antlersattached to their heads, and longwolves’ tails.They also appear to bewearing cloaks made from feathers.

Body PaintsThere is evidence that the early cavepainters painted their bodies as wellas their caves.Traces of red ocher

Where’s the Evidence?Archaeologists draw on a range of different sources to build up a picture of the sort ofclothes that very early people wore. Scraps of leather clothing have been found in graves,while shells and teeth pierced with holes indicate that these objects once formednecklaces. To help them reconstruct the practices of ancient people, archaeologists alsostudy traditional groups, such as the aboriginals of Australia and the Inuit of Alaska, whohave followed the same basic way of life for thousands of years.

pigment have been discoveredon bodies in graves, suggestingthat people decorated thebodies of the dead before theywere buried. It is probable thatpeople also used pigments topaint patterns on their ownbodies, just as people havedone for millions of years inAfrica and Australia.Specialized tools for permanenttattooing dating from around 38,000 years ago have beendiscovered in Europe.

Shells were one of the firstmaterials to be made intojewelry. These very earlycarved and paintedornaments reflect anancient tradition of jewelrymaking.

8

First Civilizations

Dyes from NatureEarly people colored their clothes with dyes made from earth, flowers,and bark, and in some parts of the world people still use these naturaldyes. A type of clay called ocher produces warm reds, oranges, andyellows. The indigo plant makes a deep blue, while the madder rootgives a rich scarlet. Some lichens produce a green color, while the barkand husks of walnut dye cloth a deep brown.

Even in the earliestcivilizations, color andpattern were very important.This painted plaque fromthe twelfth century BCEshows a woman from Nubia(in North Africa) and a manfrom Syria, both dressed incolorful costumes.

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Ancient Sumerians One of the earliest civilizations inthe Middle East was the kingdomof Sumer, which lay between theTigris and Euphrates rivers inpresent-day Iraq.The civilizationbegan around 3500 BCE with acollection of villages, and by3000 BCE it containedseveral large city-states, eachruled by a warlike kingwith his own army.

The ancient Sumerianslearned how to make objectsfrom copper, silver, and gold byheating metal ore and pouring itinto molds.Their metalworkersbecame very skilled, producingengraved necklaces, daggers,and helmets.The Sumeriansmade another importantdiscovery: by combining copperand tin, they created bronze, avery strong alloy that could beused to make axes, spears, andmore robust helmets.

The ancient Sumerians worecolorful robes with scalloped hems.Rulers had tall headdresses, whiledancers and musicians woresleeveless robes with multi-tieredskirts. Soldiers wore knee-lengthtunics with scalloped hems and longcloaks fastened at the neck.Theyfought with long spears and worepointed helmets.The production ofcloth for export was very importantto the economy and culture ofancient Sumeria.They even had agoddess of weaving and clothing,named Uttu.

Sumerianmen paid a lot of

attention to theirhair.A golden

helmet found in aroyal tomb in the

ancient city of Ur isengraved with hair and ears,

revealing that warriors woretheir hair in an elaborate style:hanging down in curls around theears, braided at the front, and fastenedin a knot at the back of the head.Asimilar braided hairstyle is shown in abronze head of King Sargon (reignedc. 2334–c. 2284 BCE), who ruled theland of Akkad, just to the north ofSumer. In addition to his elaboratehairstyle, the king also sported asplendid curled beard, carefullytrimmed to fall in two tiers.

A bronze head of KingSargon of Akkad, showingthe elaborate hairstyle andcarefully trimmed beardfavored by the nobles ofSumer.

Early People

10

Using Linen In the hot and sunny climate ofNorth Africa, which in ancient timeswas also very humid, the ancientEgyptians did not need to wearheavy clothes. Clothing was madefrom linen, which was cool and easyto wear. Linen thread was made fromthe beaten stalks of the flax plant andwoven on looms into cloth. Ordinarypeople wore simple clothes madefrom coarse, unbleached linen, whilenobles’ clothes were made from afine, white, semi-transparent clothknown as royal linen.

Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt

Clothing and Jewelry

Around 5000 BCE farming villages began to growup around the Nile River in northern Africa.

Gradually, from around 3100 BCE, the villages of theNile joined together to form a great kingdom, ruled bypowerful pharaohs.The Egyptian civilization flourishedfor three thousand years. Historians divide it into threemain periods, or kingdoms: the Old, the Middle, andthe New Kingdom.

An Egyptian pharaoh fromthe New Kingdom beinganointed with oil by hisqueen. Both figures wearpleated robes of fine royallinen, and have ornatecollars and elaboratecrowns.

Egyptian farmers, like the figures shownhere, wore short kilts made from coarselinen.

spectacular pieces made from goldand silver and often set withsemiprecious stones and glass.

FootwearPeople in ancient Egypt wentbarefoot most of the time, butsometimes they wore sandals. Richpeople’s sandals were made fromdecorated leather, and one pair ofgolden sandals has been discovered ina pharaoh’s tomb. Poor people’ssandals were made from papyrus (atype of reed) or from woven grass.

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Clothing StylesFor thousands of years thebasic style of Egyptian clothesremained unchanged.Womenwore a simple, tight-fitting,ankle-length dress with twoshoulder straps, while men worea kilt, made from a piece of linenwrapped around the waist andtucked in. Kilts could be eitherknee- or ankle-length. In winter,men and women wore cloaks madefrom thick linen.

Tunics and kilts were usually keptplain.Although their clothes could bedecorated with beads and feathers,the Egyptian people relied on theirjewelry, makeup, and hairstyles tocreate a dramatic effect.

During the time of the NewKingdom, a more elaborate style ofdress developed in Egypt.Tunics andcloaks made of very fine, pleatedcloth became fashionable for menand women. Over their basic tunicwomen began to wear a pleatedgarment that sometimes had abrightly colored fringe and smallornaments hanging from it. Somemen wore a long, almost transparentkilt over their short tunic.

JewelryNo Ancient Egyptian costume wascomplete without a selection ofjewelry. Even poorer people worenecklaces, bracelets, and earrings.Poor people’s jewelry was made fromcheaper substances such as copperand faience (a colored, glazedpottery), while the rich wore

Colorful CollarsOne of the most impressive items of Egyptian jewelry wasthe broad, decorative collar. These collars were worn byboth women and men of all classes. The collars consistedof a series of strings threaded with beads and ornaments,but also with flowers, berries, and leaves. Some of thecollars found in the pharaoh Tutankhamun’s tomb includedolive leaves and cornflowers.

This fine collar belonged to an Egyptian princess. It is decorated withgolden hawks’ heads and inlaid with colored glass and semipreciousstones.

Ancient Egypt

12

hair long.These long tresses weresometimes worn loose andsometimes curled and braided.Noblewomen liked to decorate theirhair with flowers, beads, and ribbons.

Pharaohs and nobles often shavedtheir heads and wore elaborate wigs.Less wealthy people also wore wigs,but only for special occasions.Egyptian wigs could be amazinglyelaborate, with lots of braids andcurls. Some wigs had ornamentshung over them, or were decoratedwith beads and jewels.The best wigswere made from real hair, but therewere also cheaper ones made fromblack wool.

Egyptian Beauty Care

Looking good was very important tothe ancient Egyptians.They workedhard to keep themselves clean andsweet-smelling, and both men andwomen used cosmetics, which theykept in elegant pots.The Egyptiansalso paid a lot of attention to theirhair, and some rich people shavedtheir heads and wore elaborate wigs.

Hair and WigsMost Egyptian men were clean-shaven and kept their hair fairlyshort, although some noblemen hadlonger hair. In the early periods,women usually had a chin-lengthbob, but by the time of the NewKingdom noblewomen wore their

In this painted banquetscene, four young womenwear braided wigsdecorated with lotus flowerblossoms. The artist hasalso shown cones of fatresting on top of thewomen’s heads (see CoolCones).

Ancient Egypt

13

of the henna tree, was used to paintnails and possibly hands and feet, andhenna was also used to dye hair andwigs.

Cosmetics were prepared and storedin jars and bowls, and sometimes inhollow reeds. Makeup was appliedwith the fingers or with a specialwooden applicator.To help themapply their makeup, the rich usedmirrors made from highly polishedmetal. Poor people had to manage byobserving their reflections in water!

Smelling SweetIn the hot climate of Egypt it wasvery important to keep clean. Mostpeople washed in the river or used abasin and jug of water. Instead ofsoap they used a cleansing creammade from oil, lime, and perfume.They also rubbed scented oils intotheir skin to stop it from drying outin the sun. Perfumes were made fromflowers, seeds, and fruits soaked in oilsand animal fats.

Children had their hair shaved off orcut very short, except for one sectionthat formed a kind of ponytail onone side.This s-shaped lock wascalled the “side-lock of youth.”Sometimes children wore a fishamulet in their hair, perhaps toprotect them from drowning in the Nile.

CosmeticsEgyptian cosmetics were made fromfinely ground minerals mixed withoils. Green and black eyeliners weremade from malachite (copper ore)and galena (a type of lead), while redocher was used for lipstick and blush.The Egyptians took a lot of care overmaking up their eyes; they outlinedthem with heavy lines, which drewattention to the beauty of the eyesand also helped to shield them fromthe glare of the sun. Green eyelinerwas used in the early period, but laterblack became very popular. Red-brown henna, made from the leaves

Cool ConesPaintings of ancient Egyptianbanquets show the guests withrounded cones on their heads. Itis believed that these were conesof perfumed fat that graduallymelted during the course of themeal, keeping the guests cooland also ensuring that theysmelled sweet. However, someexperts believe that the coneswere drawn by artists to indicatethat the person was wearing ascented wig.

This decorated makeupbox belonged to the wife ofan important architect. Theglass and ceramic jarswould have held perfumes,oils and cosmetics.

Pharaohs, Queens, and PriestsReligion was central to ancientEgyptian society.The Egyptiansbelieved that their land had originallybeen ruled by gods, whose powerhad passed directly to the pharaohs.So pharaohs and their families weretreated like gods and wore highlyelaborate ceremonial costumes.

Pharaohs One of the most important elementsof the pharaoh’s dress was his crownor headdress. Early kings often wore ared-and-white crown symbolizingthe two parts of their kingdom: redfor lower Egypt and white for upperEgypt. Rulers of the New Kingdom

wore a bright blue crown like abattle helmet, reflecting their

important role as a warrior.Later rulers, such asTutankhamun, oftenwore a long, stripedheaddress called amenes.The menes wasusually decoratedwith the heads ofthe pharaoh’s twinprotectors: thevulture and thecobra.

In paintings and carvings, pharaohsare often shown holding the symbolsof their office: the royal crook andflail.The crook symbolized thepharaoh’s protection of his people,while the flail stood for thepunishment of his enemies.

QueensThe pharaoh had many queens, butthe chief queen was usually his sisteror half-sister. She was believed to bea goddess and was dressed inastonishing splendor. Paintings andcarvings show Egyptian queenswearing tall, jeweled headdresses,golden collars, armlets, and fingerrings.

Priests Priests wore only the finest, purewhite linen.They had to purifythemselves by bathing in a sacred lakeat least twice a day.They also had toshave their whole bodies, includingtheir hair and eyebrows. Most of thetime the priests dressed simply tocarry out their duties in the temples,but sometimes they wore specialcostumes and headdresses. In the finalstages of the embalming ceremony

False BeardMost Egyptian men were clean-shaven, butpharaohs wore a long beard that grew from thebase of their chin, as a sign of their royal status.At one point in Egyptian history, between 1473 and1458 BCE, a woman ruled as the pharaoh.Carvings show that Queen Hatshepsut was properlycrowned as pharaoh and wore the full royal regalia,including a false beard!

This solid gold burial maskcomes from the tomb ofthe Pharaoh Tutankhamun(1332-1322 BCE). Itshows the young kingwearing the striped menes,with its twin symbols ofthe vulture and the cobra,and carrying his royalcrook and flail.

