A E STEPS TO SUCCESS - Macmillan...

STEPS TO SUCCESS

SACE

Anne Mitchell

ENGLISH

SAMPLE CHAPTERISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0RRP: $34.99Published: October 2016

SACE

Anne Mitchell

ENGLISHSTEPS TO SUCCESS

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First published 2016 byMACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD

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Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au

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Copyright © Anne Mitchell 2016The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

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Publication data

Author: Anne MitchellTitle: VCE English/EAL: Steps to SuccessISBN: 978 1 4586 6409 9

Publisher: Emma CooperProject editor: Barbara DelissenEditor: Laura DaviesCover and text designer: DiZign Pty LtdProduction control: Katherine FullagarPhoto research and permission clearance: Vanessa RobertsTypeset in 11.5 pt Tinos by DiZign Pty LtdCover image: illustration by Matt Cosgrove

Printed in China

Internet addressesAt the time of printing, the internet addresses appearing in this book were correct. Owing to the dynamic nature of the internet, however, we cannot guarantee that all these addresses will remain correct.

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ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0 iii

Contents

Preface .........................................................................vi

Author’s acknowledgements .......................... viii

Web resources table .............................................. ix

1 PREPARATION AND ORGANISATION ............................................1

Before the school year begins ....................1Organise a folder .............................................1Stationery and equipment ............................2Establish a study routine ...............................2Reading the set texts ......................................3The importance of proofreading ..................5

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ..................................7Knowledge and understanding ....................7Analysis .............................................................8Application .......................................................8

Ten tips for success in SACE English .......8

2 EXPLORING LITERARY TEXTS ..........9

Exploring a text’s components ..................9Narrative perspective and narrative voice ................................................................ 10Plot .................................................................. 10Characterisation ........................................... 11Sociohistorical context and settings ........ 16Themes, ideas, messages ........................... 17Values ............................................................. 17Style ................................................................ 23

Features of plays, films, graphic novels, poetry and nonfiction ............... 29

Plays................................................................ 29Films ............................................................... 29Graphic novels .............................................. 30Poetry ............................................................. 31Nonfiction texts ............................................ 33

Ten tips for successful exploration of literary texts ............................................... 35

3 ANALYSING LITERARY TEXTS ...... 36

The planning stage ....................................... 36Analyse the topic .......................................... 36How topics are worded ............................... 38Interpretations .............................................. 39Textual evidence........................................... 42Brainstorming and planning body paragraphs .................................................... 43Planning template ....................................... 44

Structure of the response ......................... 46Sample introduction ................................... 47Sample conclusion ...................................... 47‘Diamond’ paragraphs ................................ 47Cohesion ........................................................ 47

Providing textual evidence ....................... 48Quoting .......................................................... 51

Metalanguage and expression ................ 52Metalanguage ............................................... 52Improve your vocabulary ........................... 53Sentence starters ......................................... 53Nominalisation ............................................. 53Linguistic conventions ................................ 54Proofreading ................................................. 54

Presenting the analytical response orally .................................................................... 55

Ten tips for successful analytical responses to texts ......................................... 56

4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF LITERARY TEXTS ..................................... 57

Print text to film ............................................ 58

Play to performance .................................... 62

Key questions .................................................. 63

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iv ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0SACE ENGLISH STEPS TO SUCCESS

Structuring the comparative analysis............................................................... 63

Approach 1 .................................................... 63Approach 2 .................................................... 66Approach 3 .................................................... 67

Integrated or separate analysis? ........... 68

Introductions and conclusions ............... 69

Cohesion ............................................................ 70

Ten tips for successful comparative analysis of texts ............................................. 71

5 EXPLORING MEDIA TEXTS ............... 72

Instructional text ........................................... 72

News reports ................................................... 73

Informative texts that also persuade ............................................................ 73

Reviews .............................................................. 75

Persuasive texts ............................................. 77Effective persuasion .................................... 78Tone ................................................................ 79Style ................................................................ 81Anecdotes and case studies ....................... 82Persuasive language .................................... 85

Letters to the editor ..................................... 87

Feature articles/opinion pieces .................................................................. 89

Editorials ........................................................... 93

Websites ............................................................. 94

Advertisement ................................................ 95

Speeches ............................................................ 98

Analysing images ........................................... 99Significance of colour ................................ 104

Television current affairs programs ......................................................... 104

Comparing two or more persuasive media texts ..................................................... 111

Block analysis structure .......................... 112

Integrated analysis structure ................ 114

Cohesion .......................................................... 116

Ten tips for successfully exploring and responding to media texts ............ 119

6 CREATING TEXTS .................................. 123

Developing a folio ....................................... 123

Language and target audience ............. 124

Personal/reflective writing ..................... 125

Narratives ........................................................ 129

Honing your skills ....................................... 129Descriptive detail ....................................... 130Variation in sentences ............................... 131Opening sentence ...................................... 132Focus on character .................................... 132

Narrative poems/ballads ......................... 136Tips for poetry writing ............................... 141