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(when a dead body was beingprepared to be a mummy), the chiefpriest wore a jackal mask.Thisdramatic, painted mask, whichcovered his whole head andshoulders, represented the godAnubis.

AmuletsMany items of jewelry worn byordinary Egyptians featured good-luck charms, known as amulets.Theamulets depicted religious symbolssuch as the ankh (a cross with a loopat the top) representing eternal life,or the udjat eye (the eye of the godHorus) symbolizing healing and goodhealth. Sometimes these charms tookthe form of ornaments or brooches.In other cases, a sacred symbol was

painted or carved into a piece ofjewelry. Some necklaces and earrings featured charms to ward off snake bites!

A chief priest, wearing hisceremonial mask, tends thebody of a dead pharaoh.The mask representsAnubis, the jackal god.According to ancientEgyptian belief, he led thedead to judgment.

The Pharaoh Akhenaten andhis wife, Queen Nefertiti,who reigned in the 1350sBCE, dressed in semi-transparent robes andsimple crowns. For grandceremonial occasions,Egyptian rulers wore moreelaborate costumes.

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Chapter 3: Peoples of Western Asia

Around 2000 BCE the ancient civilization ofSumer (see page 9) collapsed.This was the start of

a turbulent period in the Middle East, as many differentpeoples battled for control of the fertile lands aroundthe Persian Gulf and the eastern Mediterranean Sea.Over the next 1,500 years, a series of powerfulkingdoms rose and fell. Many of these civilizations werevery warlike, some were great traders, and someproduced fine buildings and works of art.

Hittite warriors woreleather tunics covered withiron plates. To protect theirheads they had ironhelmets with a distinctivecrest, which was probablymade from horsehair.

Peoples of Western Asia

17

were woven into the cloth.Thepeople of Canaan made their colorfulcloth into striking clothes. Somewore several layers of differentpatterns, while others preferred asimple, long, white tunic, edged witha dramatic band of color.

Sea PeoplesEventually, the Hittite empire wasdestroyed by an army of Sea Peoples(also sometimes called Philistines),who originally came from Greece.The Sea Peoples woreshort, colorful tunicsdecorated with bold,contrasting bands ofcolor.They fought withiron-tipped spears andswords, and protectedthemselves with round,wooden shields. One oftheir tribes, called theSherden, woredistinctive battlehelmets, crowned bytwo small horns.Thehorns may have had areligious significance orthey may have simplybeen intended to makethe warriors appearmore frightening.Thewarrior Goliath, whosefight against David isrecorded in the Bible,was a member of theSea Peoples.

Around 2000 BCE the Hittite peoplesettled in Anatolia (modern-dayTurkey), and within four hundredyears they had conquered an empirethat stretched as far south as present-day Syria. For more than twocenturies they were one of Egypt’smost dangerous enemies.

The Hittites were tough warriorswho developed a new and effectivebattle dress.When they rode intobattle in their war chariots, theydressed in leather tunics covered withmetal plates, giving them excellentprotection against enemy spears andarrows. Hittite warriors carried longwooden spears tipped with iron,which were much stronger than thebronze weapons of their opponents.They wore iron helmets with flaps toprotect their neck, and carried largewicker shields.

Cloth from Canaan To the south of the Hittite empirelay the more peaceful land ofCanaan. Most of the Canaanites werefarmers and merchants, and Canaanhad several thriving ports on theMediterranean coast.Weavers inCanaan produced a colorful,patterned cloth that was sold bymerchants to people all around theMediterranean.Wool and linen weredyed in a range of brilliant colors,including scarlet, green, blue, andgold, and bold patterns and borders

Hittites, Canaanites, and SeaPeoples

Two armed warriors from thearmy of the Sea Peoples.The soldier on the left wearsthe distinctive hornedhelmet of the Sherden tribe.

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HebrewsThe story of the Hebrews is told inthe Old Testament of the Bible.Theywere a wandering desert people whogained control of some land inCanaan between 1200 and 1050BCE.Around 1000 BCE the Hebrewking David (reigned c. 1005–c. 965BCE) established the kingdom ofIsrael with its capital city inJerusalem.The kingdom split in twoin about 931, and the northernkingdom, called Israel, was conqueredby the Assyrians (see pages 22–3)around 722.The southern kingdom,Judah, was attacked by theBabylonians (see page 24) in 597, andten years later the Babyloniansdestroyed Jerusalem.The Hebrews,who came to be known as Jews, weretaken into captivity.

Most Hebrews dressed very simply intunics or long dresses.To keep off theglare of the sun, people often wore acloth over their head, which was fixedin place with a narrow headband.Hebrew kings, however, wore richrobes, adorned with precious stones,while the most magnificent costumeof all was worn by the high priest.

Ceremonial GarmentsAround 950 BCE King David's sonSolomon (reigned c. 965–c. 931 BCE)built a spectacular temple in Jerusalemto house his people’s most precioustreasure, the Ark of the Covenant.Thehigh priest in charge of the templewore a special set of ceremonialclothes known as the goldengarments.According to Jewish belief,God gave the prophet Moses detailedinstructions for the making of thesesacred garments, and these instructionsare all recorded in the Book ofExodus in the Old Testament.

The golden garments consisted ofeight separate items: a tunic, a belt, aturban, a pair of linen breeches, abreastplate, an ephod (a type ofapron), a robe, and a golden headplate. Over the white tunic andpants, the high priest wore a sky-blue robe, hemmed with decorativepomegranates and bells whichtinkled as he moved. On top of thetunic was the ephod, with twosardonyx stones on its shoulder-straps, and a breastplate, set withtwelve precious stones, representingthe twelve tribes of Israel. Finally,the turban was placed on the highpriest’s head, and the golden head

A Hebrew priest wearingthe “white garments”—a turban, tunic, breechesand belt all made frompure white linen. Thesegarments were worn as a sign of humility before God.

Peoples of Western Asia

19

plate fixed in place with itsinscription, “Holy to the Lord.”

The high priest wore his goldengarments every day of the yearexcept on the Day of Atonement, theHebrews’ most holy day. On this day,the high priest showed his humilitybefore God by wearing the whitegarments: a turban, tunic, breeches,and belt, all made from pure whitelinen. Other priests wore the whitegarments all through the year.

Special MaterialsThe Book of Exodus lists fivedifferent materials to be used in themaking of the golden garments: gold,sky-blue wool, dark red wool,crimson wool, and “twisted linen.”Many years of research have goneinto discovering exactly whichmaterials were used.The evidencesuggests that gold leaf was beateninto thin sheets, and then cut intofine threads; the sky-blue dye for thewool came from a shellfish known aschilazon; the dark red color wasderived from a type of snail; and thecrimson color was produced by thecochineal insect.To weave the tunic,turban, and breeches, a thick linenthread was used, made from sixtwisted strands.

Joseph’s Coat In the Old Testament Book of Genesis, Joseph, the youngest son of Jacob, is described ashaving a glorious “coat of many colors.” Nobody knows what this coat would have looked like,but it may have featured colored wool dyed sky blue and crimson, as well as the more usualgreens, yellows, and browns produced by earth and plants.

This 13th century fresco shows Abraham being blessed by a High Priest.While Abraham is shown in the costume of a medieval knight, the High Priestwears his ceremonial robes.

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Phoenicians acquired because of theirfamous purple dye. Made from themurex shellfish, the dye colored clotha rich, deep purple. Purple clothfrom Phoenicia was sold all over theMediterranean and the Middle East,but it was so expensive that it wasusually only worn by royalty.

Stylish DressersPhoenician men were stylish dressers,who liked to show off their wealthby wearing colorful clothes.Whilethe ordinary workers wore simpleloincloths, rulers and merchants oftenwore long tunics, with multi-tieredskirts. Each tier was bordered by afringe. Many Phoenician men wore aconical cap, but those who wentbareheaded paid a lot of attention totheir hair and beard, which wereboth carefully curled.

Wealthy men wore jewelry, includingbroad neck collars similar to thoseworn by the ancient Egyptians, andsimple armlets consisting of a twist ofmetal wound several times aroundthe upper arm. Merchants and rulerswore finger rings set withsemiprecious stones that wereengraved with a design, and theserings could be stamped into wax andused as a personal seal.

Gorgeous JewelsPhoenician women were usuallymodestly dressed, draping theirbodies in folds of cloth.Their hairwas often covered by a cap or hood,but sometimes it was simplyencircled by a band, below which itrippled freely over their shoulders.

The Phoenicians were a seafaringpeople descended from theCanaanites (see page 16). Fromaround 1200 BCE they lived alongthe eastern coast of theMediterranean Sea, setting up greattrading ports. For two thousand yearsthe Phoenicians were the mostsuccessful traders in the region.Aswell as their kingdom in the MiddleEast, they also had colonies along thecoasts of Africa and Spain, and inCyprus, Sicily, and Malta.

Purple PeopleThe word Phoenician is Greek for“purple men,” a name the

Phoenicians

Phoenician men wore longtunics with multi-tiered,fringed skirts.

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Phoenician womenwere famous for their splendid jewelry.

Jewelry was very popular withPhoenician women, who wore avariety of pendants, armlets, bracelets,earrings, finger rings, and brooches.Another type of ornament was theflat, patterned plaque, usually madefrom glass, with holes in the edges,which was apparently sewn ontoclothes.

Often, Phoenician ladies wore threeor four necklaces at a time, one abovethe other—a string of small pearls atthe top, then some larger beads, andfinally a couple of rows of necklaceswith hanging ornaments (similar to apresent-day charm bracelet). Somesurviving necklaces have up to sixty

A Phoenician glass bead,greatly magnified. Beadslike this were traded allaround the Mediterraneanarea.

ornaments made from gold, glass, andprecious stones.The ornaments camein an astonishing variety of shapes,including acorns, pomegranates, lotusflowers, miniature vases and cones,and the heads of humans andanimals.

Glass BeadsThe Phoenicians were probably the earliest people todiscover how to blow glass, and they made a range ofbeautiful colored beads. Many surviving Phoenician beadsare long and oval in shape and blue-green in color. Othersare a deep olive green. As well as making beads from solidglass, the Phoenicians also created tiny sculptures in coloredglass. Some of these beads, showing human heads, containup to five different colors of glass, and are impressivelydetailed, with tiny coils of glass for hair and beards.

Peoples of Western Asia

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Assyrians

The Assyrian people were farmerswho came from an area close to theTigris River in present-day Iraq.From around 1350 BCE they beganto conquer new land. Over the nextseven hundred years, they built up alarge empire which stretched fromthe Persian Gulf to the easternMediterranean, and even reached asfar west as Egypt.The Assyrian kingswere great war leaders, but they alsoloved to relax in their beautifulpalaces and gardens.

Battle DressThe Assyrians were expert warriors,who fought with bows and arrows,spears and swords, and long leather

This carved relief from the ancient city ofNineveh shows two armed warriors—one witha bow and arrows and the other carrying awooden shield shaped like a shallow cone.

An Assyrian king andqueen relaxing in theirgarden. Both wear goldenjewelry and colorful robescovered with embroideredpatterns.

Peoples of Western Asia

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with embroidery.The king wore agolden, fez-shaped crown andwherever he went in his palace, aservant accompanied him, holding afringed canopy, like a parasol over his head.

The Assyrians were skilled workers ingold, and both men and womenwore golden necklaces, bracelets, andearrings.Assyrian noblewomendressed in a similar way to men, infringed and embroidered robes andshawls, which covered them fromneck to ankle. Both women and menat court wore simple leather sandalson their feet.

Fabrics, Colors, andPatternsThe most common material forclothing was wool, although linenwas sometimes used for better-qualitygarments. Clothes were dyed in arange of colors: pale and deep indigoblue, scarlet, yellow ocher, dull olivegreen, and purple.All of these colorswere also used to dye embroiderywool. Patterns embroidered onAssyrian clothes featured repeatedgeometric shapes, and often includedsacred rosettes and palm trees.

slings. Soldiers wore short, beltedtunics, leggings, and high leatherboots. Some carried round woodenshields into battle and some wereprotected by an extra leather tuniccovered with many small iron plates.Most warriors wore pointed ironhelmets with flaps to cover their ears,and some of their helmets weretopped with a plume of feathers.Kings rode into battle in a royal warchariot, wearing long robes and afez-shaped golden helmet.

Horses played an important part inAssyrian warfare and they were alsodressed for battle.They wore goldencollars with a bunch of scarletfeathers hanging down at the front.The royal horses also had a crown offeathers on their heads.

Palace LifeAssyrian men at court usually wore aclose-fitting, short-sleeved tunic,edged with golden fringes.Tunicswere usually worn long, but somestopped at the knees and sometimes afringed shawl was also worn. Exceptin the earliest examples,Assyriancostumes were lavishly decorated, andthe robes of the king were covered

Splendid BeardsAssyrian hair and beards were very well tended. A statue of KingAshurnasirpal II (reigned 668–c. 627 BCE) shows his carefully curled,shoulder-length hair and a splendid moustache and beard. The beard iscarefully trimmed into a neat rectangle and appears to have bands ofhorizontal decoration. Other Assyrian statues also feature beards withdecorated horizontal bands, and it is possible that the Assyrians’beards were bound or interwoven with embroidered cloth.

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Inside the splendid city of Babylon,the wealthy lived a life of comfortand ceremony. Men and women worea loose, flowing tunic, with wide half-sleeves, caught in at the waist by abroad, decorative belt. Men carriedtall, ornamental staffs and wore a fez-like headdress.Tunics were made fromdyed linen, and a second, woolentunic was sometimes also worn whenthe weather became cooler. Servantsin Babylon wore simple, short,undyed tunics, belted at the waist.One of their tasks was to walk infront of their wealthy masters with alarge whisk, driving away the flies!

The people of Babylon were skilledworkers in silver and gold, and bothmen and women loved to weargolden jewelry.A surviving statue ofthe goddess Ishtar shows her wearinga necklace made from concentricgolden rings and two outsize goldenearrings—one resembling a bunch ofgrapes and the other, a shell.

Babylon had a period of greatnessduring the eighteenth century BCE,when it was ruled by KingHamurabai. However, after 1750,the city gradually declined, and wasfinally conquered by the Assyriansin 689 BCE.Then, around 620BCE, the Babylonians began to fight back. By the time KingNebuchadnezzar II came to thethrone in 605 BCE, Babylon hadtaken control of the AssyrianEmpire.The Babylonians ruled their empire for the next sixty years, before being conquered by the Persians.

Dress in BabylonOne of King Nebuchadnezzar’sgreatest achievements was therebuilding of Babylon. During hisreign it became one of the richestcities in the world, full of templesand palaces and home to the famoushanging gardens.

Babylonians

Two Babylonian servantsaccompany their richlydressed master.

Peoples of Western Asia

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dressed far more simply in short,woolen tunics and long pants.ThePersians were great horsemen, andpants were very practical for longhorse rides across the plains.

Persian guards with spearsand shields, carved on astaircase in the royalpalace at Persepolis.

The land of Persia(present-day Iran) wasoriginally ruled by twoseparate tribes: thePersians in the south,and the Medes in thenorth.Then, in 550BCE, the Persians tookover the Medes’ landand began to conquerall of the surroundinglands. By the year 500,the Persians ruled thelargest empire theworld had ever seen.The mightyPersian Empire lasted for twohundred years until it was finallydefeated by Alexander the Great.

The Persians and Medes wore verydistinctive headdresses.While thePersians had tall, fluted hats, theMedes wore a plain, roundedbonnet, with a tail hanging down atthe back. Persian men tended towear their beards long, and oftenwore golden hoops in their ears.

Soldiers and SatrapsA tiled frieze survives showingPersian soldiers in ceremonial dress.The soldiers wear long, patternedrobes, with wide, pleated sleeves.Each soldier wears a wide, goldenband encircling his forehead, andcarries a tall spear and a bow slungover his shoulder.Attached to eachsoldier’s back is a deep pouch forcarrying arrows.

At court, the Persians wore long,flowing robes with pleated sleeves,but the local rulers, known as satraps,

Golden ArmletThe Persians made exquisitegolden jewelry. A solid goldarmlet has been discoveredat Oxus (in present-dayTurkmenistan) in a hoard oftreasure that probably belongedto a Persian king. The armlet iscovered with elaborate carvingsand shows two mythical, birdlikecreatures, with beaks, ears,horns, and wings, eachconfronting the other fiercely.

Persians

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ScythiansHerders and WarriorsScythian herders and warriors neededwarm clothes that were easy to ridein.They wore leather, fur-linedboots, thick woolen pants, and tunicswhich wrapped across their bodiesand were fastened by a belt. On theirheads they wore a thick pointed capwhich covered their ears.

When they rode into battle, Scythianwarriors wore a protective armor ofoverlapping metal plates, whichcovered their upper body andsometimes their legs. Helmets werealso made from metal plates.Thewarriors fought with long-bladedbattleaxes and bows and arrows, andthey often engraved their arrow caseswith animal designs.

Scythian women spent less time onhorseback, but they also dressedwarmly in long woolen dresses,topped by a belted coat.They woretall headdresses swathed in scarves.

One group of people who thePersians never succeeded inconquering were the warlikeScythians.They lived as nomads onthe windswept plains north of theBlack Sea, in an area that is nowRussia.The Scythians spent much oftheir lives on horseback, herdingsheep and cattle.They set up theirtents wherever they could find goodpasture, and fought fiercely to defendtheir lands.

Animal ArtBecause of their nomadic lifestyle,the Scythians created an art that waseasily portable, making intricategolden jewelry and weapons,decorative tent hangings, and carvedwooden bowls.They also decoratedtheir clothes and made elaboratetrappings for their horses.All theseobjects were ornamented withswirling animal motifs featuringhorses, stags, eagles, bears, snakes,and rabbits.

Scythian warriors carrytheir dead leader’s armletsand robes in a solemnfuneral procession. Theyare wearing distinctivepointed felt caps.

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Animal TattoosThe graves of several Scythianchiefs were excavated in Siberia.The bodies have stayed frozen inthe icy ground for thousands ofyears and still display tattoos ontheir skin. The tattoos areremarkably elaborate and showswirling designs of interlockedcreatures that appear to be acombination of horses, eagles,and stags.

Splendid DecorationsThe Scythians’ clothes were madefrom leather and wool andcovered in decoration.Womenembroidered elaborate animalpatterns in colored wool and alsostitched felt appliqué piecesonto dresses, tunics, andcoats. Felt was made bypressing and rolling wool andhair until it formed a thick,matted substance which wasdyed vivid colors.The Scythianscreated dramatic appliqué designson their wall hangings, horsetrappings, and clothes, using shapesmade from colored felt.

In addition to these decorations, theScythians also sewed small, goldenplaques onto their clothes.Theseplaques were engraved with animalmotifs and must have sparkleddramatically in the sun, especiallywhen worn in combination withelaborate golden belts, necklaces,bracelets, and earrings.

Ceremonial DressThe Scythians kept their best clothesfor special ceremonies, such as theburial of a chief.When a chief wasburied, his body was dressed in themost splendid finery and laid on achariot, which was pulled by a pair ofhorses in ceremonial dress.The horseswere draped in appliquéd hangingsand wore golden harnesses and tall,tasseled headdresses. Men in thefuneral procession shaved their heads,and some even cut off an ear to showtheir grief.

The Scythians were expertgoldsmiths. This exquisitegolden comb, found in achief’s tomb, showsScythian warriors in battle.

Peoples of Western Asia

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Minoan DressColorful paintings on the walls of theMinoan palaces reveal the sort ofclothes that people wore on theisland. Minoan men usually wore asimple loincloth or a short kilt madefrom wool or linen.The kilts dippeddown to form a point at the front,and they were often decorated withgeometric patterns and a patternedborder. Minoan men were usuallyclean shaven and their hair was wornloose down their backs.They woregolden collars, armlets, and bracelets,and some wore golden bandscovering most of their calves.

Minoan women’s dress was far moreelaborate.They wore brightly coloreddresses, with full, flounced skirts,falling in many layers to the ground.The short-sleeved tunic that coveredthe top of the body had a tight-fitting bodice, cut very low to leavethe breasts bare. Minoan womenwore golden necklaces and braceletsand left their hair long and loose.They wore tall, conical hats, or moreoften just a simple headband.

Minotaur Mask?According to Greek legend, the first king of Crete kept abeast called a ‘minotaur’ in a huge maze under hispalace. This creature had a bull’s head and a man’sbody. Some scholars believe that this legend had itsorigin in a ceremony performed at the palace, in whichthe king wore a mask of a bull’s head.

The first great civilization in Europe grew up onthe Greek island of Crete.The Minoan

civilization started slowly, and developed over severalthousand years, but by 2000 BCE there were a numberof palaces on the island, each ruled by a king. In thewarm, sunny Mediterranean climate, agriculturethrived.The Minoans farmed, fished, made pottery, andworked gold.

Minoans

Chapter 4: Civilizations of Ancient Greece

This fresco from theMinoan palace at Knossosshows a procession ofpriestesses, all wearingfull-skirted dresses withlow-cut bodices.

Myceneans Around 1650 BCE the Greekkingdom of Mycenae, in thenortheastern Peloponnese, grew verypowerful. Mycenae was ruled byseveral kings, each of whom had hisown palace. Inside the palaces wereworkshops for potters, weavers, andmetalworkers, as well as splendidrooms for the royal family.TheMyceneans were a warlike people,but they were also great sailors andtraders, who imported tin to makebronze for weapons, and gold andamber to make jewelry.

Palace DressIn the great halls of their brightlypainted palaces, the Mycenean kingsand queens held lavish feasts. Kingsand nobles wore simple kilts withpatterned borders, and usually lefttheir chests bare. Men wore their hair loose, hanging around theirshoulders, and held in place by asimple headband.

Mycenean women wore multicoloreddresses, with flared, tiered skirts, andclose-fitting, low-cut bodices.Theirhair was loosely bound with colorfulribbons, while some locks hungdown around their faces.Womenwore gold and amber necklaces andbracelets, while men had goldenarmlets.

Beauty RoutineThe famous beauty Helen of Troywas a Mycenean queen, andsurviving murals show that thewomen of Mycenae were gracefuland stylish, with artfully arrangedhair.There is evidence that both

women and men spent time and careon their appearance.The Myceneansproduced perfumed oils, which theystored in elegant jars. Some oil wastraded by merchants, but a certainquantity was kept for use at home.Inside the palaces were small stonetubs, and part of a lady’s beautyroutine would probably have involvedsoaking in a tub and then rubbingscented oil into her skin.

Civilizations of Ancient Greece

Both men and women inthe Mycenean cities careda great deal for theirappearance, and thewomen were famous fortheir beauty.

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Shields were made from ox hidestretched over a wooden frame. Someshields were shaped like a solid figureeight, while others, known as “towershields,” were tall and rectangular andbowed in at the sides. Occasionally, awarrior wore a complete suit ofarmor made from bronze, but thesewere very heavy and rigid, andprobably uncomfortable to wear.

Warriors fought with shields, swords,and daggers, and some of theseweapons were beautifully decorated.One dagger found in a king’s gravehas a solid gold hilt and a blade inlaidwith a scene in gold, silver, andcopper, showing leopards hunting inthe forest.

Mycenean Warriors

Most Myceneanwarriors did notwear bodyarmor, but reliedon their largeshields forprotection.