Drama script .................................................. 143

Discursive piece based on a theme .... 144

Persuasive writing ...................................... 155Planning your essay................................... 156Introduction ................................................ 158Conclusion ................................................... 159Ordering and linking paragraphs ............ 161Providing evidence .................................... 161

Informative/instructional writing ....... 162

Presenting the creative response orally .................................................................. 164

Make your decisions .................................. 164Writer’s statement ...................................... 164Form .............................................................. 164Purpose ........................................................ 165Audience ...................................................... 165Language ..................................................... 166Context ......................................................... 166

Ten tips for successfully creating texts ................................................................... 167

7 SPEAKING AND LISTENING SKILLS ............................................................ 168

Working in pairs and small groups ..... 168

Practice oral presentations ................... 173Self-assessment questionnaire ............... 174

Formal debates............................................. 177The role of the chairperson ...................... 177The order of a debate ................................ 177

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Topics for debates ...................................... 177

Rhetorical devices ....................................... 178Famous speeches ....................................... 181Signposting—using connectives ............. 184

Delivery of a speech ................................... 186Engagement of the audience ................... 186Stance, gestures and facial expressions .................................................. 186Volume, clarity and tone .......................... 186Pace and rhythm ........................................ 186End confidently .......................................... 186Control of nerves ........................................ 187Use of cue cards.......................................... 187Use of audio/visual resources ................. 187

Characteristics of effective speakers ........................................................... 188

Ten tips for effective speaking and listening ........................................................... 188

8 REVISION OF GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION .. 190

Revision of grammar ................................. 190Adjectives ..................................................... 190Adverbs ........................................................ 191Conjunctions ............................................... 192Nouns ........................................................... 193Prepositions ................................................ 195

Pronouns ..................................................... 196Relative pronouns ...................................... 197Sentences .................................................... 197Verbs ............................................................. 198Verbs—agreement ..................................... 199Verbs—tense ............................................... 200Verbs—present and past participles ...... 201

Revision of spelling .................................... 202Adding suffixes to words ending in e ................................................................. 202Adding suffixes to words ending in ce or ge ..................................................... 203Words with ie and ei .................................. 203Doubling the final consonant .................. 203Adding suffixes to words ending in l ...... 204Words ending in y ....................................... 204Making new words—nouns, verbs, adjectives ..................................................... 205Homophones and homonyms ................. 206

Revision of punctuation ........................... 206Apostrophes ................................................ 206Commas ....................................................... 208Colons ........................................................... 209Dashes .......................................................... 210Full stops ...................................................... 210Quotation marks ........................................ 211Semi-colons ................................................. 212

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vi ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0SACE ENGLISH STEPS TO SUCCESS

Preface

To the teacherSACE English: Steps to Success is a comprehensive resource designed to help students develop key knowledge and skills for success in all English assessment tasks and exams. While it is possible for students to work through the exercises independently, teachers might like to use the text in the classroom, as many activities lend themselves well to group work or pair work, or both. For example, students are encouraged to share ideas with their classmates and critique each other’s work, using the feedback sheets provided.

While the main target audience for Steps to Success is students in Stage 2, the text could be used in Stage 1 just as effectively; in this case, students would be advised to keep it for revision purposes in the following year. The fi rst chapter, about good organisation and preparation, could be read before the commencement of SACE English..

Chapters 2 and 5 contain essential information relating to the deconstruction of literary and media texts, and therefore it is recommended that students work through these sections early in the year, to prepare for analytical, creative and comparative responses. The knowledge and skills developed in these chapters will be useful when students come to creating a folio of different texts, which is the focus of Chapter 6. The idea of a ‘folio’ of pieces is an attempt to refl ect assessment criteria KU3: ‘a variety of pieces for different purposes and audiences’.

Oral presentations are a key component of the course at both Stages 1 and 2; consequently, a whole chapter is devoted to speaking and listening skills (Chapter 7). Teachers might like to use the fi rst few exercises in this chapter early in the year, as they contain ‘fun’ activities designed to help students feel comfortable speaking and listening to each other in groups and whole class situations. Furthermore, in other chapters there are suggestions for analytical and creative assessment tasks that might be delivered orally or in multimedia form, rather than in writing.

There are many online resources to supplement the material in Steps to Success, which are free for purchasers of this book. Some examples of the available resources are:

) templates of exercises and tables ) answers ) assessment criteria sheets for all areas of the course (note: these are not offi cial

SACE rubrics) ) proofreading checklists ) suggestions of text pairings for comparative responses.

I hope that you and your students fi nd SACE English: Steps to Success a useful resource. For further advice or support contact me at any time at www.annemitchell.com.au.UNCORRECTED PROOFS

ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0 vii

To the studentThe key to success in senior studies is good preparation, effort, determination, a positive attitude and following good advice. Steps to Success stresses the need for good preparation, and it provides advice and strategies to help you with your assessment tasks and exams. The rest is up to you.

Chapter 1 contains essential preparatory information and advice, which you should read immediately, preferably before the start of the school year. Chapters 2 and 5 are especially important, as they contain material relevant to several of your text-related assessment tasks. It is recommended that you read those chapters early in the year before your assessment tasks begin.