War was a central part of Myceneanlife. Kings and nobles trained forbattle, and musicians sang songs aboutgreat victories.When a Mycenean citywent to war, the king and his noblesrode in battle chariots, while theordinary soldiers marched on foot.

Most of the army wore simple kiltsand relied for their protection onhelmets and shields. Helmets wereusually fairly plain—a pointed bronzecap with flaps for the ears, topped by aflowing horsehair plume.The king,however, wore a helmet with a curvedhorn at the front. One remarkablehelmet has been found that wasoriginally constructed from dozens ofboars’ tusks laid side by side.

Death MaskThe Myceneans createdgleaming golden deathmasks for their kings.The masks were madeby beating a sheet of

gold over a carvedwooden mold, and the

sheet was then laid over theface of the dead ruler in histomb. The most famous of thesemasks was discovered by thearchaeologist HeinrichSchliemann in the 1870s. Atfirst Schliemann believed thathe had found the body of KingAgamemnon of Troy, one of themajor figures in Homer’s Iliad,but it was later proved that themask belonged to one of theearliest Mycenean kings.

The golden death mask ofan early Mycenean king,found by the archeologistHeinrich Schliemann.

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patterned borders in their cloth.Geometric shapes were very popular,and mythological creatures alsofeatured in borders. Greek clotheswere usually made from wool,although some women wove threadfrom flax to make linen cloth. Fromthe fifth century BCE onward, a fewvery rich people wore garmentsmade from imported silk or cotton.

patterned borders in their cloth.Geometric shapes were very popular,and mythological creatures alsofeatured in borders. Greek clotheswere usually made from wool,although some women wove threadfrom flax to make linen cloth. Fromthe fifth century BCE onward, a fewvery rich people wore garmentsmade from imported silk or cotton.

By around 800 BCE the ancientGreeks were living in city-states.There were around three hundredcity-states in total, but the two mostpowerful ones were Athens, ineastern-central Greece, and Sparta, inthe south. Gradually,Athens gained inwealth and power, and by the fifthcentury BCE it had become thecenter of a thriving Greekcivilization.

Ancient Greek society had an elite ofwealthy, well-educated people.Theycreated fine art and great buildings,studied mathematics and medicine,and discussed political ideas.Therewere also priests, soldiers, farmers,traders, and merchants.The lowestclass, comprising about a quarter ofthe population, were slaves.

Making ClothesMost women in ancient Greeceknew how to spin wool and weave itinto cloth, and a Greek wife wasexpected to provide all the cloth forher family. Some women did all oftheir household spinning andweaving themselves, but rich womenoften had slaves to do the workinstead. One famous example of avirtuous Greek woman is Penelope,the wife of the hero Odysseus, whokept busy with her weaving fortwenty years, while Odysseus wasaway on his adventures!

Once the wool was spun, it could becolored using natural dyes made fromplants, insects, and shellfish.Womenwove their thread on a tall, uprightloom and sometimes included

Arachne the WeaverSpinning and weaving were so important in ancient Greecethat many myths and stories grew up about them. Onestory told the legend of Arachne, a very skilled weaver, whowas turned into a spider by the goddess Athena becauseshe dared to challenge Athena to a weaving contest.

Classical Greece

A woman weaving woolencloth on a vertical loom.Most women in ancientGreece wove the cloth fortheir household.

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Fashion in Ancient GreeceIn the warm, dry climate of Greece,people did not need many clothes.Both men and women wore a simpletunic, and added a cloak for coolerweather.Tunics and cloaks were heldin place by pins or brooches, whichcould be plain or very elaborate.Usually people went barefoot, butsometimes they wore simple leathersandals.

The basic dress for women was thechiton. It was made from a singlepiece of rectangular cloth, fastened atthe shoulders and left open at oneside.A girdle was also tied at thewaist to hold the chiton in place.There were two main styles ofchiton.The Doric chiton was asleeveless tunic, while the Ionicchiton had elbow-length sleeves,which were fastened at intervalsacross the shoulders. Over the chiton,women wore a himation.This was arectangular wrap, which could varyin size and weight, from a light scarfto a warm traveling cloak.

Most Greek men wore a simple tunicsewn up at the side and fastened witha pin or brooch on one or bothshoulders.Young men wore their

tunics short, while older men andnobles had ankle-length robes.

Craftsmen, farmers, and slaves oftenwore a loincloth. Sometimes menwore a himation, which theywrapped around the body with oneend thrown over one shoulder.Thiscould be worn on its own or as asecond garment over a tunic.

Jewelry The Greeks liked to wear delicateearrings, bracelets, and necklaces.Wealthy Greeks wore jewelry madefrom gold, silver, and ivory, while thepoorer people’s jewelry was madefrom bronze, lead, and bone. Jewelerssometimes added enamel for color,but precious stones were only used atthe end of the Greek period.This impressive necklace

would have been worn by awealthy woman. It is madefrom solid gold.

Civilizations of Ancient Greece

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HairstylesIn the early Greek period, both menand women wore their hair long andloose, held in place by a simpleheadband. However, from around 500BCE onward, men’s hair becamemuch shorter, and their beards wereneatly trimmed, while women usuallywore their hair up, bound by severalribbons and scarves. From around300 BCE men shaved off their beardsand wore their hair cropped close totheir heads. Meanwhile, female

A couple exchanging gifts, painted on aGreek vase. The wife wears a chiton whileher husband wears a flowing robe with theend draped over his shoulder.

hairstyles became extremelyelaborate, and women often waved orcurled their hair.

Beauty CareWomen in ancient Greece spent a lotof time and effort making themselveslook beautiful.They would bathefrequently and rub perfumed oils intotheir skin to prevent it from dryingout.Women also used oil on theirhair to make it shine. Some womendyed their hair and wore wigs or falsehairpieces, while others used paddingto improve their figure, or worethick-soled sandals to makethemselves look taller. Many Greekwomen wore makeup.They whitenedtheir skin withspecial creams,darkened theireyebrows, andused rougeon theircheeks.

Looking and smelling goodwas very important to theGreeks. Here, a wealthywoman massages oil intoher hair, while her servantholds the oil jar.

Spartan womenIn the warlike city-state of Sparta, women looked and behaved very differently from theircounterparts in the rest of Greece. Spartan women were encouraged to spend most of theirtime outside, exercising and playing sports to make sure that they had robust, healthybabies. Statues of Spartan women and girls show that they were very strong and muscular.Usually they wore a knee-length dress, with a loose skirt to allow plenty of movement. Onestatue even shows a Spartan girl wearing a thigh-length tunic with a high slit in one side.

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A Question of DressAfter Alexander the Great had defeated the king of Persia in 331 BCE,he took control of the great Persian Empire. During this period thechroniclers relate that Alexander abandoned his traditional Macedoniandress and adopted instead the dress of the Persians, wearing a loosetunic and pants (see page 25). This infuriated Alexander’s Macedoniangenerals, who were intensely proud of their kingdom’s military history,which they saw as represented by their dress.

Greeks at WarThe ancient Greeks were often atwar. For eleven years they foughtagainst the Persians, and there wasalso a long war between the rivalcity-states of Athens and Sparta. In338 BCE the Greeks were conqueredby their northern neighbor, thekingdom of Macedonia, led by KingPhilip II.When Philip died in 336,his son,Alexander the Great, becamethe leader of the Greek army and leda force of Macedonians and Greekson a campaign to win a vast empirein Asia and the Middle East.

Each of the main fighting groups—the Greeks (led by the city ofAthens), the Spartans, and theMacedonians—had their owndistinctive battle dress.

Greek HoplitesThe backbone of the Greek armywas its company of heavily armedfootsoldiers, known as hoplites.Hoplites fought with a long spearand a sword and carried a largecircular shield made from bronze,wood, and leather, with a bold designpainted on it.They wore a shorttunic and their upper body wasprotected by a bronze and leather

This detail from a Romanmosaic shows Alexanderthe Great dressed in thearmor of a Macedoniangeneral. Alexander wearsa metal breastplate withwide shoulder straps,and a lightweight cloakfastened at the neck. His breastplate has adecoration in the form ofa head—possibly the godof war.

Civilizations of Ancient Greece

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known.When he led the Greeks intobattle, he wore the traditional armorof his native kingdom of Macedonia:a short-sleeved battle tunic with ametal breastplate and a skirt andsleeves made from metal strips.Alexander rode an enormous chargerand fought with a long sword. Onhis feet he had calf-length boots andhe wore a purple cloak to show hisroyal status. In most of the survivingstatues and mosaics,Alexander isbareheaded, but one statue showshim as a fierce conqueror, wearing alion’s head with its paws tied underhis chin.

breastplate. Bronze leg guards, knownas greaves, covered the soldiers’ calves,and they wore sturdy leather sandalson their feet.The hoplites hadmagnificent bronze helmets with ahorsehair crest and flaps to protectthe sides of the face.

Running in ArmorThe ancient Greeks loved to holdathletic competitions, in which mencompeted against each other in sportssuch as jumping, boxing, andwrestling.The most famouscompetition of all was the OlympicGames. Most Olympic sports wereperformed by naked athletes, but inone running race the competitorshad to wear heavy armor. Each of therunners wore a bronze helmet andgreaves and carried a heavy shield.The origins of this race probably layin the strict training of the Greekhoplites.

Spartan WarriorsAll the men of Sparta were full-timesoldiers.At the age of seven, boyswere taken from their mothers tobegin their military training. Spartanwarriors dressed in a distinctive way,with long, scarlet cloaks and helmetswhich covered almost all of the face.The Spartan soldiers also let theirhair grow long, so that it streamedout from under their helmets.Theoverall effect could be very fearsomewhen they advanced en masse inbattle.

Alexander’s ArmorAlexander the Great was one of thefinest generals the world has ever

Greek hoplites depicted ona vase from the sixthcentury BCE. The Hoplitesall wear splendid, crestedheaddresses and carrycircular shields—each withits own distinctive design.

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Ancient Romans

Chapter 5: The Roman Empire

The Roman Empirebegan as a small

community of farmersliving on the banks of theTiber River in Italy.Gradually, the farmingvillages grew into a townand then into a city.

At first the city of Rome wasruled by kings, but in 509 BCEthe last king was driven outand Rome became a republicruled by two elected consuls,who were advised by a senate.In 45 BCE a general namedJulius Caesar seized power, buthe was soon assassinated, and aperiod of conflict followeduntil Augustus took control in27 BCE.Augustus was thefirst Roman emperor, and theempire lasted for the nextfour hundred years.

A Roman womandressed in stola(dress) and palla(shawl). TheRomans used hand-mirrors made fromhighly-polished

In this mosaic from thefourth century BCE theRoman poet Virgil isflanked by two muses(goddesses of inspiration).Virgil wears a toga loopedover one shoulder.

palla

stola

The Roman Empire

loincloth made from a strip of woolor linen.They also had a simplecloak, which could be wrappedaround them or fastened with abrooch at the neck.

Important men wore a toga overtheir tunic.This was a very long stripof woolen cloth, wrapped around thebody and draped over one shoulder.However, the toga was very heavyand awkward to wear, so it was onlyworn for special occasions.Togaswere usually plain white, but thoseworn by senators had a broad purpleborder. Until they were sixteen, boysfrom wealthy families wore a whitetoga with a narrow purple border.

Augustus and his successorsconquered vast areas of land, creatingan empire that stretched from Britainin the north to North Africa in thesouth.Wherever the Romansconquered, they established theRoman way of life, building finecities with temples, baths, andtheaters. Governors were sent fromRome to rule over the provinces, andmany of the conquered peoplesadopted Roman ways, even dressinglike the Romans.

Making ClothesMost Roman clothes were madefrom wool, which was spun andwoven by hand at home or in aworkshop. In towns and cities,Romans took their woolen cloth tothe fuller’s workshop to be cleanedand treated before it was made intoclothes. First, the cloth was stiffenedby soaking it in urine, and then itwas cleaned by rubbing it with akind of clay.After this, the cloth wasbeaten, stretched, and bleached.Fullers also cleaned and mendedclothes for the richer people.

Sometimes the Romans had clothesmade from linen, which came fromEgypt.The wealthiest wore clothesmade of cotton from India and silkfrom China.

Togas and TunicsThe basic garment for men was asimple, belted tunic made from tworectangles of wool stitched together.Tunics were usually made ofunbleached wool and reached to theknees. Under their tunics men wore a

Roman RingsRoman men and women wore a lot of rings. Rich peoplehad rings made from gold and silver and set withprecious stones such as emeralds, pearls, or amber.Less wealthy people wore rings made from bronze.Often a ring held a gemstone engraved with a patternthat could be used as a seal.

Women's ClothingRoman women wore a long, belted,sleeveless dress called a stola. Overthis was a large, rectangular shawl,known as a palla, which could beworn draped around the shoulders orlooped over the head like a hood.Under the stola women wore aloincloth and sometimes a simpleleather bra. Girls wore white untilthey were married, but after this theyoften wore brightly colored dresses.

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During the period of the republic,most women wore their hair tied insimple buns at the back of their

heads, but by the time of theempire some very elaborate styleshad developed.Wealthy women’shair was curled and braided andpiled into elaborate styles, heldin place with dozens of pins.

For special celebrations, wealthywomen wore wigs, and brides

wore several hairpieces for theirweddings. Some women cut off

their slaves’ hair and had it madeinto wigs or hairpieces. Othersbought wigs made from importedhair. Black hair came from Asia, whileblond and red hair was importedfrom northern Europe. SomeRomans used a brown hair dye madefrom walnut shells and wild onions.Others tried to prevent their hairfrom going gray by applying a pasteof earthworms and herbs!

Makeup Most wealthy Roman women reliedon cosmetics to make themselveslook beautiful, and slaves devotedhours each morning to making uptheir mistresses. It was veryfashionable in Roman times forwomen to look pale, so womenwhitened their faces and arms withpowdered chalk or a poisonousmixture made from lead.Theydarkened their eyebrows andeyelashes with soot and wore eyeshadow made from ash or saffron.Color was added to lips and cheeksusing red ocher, plant dye, or eventhe sediment of red wine.

Hair CareMost Roman men kept their hairshort, either combed forward orcurled.They were usually clean-shaven, although the emperorHadrian (reigned 117–138 CE)started a fashion for beards. Mostmen began the day by visiting thebarber’s shop for a shave, and somehad the hair removed from their armsand legs as well.This could be apainful experience because barbersdid not use soap or oil.

False TeethMany Romans suffered from tooth decay, and sometimesdentists took drastic action. They extracted rotten teethand supplied false ones to fill the gaps. False teeth weremade from ivory or bone and were attached to a goldband that would not rust.

This young woman wearssimple gold earrings in herears, while her carefullycurled hair is held in placeby a delicate lattice-workcap.

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visit to the baths with a session in theexercise yards, where they couldpractice weightlifting, wrestling, orball games.This could be followed bya period in the sudatorium—a hot,steamy room, like a modern-daysauna.

In the caldarium, or hot bath, theRomans smeared their bodies withperfumed oil and then scraped off thedirt with a curved stick called astrigil.After this they visited thetepidarium, a lukewarm pool wherethey could cool down, and thenperhaps enjoy a massage.The wholeexperience ended with a refreshingdip in the frigidarium—the unheated,outdoor swimming pool.

As well as applying makeup, Romanwomen liked to treat their skin witha variety of creams.They appliedfacials of bread soaked in milk andeven used a cream made fromcrushed snails. Perfumes were verypopular, and women kept theircosmetics and scent in delicate glasspots and bottles.

Roman BathsVery few Roman houses hadbathrooms, so most people visited thepublic baths. However, a visit to thebaths was much more than a chanceto get clean. Like modern healthclubs, Roman baths offered thechance for a total exercise and beautyroutine. Many Romans began their

A surviving Roman bathfrom the city of Bath, insouthern England. (Onlythe lower section datesfrom Roman times.)

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easily visible.They wore exaggeratedmasks and large wigs, and manyactors added extra padding undertheir costumes to give themselvesmore bulk.The actors playingwomen used special padding to givethem a more female shape.

Costumes were fairly simple andusually consisted of a tunic and cloak,which were short for men and longfor those playing women.The colorsof an actor’s clothes helped to identifyhis role in the drama, so tragiccharacters wore dark robes, whilehappy characters had brightly coloredcostumes.As well as the individualactors, most plays featured a chorus—a group of actors who all spoke atonce. Members of the chorus alsowore costumes and sometimes evendressed as animals or birds.

Roman ActorsThroughout the Roman Empire,companies of actors performed playsto entertain the people.These playswere usually solemn tragedies aboutheroes and gods, or knockaboutcomedies about ordinary people.Allthe parts were taken by men, and theactors wore distinctive costumes andmasks to help the audienceunderstand their roles in the play.Roman drama had its origins in theplays of the ancient Greeks, andGreek and Roman actors wore verysimilar costumes and masks.

CostumesRoman plays were usually performedin huge, outdoor theaters, with rowsof seats built in a high circle around acentral stage. Because of the vast sizeof these theaters, the actors had to be

Two Roman actors’ masksfrom a mosaic. The maskon the left would be wornby a comic character, whilethe one on the rightrepresents a pale-skinnedmaiden.

The Roman Empire

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Masks In addition to their costumes, theactors wore masks to help theaudience recognize what kind ofcharacter they were playing.The maskshad exaggerated features whichshowed the character’s sex and age, andwhether they were humans or gods.Female masks were much paler thanmale ones and had bigger eyes.Therewere special masks for recognizablecharacter types such as the “wise oldman,” the “fool,” the “innocentmaiden,” and “the scheming slave.”During the course of a performance,an actor might wear several masks,swapping perhaps from a smiling to anangry mask to indicate that hischaracter's mood had changed.

Actors’ masks were usually madefrom stiffened, painted linen, and theywere lightweight, but very hot.Theyhad holes for the eyes and a verylarge hole for the mouth, whichhelped to amplify the actor’s voice sothat he could be heard by everyonein the theater.

Actors’ ShoesAncient Greek and Roman actorssometimes wore special shoes tomake them seem taller. Theseshoes were made from wood andhad thick soles and a high heel.The shoes had no left or right andlooked the same from both sides.

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The Roman ArmyIn the early republic, Rome did nothave a professional army, because intimes of war, all male citizens wereexpected to fight.The men had toprovide their own weapons andequipment and then return homewhen the fighting was over. By thetime of the empire, however, theRoman army had become anextremely efficient fighting force.Soldiers were well-paid professionalswho wore regulation armor andweapons.

The Roman army was divided intolegions—groups of around sixthousand men.Within the legions,most men fought as legionaries, orfoot soldiers, while a smaller group ofmounted soldiers formed the cavalry.Marching at the head of the legionwas the aquilifer or standard-bearer.Roman legionaries wore short tunicsand leather sandals studded withnails.They fought with daggers,swords, and javelins and carried alarge wood and leather shield.Aniron helmet protected their head and

Useful ShieldsWhile the shields of the Roman cavalry were flat and oval, thelegionaries’ shields were rectangular in shape and bowed outward.The shields were made in this distinctive shape so that thelegionaries could form a cunning formation. Groups of soldiersadvancing toward the enemy locked their shields together to form asolid barrier that covered the soldiers’ heads and also protected thefront and sides of the group. This well-protected shape was knownas the testudo, or tortoise, and it allowed the legionaries toapproach very close to the enemy before launching their attack.

A Roman legionary

Iron helmet

Metal breastplate

Scabbard for sword

Javelin

Wood and leather shield

Tunic

Leather sandal studded

with nails

The Roman Empire

43

who were forced to fight each otherto the death.

Most gladiators fought with veryshort swords.They wore simpleloincloths and went bare-chested,although they did wear a helmet andcarry a shield. One type of gladiator,called a retiarius, fought with a netand wore no armor at all.

they also wore a breastplate madefrom metal strips.

Standard-bearers led their legion intobattle, so they had to be easy to spot.As well as their basic armor, theywore a dramatic headdress made fromthe head and front paws of a lion,and carried a tall staff topped by agolden emblem of an eagle.

Another dramatic figure on thebattlefield was the cornicene, or hornplayer. He blew battle signals, using alarge, circular trumpet, and wore astriking costume made from a bear’shead and skin.

Each Roman legion was divided intomany smaller groups, and each grouphad its own commander.The mostimportant commander was the legate,who was in charge of the wholelegion and wore a golden helmettopped with eagle’s wings.The leastimportant was the centurion, whocommanded a group of aroundeighty men.The centurion woresimilar armor to the legionary, but hisshins were protected by metal platescalled greaves, and he wore a plumedhelmet on his head.

GladiatorsThe Roman emperors paid fordramatic and bloodthirsty shows toentertain the people of the city.Known as “the games,” these showswere held in massive stone stadiums,such as the Colosseum in Rome.One of the most popular games wasthe gladiator fight. Gladiators wereslaves, criminals, or prisoners of war,

This mosaic shows two scenes of gladiatorsfighting. The figure on the left in both scenesis a retiarius, who fights with a net.

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The Romans called these tribes“barbarians” and fought fiercely tokeep them out of their lands.Eventually, however, Rome wasinvaded by barbarians, and in 476 theRoman Empire collapsed in westernEurope.

Rome was threatened by manywarlike tribes, but one of the mostterrifying were the Franks, whooriginally came from Germany.Frankish warriors carried circularwooden shields and fought withspears and lethal throwing axes calledfranciscas.They wore rough coatsmade from furs, short tunics andleggings, and boots cross-lacedaround their calves. However, themost striking aspect of the warriors’appearance was their hair.This wasworn in a pigtail at the front, andshaved at the back with an extratopknot of hair sprouting from thetop of the head.

Celtic PeopleThe people known as the Celts weremade up of many different tribes, butthey all shared the same language andway of life.The Celtic culture beganin Austria around 800 BCE, and theCelts gradually spread across most ofEurope, settling as far north asScotland and as far south as Turkey.As the Roman Empire grew, theCelts fought hard to defend theirlands, but in the end most of themwere conquered. However, Celticculture survived in Ireland andremote parts of Scotland and Wales,while in Cornwall and Brittany someCeltic traditions remained.

Although the Romans were verysuccessful at conquering the peoplesof Europe, there were some tribeswho resisted them.The Roman armyfought constant battles with theCeltic people, while tribes ofGermanic people from northeasternEurope launched frequent attacks onthe empire’s borders.

Barbarian WarriorsBy the third century CE attacks onthe Roman Empire by Germanictribes were growing more serious.

Barbarians and Celts

A Frankish warrior, armedwith his throwing axe,known as a francisca.

The Roman Empire

45

Celtic MetalworkThe Celts were skilled metalworkerswho made strong weapons and tools.They also created beautiful cups,shields, and items of jewelry frombronze, silver, and gold. Some ofthese objects, dating from around twothousand years ago, are decoratedwith intricate swirling patterns, andthe same sort of patterns appearedmuch later in Celtic medieval art.

Celtic DressCeltic men wore short, belted tunicsand baggy pants tied at the anklewith strips of leather, while womenwore long dresses with belts. Bothmen and women often wore chunkyneckbands, known as torcs, madefrom twisted bands of gold.

In battle, Celtic warriors wore bronzehelmets, which were sometimescrowned with horns or animalornaments.They carried bronzeshields, fought with spears, and blewon tall war trumpets decorated withanimal heads.To make themselvesappear more intimidating to theirenemies, some Celtic warriorsstripped to the waist and paintedtheir bodies with swirling patterns,using a blue dye called woad.Theyalso combed lime through their hairto make it stand up in spikes.

Checks andPlaidsCeltic clothes werewoven from wool anddyed bright colors,and often featuredpatterns of stripes,checks, and verysimple plaids. Thesesimple designs wereprobably the origin ofthe traditional plaidpatterns later usedin Scottish kilts.A Celtic bronze shield dating from around

350 BCE.

Celtic warriors usuallywore thick woolen clotheswith bold patterns ofchecks and plaids.

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Ancient India

Chapter 6: Peoples of the South and East

India has a rich early history.The Indus valleycivilization, which flourished between 2600 and

2000 BCE, was larger than any other empire of thetime.The Aryan people, who arrived in India around1500 BCE, introduced the religion of Hinduism, whileBuddhism also began in India around 500 BCE.TheGupta Empire of the fourth to the sixth centuries CEis famous for its painting, music, and dance.

People of the IndusValleyThe first civilization in India grew uparound the valley of the Indus Riveraround 3500 BCE.Within a thousandyears there were over a hundredtowns and cities in the Indus valley.The farmers there were the firstpeople to grow cotton and weave itinto cloth for clothes. Meanwhile, inthe towns and cities, metalworkersand bead makers made headbands,armlets, and necklaces. Beads fornecklaces were made from gold, clay,and semiprecious stones. Somepottery beads were modeled in theform of tiny animals.

Clothes for CastesThe Aryan people, who arrived inIndia around 1500 BCE, introduced acaste system in which people weredivided into different classesaccording to the jobs they did.Children always belonged to thesame caste as their parents, and eachcaste wore different kinds of clothes.The main castes were: the workers,

who wore a simple tunic and turban;the merchants, who dressed in morecolorful robes and wore goldenjewelry; the warriors and kings, whowore magnificently patterned robesand turbans and masses of jewelry;and the priests and scholars, whousually dressed very simply in aloincloth, with their hair knottedbehind their head.

Buddhist MonksAround 528 BCE Prince SiddharthaGautama gave up his worldly richesand became the Buddha, a wanderingholy man who dressed very simplyand had almost no possessions.TheBuddha attracted many followerswho wished to live like him, and hegave precise instructions about theirrobes.These robes have been wornby Buddhist monks from the sixthcentury BCE right up to the present day.

Buddhist monks have a “triple robe,”which consists of: a waistcloth,wrapped around the body like a

Peoples of the South and East

sarong; a robe; and an outer robe,which is only worn in cold weather.Monks’ robes can be dyed from rootsand tubers, plants, bark, leaves,flowers, and fruits, and these naturalsubstances produce a range of colorsfrom deep red to yellow.The mostcommon color for Buddhist robes isa yellowish-orange, or saffron.

The Gupta EmpireThe Gupta emperors ruled from 320to 550 CE, and encouraged art,science, and trade.Textiles were amajor source of wealth for theempire, and large quantities of silk,cotton, linen, and muslin (a very finecotton) were produced to be tradedabroad.

While the ordinary people in theGupta Empire wore simple clothesmade from cotton, kings, princes, andprincesses had splendid clothes andjewelry.A set of famous Buddhistmurals painted at Ajanta during the

Buddhist monks today stillwear the same traditionalsaffron robes that theywore in the sixth centuryBCE.

Guptas’ rule portray a group ofexquisite dancing maidens, ladenwith jewels.The dancers wearflowing robes of the finest muslin.Around their necks, waists, arms, andlegs are strings of pearls, beads, andjewels. Some have golden, jeweledheaddresses rising in points, whileothers are bareheaded with jewelsand flowers woven into their hair.

The TilakaEver since the Aryan period, Hindu womenhave worn a mark called the tilaka ontheir foreheads. It is usually madefrom a mixture of red ocher powderand sandalwood paste and is a visiblesign that a person belongs to theHindu religion. According to ancientHindu tradition, the tilaka began inAryan times when the bridegroomused his thumb to apply his bloodto his bride’s forehead as arecognition of their marriage.

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Making SilkSilk thread is produced by silkwormsthat spin their thread into tightlybound cocoons.The ancient Chinesediscovered that if they soaked thesecocoons in hot water, the threadswould loosen, making it possible tounwind the silk thread onto a stick.Once the thread was collected,several strands were twisted togetherto make threads thick enough forweaving. By creating threads ofdifferent thicknesses, the Chinesecould weave a range of different silkcloths, from light gauzes to heavybrocades.

Ancient China

Around 5000 BCE people began farming along thebanks of the Yellow River.After a thousand years,

farmers began to grow rice, and around 2700 BCE theydiscovered how to make silk. From that time on,wealthy people in China wore exquisite robes wovenfrom this material.

Chinese nobles wore colorful silk robescovered with embroidery.

These nail protectorswere worn by a Chineseempress over her six-inch-long fingernails.

Fancy FingernailsAround 3000 BCE wealthy people in China began to

paint their fingernails. The colors used dependedon rank. China’s early rulers wore gold and silver

nail polish, but by the time of the emperors theroyal colors were red and black. Well-manicured nails were a symbolof a high social position. They emphasized the difference between

the nobility and the workers, who had to labor with their hands.

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Silk was woven on looms to makefine cloth, but was also used forembroidery thread.The Chinese soonlearned to embroider exquisitepatterns onto silk cloth, often using acontrasting color. Some silk wasmade into beautiful clothes, and somewas taken by merchants who traveledto the West, where silk sold forenormous prices. Soon, Chinese silkwas so famous that the trading routethat ran across Asia to Europebecame known as the Silk Road.

Emperors and NoblesIn 221 BCE Qin Shi Huangdiestablished China's first empire. Heestablished a pattern of living verygrandly, and the emperors thatfollowed him built magnificentpalaces where they lived with theircourtiers. Emperors and nobles worewide-sleeved, flowing silk robes,which crossed over at the front andwere fastened by a high belt.Therobes included long, trailing sashesand were covered with embroidereddesigns. Emperors and nobles oftenwore their beards and moustacheslong. Emperors had elaborate capsdecorated with tassels, while noblesusually wore their hair tied in atopknot and covered with a small,silken cap.

Working DressThe Chinese had strict rules aboutdress. No merchants were allowed towear silk, and farmers andcraftworkers dressed very simply.Some wore cotton loincloths, whileothers had loose tunics and pants.On their feet they wore sandals made

One of the thousands ofterracotta warriorsguarding the firstemperor’s tomb. Thisfigure originally held a realweapon.

Peoples of the South and East

from rushes or straw. In the warm,wet south, peasants working in thefields wore wide-brimmed, cone-shaped hats to protect them from thesun and rain.

Chinese WarriorsThe enormous tomb of the firstemperor of China contains morethan seven thousand life-sized modelwarriors, placed there to guard hisbody. Made from terracotta andoriginally brightly painted, thewarriors wear knee-length tunics.Some warriors have their hair tied ina topknot and wear a simpleheadband, but the officerssport elaborate bonnetswith two wings at thetop that tie under thechin. Some of thewarriors carried realcrossbows, which wereset to fire if anyonedared to enter thetomb.

silk-making were brought over fromChina. People in ancient Japanprobably dressed in the same way asthe ancient Chinese, with farmerswearing simple tunics and pants,while richer people wore fine robesmade from silk.

The best evidence for ancientJapanese costumes comes from theburial mounds of the Yamatoemperors. Here, archaeologists havefound bronze mirrors, bells, swords,and spears.They have also discoveredclay models of warriors, placedaround the burial mound to protectthe emperor’s body.These miniaturefigures are dressed completely inarmor that seems to be made frommetal strips.The armor consists of: ahelmet with long side flaps meetingunder the chin; a long, waisted jackettied at the front with laces; and widepants.The warriors wear gauntletsand have swords in scabbards ontheir belts.

A miniature terracottasoldier from a Yamatoemperor’s tomb.

Ancient Japan

Swords, Jewels, andMirrorsAn ancient Japanese creation mythprovides some insight into thethings that were consideredimportant in early Japanesesociety. According to this myth, thesun goddess Amaterasu sent hergrandson Ninigi to rule over Japan,giving him a sword, a jewel, and amirror. These three gifts becamesymbols of the emperor'sauthority. They are said to be stillowned by Japan's ruling family.

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The earliest people in Japan lived ashunter-gatherers, hunting, fishing, andcollecting nuts and berries.Then,around 500 BCE, settlers arrivedfrom China and Korea.They broughtnew skills, such as metalworking andfarming, and people began to live intribes, ruled by chieftains. One tribe,called the Yamato, became morepowerful than all the others, andaround 500 CE they took control,becoming the first emperors of aunited Japan.

Yamato Emperors andWarriorsThe Yamato emperors ruled untilaround 700 CE. During their rule,many new ideas, such as writing and

Australia and the PacificAustralianAboriginals The aboriginal people of Australiafirst arrived on the continent around40,000 years ago, and graduallyspread out all over Australia. In thecooler regions, the aboriginals woreanimal skins to keep warm, but inmany parts of Australia there was noneed for clothes.

The early aboriginals painted theirbodies with patterns using pigmentsmade from ochers, white clay, andcharcoal. Both men and women worea range of ornaments made fromnatural materials such as bark, teeth,and feathers, or carved from wood.Aboriginal hunters used boomerangs,clubs, and spears, and defendedthemselves with wooden shields,which were decorated with carvingsor paintings.

During the last Ice Age, adventurousgroups of people from Southeast Asiabegan to journey in boats.Theyrowed south across the Pacific Ocean,which was much smaller than it istoday because large amounts of landwere covered in ice. Some peoplesettled on islands in the SouthPacific, and some reached as far asAustralia.Very much later, around 750BCE, a group called the Maorisarrived in New Zealand.

Pacific IslandersThe people who settled on thePacific islands wore skirts made fromdried grasses and necklaces madefrom shells, feathers, and teeth.Theymay have decorated their faces andbodies with body paint or tattoos,like the Maoris.They may also haveworn small carvings as good-luckcharms.

DreamtimePatternsAll the patterns usedin aboriginal bodypainting havetraditional meanings.They show figuresand events from theDreamtime, a periodwhen their world wascreated by the SpiritAncestors, accordingto aboriginal belief.

Today, some Australianaboriginals still paint theirbodies with the samedesigns that theirancestors used thousandsof years ago.

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ceremonial dances, when some ofthem dressed as buffalo.

Mound BuildersAround 500 BCE a people called theAdena flourished in southern Ohio.Evidence of these people, includingsmall burial mounds, has been foundin the Scioto River valley.They weresucceeded around 300 BCE by the

Arctic People By around 12,000 BCE people hadsettled in the frozen Arctic regions.These early ancestors of the Inuitpeople lived by hunting seals andwalruses, fish, and birds. Like theirInuit descendants, the people of theArctic must have used animal skins tomake hooded coats, pants, mittens,and boots.They also carvedornaments from walrus tusks.Aminiature ivory mask survives fromaround 500 BCE, which may havebelonged to a chief or a priest.

Hunters of the PlainsIt is thought that the first peoplearrived in the Great Plains areaaround 10,000 BCE.The people ofthe plains hunted buffalo for food,and hunters disguised themselves bywearing the skin of a wolf or abuffalo. Like the later people of theplains, the early buffalo hunters musthave used buffalo hides to maketepees and clothes.The early plainsdwellers probably also held

Early BasketmakersIn the hot, sandy deserts of thesouthwest, people learned toweave baskets from plant fibers.From the first century CE thesedesert people, usually known asthe Early Basketmakers, usedtheir weaving skills to buildconical homes in the sand, andalso made baskets to be carriedon their backs. Some basketswere lined with gum from plantsso they could hold water.

Chapter 7: People of the Americas

North America

During the last Ice Age,Asia and America werelinked by a bridge of land and ice. Hunters from

northern Asia followed herds of buffalo until theyarrived in the northwestern tip of America.Then, verygradually, over thousands of years, people spread out allover the continent. In each area where they settled, theNative Americans established a different way of life.

Traditional Inuit dress ismade entirely from animalskins and fur. It must havestayed unchanged forthousands of years.

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mica sheets. No one knows thefunction of these small, flat ornaments,but they may have been worn aspendants, or sewn onto clothes.

The Adena and Hopewell peopleprobably lived in a similar way to thelater tribes of the northeasternwoodlands.These people werehunters and gatherers who woreloincloths, cloaks, and moccasinsmade from leather and decoratedwith dried seeds and feathers.Theypainted patterns on their skin andwore feathered headdresses on theirheads. In their ceremonies theysmoked tobacco from a carved pipewhich was passed between them, andthey also held dances in which sometribe members wore carved woodenmasks.

Hopewell, another great mound-building civilization, who flourisheduntil the sixth century CE. Over time,the Hopewell people built largerburial mounds, until they had becomesubstantial, circular burial chambers.Inside these chambers, archaeologistshave found copper bracelets, necklacesmade from shells and alligator teeth,wooden masks, and carved woodenpipes.

The Hopewell people were greattraders who exchanged goods withtribes as far away as the RockyMountains and the Gulf of Mexico,and brought back copper, silver, mica,and quartz. Hopewell craftworkersmade copper sheets into designs suchas flying birds.They also cut outshapes, such as hands and claws, from

These Native Americanbuffalo hunters, painted inthe nineteenth century,wear clothes made fromleather and feathers. Theirancient ancestors probablydressed in a similar way,though they may not haveridden horses.

The Hopewell people madefine jewelry using a widerange of natural materials.This necklace was madefrom pearl beads gatheredfrom freshwater shellfish,while the pendants andearrings were fashionedfrom beaten copper.

People of the Americas

54

People of PeruPeople began to settle on the rockycoast of Peru around 12,000 BCE.Atfirst, they survived by catchingshellfish and crabs and gathering nutsand berries, but by about 2000 BCEthey had learned to grow crops.ThePeruvian farmers grew maize, squash,beans, and potatoes, and also cottonfor spinning and weaving.They kept

llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs fortheir meat and wool, which was usedto weave blankets and cloaks.

Between 1800 and 900 BCE theChavin people created the firstcivilization in South America.Theywere skilled stoneworkers who builthuge temples filled with carvings oftheir fierce animal gods.The Chavinpeople settled in the long coastalstrip which is present-day Peru andinfluenced the culture of the wholearea. Chavin culture disappearedaround 200 BCE, but other groupsgrew up, including the Paracascultures in the south, and the Mochein the north.

Chavin GoldLittle evidence remains of Chavinclothing, but they were the firstpeople in the Americas to work gold.Chavin goldsmiths made intricatefigurines and pendants covered withexpressive carving.These ornamentsshow a range of animal spirits,including jaguars, eagles, alligators,

A Chavin figurine of a wildcat. This solid goldornament may have beenworn by a ruler or a priest.

The Paracas peoplemummified their rulers andburied them in fine woolengarments. This Paracasburial cloak and headdresswere made from dyed andembroidered wool.

South America

People of the Americas

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The figures wear short, decoratedkilts with elaborately patterned belts.Around their ankles are feathered legbands, and hanging around theirnecks are square, woven bags. Eachfigure carries a baton and a fan, andwears a simple headdress of twohorizontal bands topped by a designof an animal’s face.

crabs, and shellfish. In addition to thefigurines, wide gold collars andpectorals have also been found inChavin temples.All of these splendidornaments were probably worn byChavin rulers and priests.

Paracas ClothThe Paracas people, who flourished inthe southern Andes from around 600BCE to 400 CE, are famous for theirweaving and embroidery.Weaversused fine alpaca wool to makespectacular cloaks and burial cloths ina range of vivid colors. Somesurviving Paracas cloth has geometricfigures and motifs woven into it,while some is decorated withembroidered designs.The cloth isbrightly colored with dyes, includingturquoise, scarlet, and jade green.Designs include a range of animalmotifs, such as alpacas, birds of prey,jaguars, and snakes. Sometimesweavers combined the forms of severalcreatures into a complex intertwineddesign. Semi-human deities are alsoshown, displaying a mixture of humanand animal features.

One surviving Paracas textile has arecurrent design of flying figures,apparently wearing ceremonial dress.

Backstrap LoomsPortraits of weavers on ancient Moche pots reveal that the people of the Andes used asimple backstrap loom to weave their patterned cloth. The warp strings of the loom wereattached at one end to a high post. At the other end the strings were tied to a strap thatwent around the weaver’s back. Whenever the weavers wanted to tighten their threads, theysimply leaned back against the strap. These portable looms could be set up anywhere andare still used today in Peru.

A Paracas llama-wooltextile used to wrap thebody of a mummified ruler.The figures on thisembroidery may representwarrior priests.

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Moche LordsBetween 200 and 800 CE, theMoche lords ruled over a coastalkingdom in northern Peru. Most ofthe Moche people lived in smallfarming or fishing villages clusteredaround tall pyramids where the lordshad their palaces.The Moche lordsconducted solemn ceremonies andled their warriors into battle.Theyalso supervised the work of skilledcraftspeople who worked in clay,textiles, and metals.

Moche JewelryMetalworkers smelted gold, silver, andcopper in small furnaces and usedstone hammers to flatten the metalinto thin sheets. From these theyfashioned gleaming headdresses, facemasks, nose rings, earrings, pectorals,and pendants. Moche jewelry wasoften covered with fine engravingsand sometimes inlaid with turquoise,shell, and lapis lazuli.

Portraits in ClayMoche lords commissioned skilledpotters to make bowls, pots, andvases, painted with designs in red,white, and earth colors. Many of thepots feature painted figures andscenes, while some “stirrup vases”take the form of human figures.Moche pottery reveals a fantasticrange of costumes: lords adornedwith face paint and wearingfeathered headdresses, warriors inpatterned battle tunics andheaddresses, and ordinary people incotton tunics and caps. One survivingpot even shows a man washing hishair with coca leaves.

Sacred GoldAll the ancient people of the Andes worshiped the sungod, and gold was especially prized because it wasassociated with the sun god’s life-giving power. For theirspecial ceremonies, Moche lords were festooned withgolden jewelry and also wore a cotton cloak coveredwith gilded plates. When a Moche lord appeared on thetop of his pyramid, glittering in all his finery, hepersonified the god of the sun.

This “stirrup vase” made by the Moche people shows a laughing manwearing a simple cotton cap.

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Olmec sculptors also carved a set ofgiant stone heads, which are probablyportraits of leaders. Each of themwears a distinctive helmet-likeheaddress with straps around the ears.Some have a decorated badge at thecenter of the forehead.

Sacred Ball GameAs part of their religion, the Olmecsplayed a sacred ball game on a stonecourt. Players hit a rubber ball withtheir arms, hands, and hips, and at theend of the game one team was put todeath.

Carvings show that the Olmec ball-game players wore a protectivehelmet, similar to the headdress oftheir rulers.They also wore a largechest ornament and a high-cutloincloth with a wide, paddedwaistband. Later, the Maya also playeda sacred ball game, and their playerswore a similar costume.

OlmecsThe first major Central Americancivilization emerged around 1500BCE in the humid, swampy landsaround the Gulf of Mexico. Here, theOlmec people built a series ofceremonial sites on low hills.The twomajor sites were San Lorenzo and LaVenta. Each contained a complex oftemple platforms and pyramid moundsand a court for a sacred ball game.

The Olmecs were the first of a seriesof peoples that flourished in CentralAmerica, and many aspects of theirculture were adopted by later groups,including the Maya people (see pages58 and 59).

Olmec CarvingsOlmec craftspeople created masksand figurines from jade, obsidian, andserpentine, which were possibly wornas pendants.These carvings featuredeagles, serpents, and jaguars, and alsosemi-human figures with snarlingjaguar faces.

Central America

A colossal stone headfrom San Lorenzo, Mexico.Carved heads like thesewere probably intended asportraits of rulers.

The Olmecs and the Mayaplayed a sacred ball game.Players had specialloincloths and helmets andwore large ornaments ontheir chests.

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nobles also filed their teeth intodifferent shapes, and built up thebridge of their nose with clay tomake a long ridge that extendedright up to the middle of theforehead. Hair was sometimes wornover the forehead and cut in uneven,squared-off locks.

Kings and QueensMaya kings and queens woreamazing costumes.The kings worepatterned tunics with elaborate beltsand large pectorals featuring imagesof their gods.They also woredecorated armbands, tasseled legbands, and pendulous earrings. Ontheir heads they had a toweringheaddress that frequently featured ananimal’s head.The Maya queens’

MayaAround 300 BCE the Maya peoplestarted building stone cities deep inthe rainforests of Central America.Each Maya city was filled withtemples and palaces and was ruled bya powerful king.The palaces andpyramids of the Maya cities werecovered with sculptures of their godsand rulers.The Maya also producedpainted pots and manuscripts, whichoffer a wealth of evidence about theway they looked and dressed.

Maya BeautyThe Maya people had flattenedforeheads that sloped backwards,giving their faces an oval, egg-likeshape.This shape was achieved bybinding the skulls of babies whiletheir bones were still soft. Maya

This painting shows arange of Maya costumes.The figure on the leftcarrying a bundle isprobably an ordinaryfarmer. The two centralfigures may be courtiers,while the dark figure in thefeathered headdress (topleft) is a warrior.

People of the Americas

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clothes were equally dramatic.Theywore long cloaks and dresses, heavygolden neck collars, intricateearrings, and tall and elaboratecrowns.

Ordinary people wore a basic,cotton loincloth, and a simple capon their heads.They also worechunky beads, armbands, andearrings.

Maya WarriorsIn battle, Maya warriors dressed toscare their enemies.They wore huge,spiky headdresses and went intobattle shouting, blowing longtrumpets, and pulling frighteningfaces.Warriors defended themselveswith shields and fought with longspears, but they aimed to take theirprisoners alive, rather than kill them.The fiercest warriors of all were thejaguar knights.Their tunics,headdresses, shields, and spears wereall decorated with jaguar skin, andtheir headdresses were shaped like ajaguar’s head.

Imitating the GodsThe Maya worshiped dozens of godsand held many ceremonies to pleasethem.As part of these ceremonies,priests and kings wore costumes andheaddresses representing their gods.The most important of all the godswas the sun god, and when the Mayakings were buried, they wore a maskshowing the sun god’s face.Theseroyal burial masks were usually madeof jade, the Mayan’s most preciousmaterial, which they associated witheverlasting life.

Quetzal FeathersMost of the ancient peoples of Central America worshipedthe serpent god Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl was half snakeand half Quetzal bird, and the feathers of the Quetzal birdwere considered sacred. Like other Central Americanpeoples, the Maya used the long, green tail feathers ofthe Quetzal bird in the headdresses of their rulers andpriests.

A Maya warrior painted ona vase. This portrait showsvery clearly the backward-sloping forehead which theMaya people consideredvery beautiful.

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TimelineBCE

c. 114,000–c. 30,000 People begin to wear clothes. Prehistoric people makesimple clothes from animal skins, wear jewelry made from shells and teeth, and use body paint for ceremonies.c. 29,000 The earliest evidence of woven cloth (probably from grasses) dates from this time.c. 24,000 Twine nets are first woven.c. 10,000 Jewelry is made from pottery and semiprecious stones.c. 9000–6000 Farmers in Iraq learn to spin wool and weave it into simple tunics.c. 8000 Linen is first woven in Europe; hemp is first used for making cloth in China.c. 5000 Cotton is spun and woven into cloth in Central America.c. 3500 Cotton manufacture develops in India.c. 3100 The Egyptian civilization begins. The ancient Egyptians learn to weave linen clothes from flax. Many Egyptians wear elaborate jewelry, wigs, and makeup.c. 3000 The ancient Sumerians learn to make necklaces, daggers, and helmetsfrom copper, silver, and gold. Bronze is discovered, and used for making axes, spears,and strong helmets.c. 2700 Silk-making begins in China. The ancient Chinese weave elaborate silk robes. They also export silk to Europe along the Silk Road.c. 2600 The people of the Indus valley grow cotton and use it to make clothes.c. 1500 The Chavin people are the first civilization in the Americas to discover gold. Chavin goldsmiths make golden ornaments and collars.c. 1200 The Phoenicians make a purple dye which is sold around theMediterranean. They also discover how to blow glass and make glass beads andornaments.c. 600 The Paracas people of the Andes create elaborate woven costumes.c. 520 The Persians start to build their empire. Persian warriors wear pants for riding.c. 500 The ancient Greek civilization begins to flourish. Greek soldiers wear strong protective armor.c. 300 The Mayans start building stone cities. Maya rulers and warriors wear elaborate headdresses.27 The Roman Empire begins. Roman styles of dress spread across the Middle East and Europe.

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Glossaryalloy A mixture of two or more metals.alpaca A goatlike animal that comes fromSouth America. Alpacas have long, shaggy hairthat is used to make fine wool.amulet An ornament or piece of jewelry thatis believed to bring its owner good luck.appliqué A method of decorating fabric inwhich pieces of a different material are sewnonto the fabric.armlet A band that is worn around the upperarm.baton A long, thin stick sometimes carried bya warrior.bodice The tight-fitting upper part of awoman’s dress.boomerang A curved stick that is thrownthrough the air and returns to its thrower if itmisses its target. Boomerangs are used byaboriginal hunters in Australia.braid A length of hair that has been dividedinto three strands and twisted together.braided Divided into strands and twistedtogether.brocade A rich fabric with a raised patternwoven into it. Brocades often have raisedpatterns made from gold or silver threads.coca leaves Leaves from the coca plant,which grows in the Andes Mountains.cochineal insect A Mexican insect whosecrushed body produces a bright crimson dye.enamel A shiny, glasslike substance that canbe produced in a range of colors and is oftenused to decorate metal objects.fez A cone-shaped hat without a brim.flail An instrument with a handle and a free-swinging end, used for beating corn or as a whip.flounced Gathered to create a ruffle. Aflounced skirt is usually made up of severallayers of gathered fabric.fluted Decorated with regular vertical groovesor dips.fuller Someone who makes and treats cloth.gauntlet A heavy glove with a long cuff.

gauze A very thin woven cloth that is almosttransparent.gilded Decorated with gold.gold leaf An extremely thin layer of gold.henna A reddish dye made from the powderedleaves of the henna plant that grows in Asiaand North Africa.Ice Age A period of time when large parts ofthe earth were covered with ice. The last IceAge lasted from around 100,000 years ago to10,000 years ago.jackal mask A mask made to look like a wilddesert dog called a jackal. The jackal was thesymbol of the Egyptian god Anubis.jade A semiprecious stone that can range incolor from green to white.lapis lazuli A bright turquoise-blue mineralfound in rocks.lichen A flat, moss-like plant that grows ontrees and rocks.loincloth A piece of cloth worn around thewaist or hips and covering the bottom.mica A type of rock that can be split into verythin sheets.moccasin A shoe made from soft leather.motif A figure or shape in a design.mural A wall painting.nomad A member of a tribe or people thatwander from place to place.obsidian A dark, glassy, volcanic rock.ocher A type of rock or earth that is used formaking brown, red, orange, and yellowpigments.pectoral A large ornament worn on the chest.pigment A natural substance, such as a plantor a rock, that gives color to something.plaid A design of straight lines crossing atright angles to give a checkered appearance.plaque A small, flat brooch or badge.pleated Folded and pressed or stitched inplace.quartz A gemstone that can be purple, brown,yellow, or pink in color.

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rouge Red powder or paste applied to thecheeks.saffron An orange-yellow color, usually madefrom crocus flowers.sandalwood A sweet-smelling wood.sardonyx A gemstone with reddish-brown andwhite stripes.sarong A draped, skirtlike garment made froma strip of cloth.scabbard A holder for a sword or dagger.scalloped Wavy, or made up of a series ofcurves.sediment Solid bits that settle at the bottomof a liquid.serpentine A dark green rock with a shinysurface.standard-bearer Someone who carries theflag (or standard) for a company of soldiers.tasseled Decorated with bunches of threadsthat are tied at one end.tepee A conical tent made by NativeAmericans.terracotta A type of hard, unglazed potterythat is brownish-red in color.tiered Having several layers.tuber A kind of plant root.wicker A flexible twig or shoot, often used forweaving.

Further InformationAdult General Reference SourcesFagan, Brian M., Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdomsof Jade: The Americas before Columbus(Thames and Hudson, 1991)Sichel, Marion, Costume of the Classical World(Batsford, 1980)Starr, Chester G., A History of the AncientWorld (Oxford, 1991)Symons, David, Costume of Ancient Greece(Batsford, 1987)Symons, David, Costume of Ancient Rome(Batsford, 1987)Watson, Philip, Costume of Ancient Egypt(Chelsea House, 1987)Wise, Terence, Ancient Armies of the MiddleEast (Osprey, 1981)

Young Adult SourcesChandler, Fiona, The Ancient World (Usborne, 1999)Chisholm, Jane, The Usborne Book of theAncient World (Usborne, 1991)Cotterell, Arthur, The Encyclopedia of AncientCivilizations (Mayfield, 1983)Haywood, John (Ed), Everyday Life in theAncient World: The Illustrated HistoryEncyclopedia (Southwater, 2001)Millard, Anne, The Atlas of the Ancient World(Dorling Kindersley, 1994)

Internet Resourceshttp://www.costumes.org/history/100pages/greeklinks.htmA general website on the history of costumewith links to sites on different cultures of theancient world and their costumes.

http://www.costumes.orgThe Costumer’s Manifesto A general websiteon the history of costume with links to siteson different cultures, and their costumes.

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http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/home.htmThe Smith College Museum of AncientInventions has recreations of prehistoric and ancient textile tools with descriptions oftheir uses.

http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk Digital Egypt for Universities includesmultiple pages on textile production; toolsand clothing in ancient Egypt, including manycolor photos and pattern diagrams ofsurviving garments; also images of jewelryand tools for body art.

http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/clothing.htmAncient Egypt: Clothing page with diagrams,photos, and detailed bibliography and links.

http://www.davidclaudon.com/Cleo/Cleopatra1.htmlThe Cleopatra Costume on Stage and in Filmexamines in detail both the probable clothingof the real Cleopatra, as well as the theatricalcostumes worn by performers depicting hersince the sixteenth century.

http://phoenicia.org/dress.html Phoenician Dress, Ornaments and SocialHabits: an outline of ancient Phoenician dressof all classes, with footnotes.

http://www.annaswebart.com/culture/costhistory/Greek Costume through the Centuriesconcentrates mainly on women’s dress from theMinoan Civilization to the nineteenth century.

http://www.greyhawkes.com/blacksword/Spartan%20Combat%20Arts%202001/1-Pages/HowTo/Clothing/Chiton.htmHow to Make a Chiton: instructions for makingancient Greek female dress.

http://www.add.gr/jewel/elka/index.htmlGreek Jewelry: Five Thousand Years ofTradition has beautiful photographs, and adetailed history of the subject.

http://www.villaivilla.com/Villa Ivilla, where you can “become acquainted with the rhythm of daily life inancient Rome and learn about fashions formen and women, dining and cuisine, andhome life.” The site includes instructions forcorrectly wrapping a toga.

http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romanpages.htmlRome: Republic to Empire has a section onRoman clothing with many details ofaccessories for both men and women,including diagrams for recreating them.

http://www.roman-empire.net/society/soc-dress.htmlRoman Dress, part of the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire site, has photos,diagrams, and detailed information on Romanclothing styles.

http://www.library.utoronto.ca/east/students03/tai_amy/The Evolution of Chinese Costume coverschanges in Chinese dress from ancient timesto the present.

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Indexactors 40–41Adena people 52, 53Arctic 52Australian aborigines 51animal skins 6, 51, 52Aryan people 46–47Assyrians 22–23

Babylonians 24Barbarians 44beards 9, 14, 20, 23, 25, 33, 38, 49belts 24, 55body painting 6, 7, 45, 51boots 26, 35, 44, 52bras 37bronze 9, 30, 34Buddhism 46–47

Canaanites 17castes 46Celts 44–45ceremonies 18–19, 25, 27, 52children 13, 37, 46China 48–49copper 9, 53cosmetics/makeup 11, 12, 13, 33,

38, 39costumes 40cotton 31, 37, 46, 47, 49, 54Crete 28

decorations 7, 26, 27, 28, 45dresses 11, 18, 26, 28, 29, 33, 36, 37,

58dyes 8, 17, 19, 20, 23, 31, 38, 45, 47,

55

embroidery 48, 49, 55emperors 49

farmers 10, 46, 49, 50feathers 7, 11, 53, 59felt 27Franks 44fur 6, 26, 44

gods and goddesses 14, 15, 24, 59Great Plains 52

Greece 17, 31–25Gupta Empire 47

hairstyles 9, 12–13, 28, 29, 33, 35,38, 44, 49, 58

hats and caps 20, 26, 28, 49, 58headbands 28, 29, 32, 46headdresses 9, 14, 24, 25, 26, 43, 47,

53, 55, 56, 57, 58Hebrews 18helmets 9, 16, 17, 23, 26, 30, 35, 42,

43, 45, 50, 57Hindu tradition 47Hittites 17Hopewell people 53hunters 6–7, 51, 52, 53

Ice Age 6–7India 46–47Indus Valley 46

Japan 50jewelry 9, 11, 14, 15, 20–21, 23, 24,

25, 26, 28, 29, 32, 37, 45, 46, 47,53, 56

kilts 11, 28, 29, 30, 55kings, queens and emperors 14, 18,

20, 22, 23, 29, 30, 46, 49, 58–59

leather 6, 11, 17, 23, 26, 27, 32, 34,42, 53

linen 10, 11, 14, 17, 23, 28, 31, 37,47

loinclothes 20, 28, 37, 46, 49, 53,57, 58

Macedonians 34makeup/cosmetics 12, 13, 33, 39,

53Maoris 51masks 15, 30, 41, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58Maya 58merchants 17, 46moccasins 53Moche people 56Minoans 28muslin 47

Myceneans 29–30

nobles and lords 12, 23, 29, 49, 56

Olmecs 57

Pacific 51Paracas people 55papyrus 11patterns and designs 23, 27, 31, 45,

51, 53, 55peasants 49perfumes 13, 29, 33, 39Persians 25, 34Peru 54–55pharoahs 12, 13, 15Phoenicians 20–21Prehistoric people 6–7priests and monks 14, 15, 18–19,

46–47

Scythians 26Sea Peoples 17shawls 23, 36, 37shoes and sandals 11, 23, 33, 41, 42,

49, 53silk 31, 37, 47, 48–49, 50Silk Road 49skincare 29, 33, 39soldiers, warriors and gladiators 17,

22–23, 25, 26, 30, 34–35, 42–43,44, 45, 46, 49, 56, 59

Sparta 31–35straw 49Sumerians 9Syria 8

tattooes 7, 27, 51togas 36, 37trade and export 9, 17, 47, 49, 53turbans 18, 19, 46Turkey 17

weaving 17, 31, 37, 48, 52, 54, 55wigs 12, 33, 38, 40wool 17, 19, 23, 27, 28, 31, 37, 45,

54, 55