Steps to Success is designed so that you can work through the exercises either independently, with a partner or in a group. It is highly recommended that you form a study group in both years of SACE English so that you can help and support each other.

I wish you every success in SACE English. For further help or advice, you can contact me at www.annemitchell.com.au.

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viii ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0SACE ENGLISH STEPS TO SUCCESS

Author’s acknowledgementsI am extremely grateful to the following people: James Avram for his helpful comments on the manuscript; Michael Holland for the ‘mini-thesaurus’ idea; Jann Keegan for allowing me to rework her synonyms table; Sister Mariana Handley for the diamond paragraphs concept; Kay Toll for allowing me to include her language analysis template; Pam Kernohan, who suggested that I include different approaches to planning body paragraphs, and the students, past and present, who allowed me to use samples of their work. I would like to thank Emma Cooper, Barbara Delissen and the team at Macmillan Education for their continued support. Finally, my love and thanks to Bob Geyer, for feeding me and supporting me during the writing of this book.

DedicationSACE English: Steps to Success is dedicated to my mother, Marie Mitchell (R.I.P.), who encouraged my love of reading and inspired

me to become a teacher like her.

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1 PREPARATION AND ORGANISATION 1ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0

Whether you are painting a wall, cooking a meal or embarking on the fi nal years of your secondary schooling, good preparation is essential for success.

The information in this chapter is designed to help you get organised and prepare for the year ahead. It will supplement the information and advice provided by your teachers, and the tips about preparation, study routine and proofreading will be useful for other SACE subjects, too.

BEFORE THE SCHOOL YEAR BEGINSBefore the school year begins, you should devote some time to preparing yourself, your workspace and your equipment for the months of work and study ahead.

Obviously an organised and uncluttered workspace at home will result in less stress when you are trying to complete homework tasks, fi nd resources, and study for assessment tasks and exams. Organise that study space now.

Organise a folderSome students like to organise a two-ring binder folder for each subject, divided into relevant sections. This makes it easier to remove a whole section from the folder for revision and study at the end of the semester or year.

1 PREPARATION AND ORGANISATION

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2 ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0SACE ENGLISH STEPS TO SUCCESS

Organise a folder for SACE English. Allocate a section of the folder for each of your set texts, and place any offi cial information about your course at the front of the folder.

At the end of each term or semester, when the relevant assessment tasks have been completed, notes that are no longer needed in the classroom can be removed from the folder and stored at home in plastic pockets. At exam time, you should sort through these notes and organise them for revision and study.

Stationery and equipmentYou will need the following if you are going to use a folder for English:

) a two-ring binder folder ) a hole punch ) a packet of coloured dividers ) a packet or two of plastic pockets ) lined folder paper.

The following items are also recommended: ) a traditional dictionary ) a large yearly planner for recording dates of assessment tasks and exams (it can be

an advantage to see all the due dates at a glance) ) a supply of black pens (black is recommended for exams).

Establish a study routineEarly in the year, you should develop a routine for the completion of homework tasks and study. This might involve using the school or community library to access resources and complete homework tasks. You might form a study group with friends, or you might prefer to work and study on your own at home, or a combination of these strategies might suit you.

There will be peak periods for study and completion of homework, and other times when you can relax a little. However, to keep up-to-date and possibly get ahead, four or fi ve hours of study every night are recommended, perhaps a little more during weekends and on holidays. Of these hours, at least two should be devoted to English.

Here is one student’s study timetable for weekdays: ) 4:00 pm–4:30 pm Arrive home, unpack, have a snack, relax ) 4:30 pm–7:00 pm Study/homework ) 7:00 pm–8:00 pm Dinner, relax ) 8:00 pm–10:30 pm or 11:00 pm Study/homework ) 11:00 pm or 11:30 pm Sleep time

EXERCISE 1

Make changes to the above timetable so that it works for you.

Hint: Try to get 6, 7½ or 9 hours sleep, and once you

have woken up in the morning try not to go back to sleep.UNCORRECTED PROOFS

ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0 1 PREPARATION AND ORGANISATION 3

Weekends and holidays provide a good opportunity to catch up on work, do some reading to get ahead, read over your notes, and organise notes and folders. Of course, you should also make time to play sport, see a fi lm, go out with friends and spend time with family.

Try to fi nd a balance between schoolwork, leisure and social activities. Try to stay fi t and healthy. The saying ‘healthy in body, healthy in mind’ has some truth.

Reading the set textsAll of your set texts should be read (or viewed) several times during the course of the year, and you will be looking for different things each time.

First readingThe summer holiday break is a perfect opportunity to read or view the texts quickly for the fi rst time, in order to gain a basic understanding of the text’s setting, plot and characters. At this stage, you are not necessarily searching for key quotes, underlining key sections or making detailed notes, unless, of course, you are instructed to do so for holiday homework. Just read the texts for pleasure.

However, as you read or view the set text for the fi rst time, it might be an idea to do three quick and easy tasks to prepare for your studies: 1 Do some internet research on the text and the text’s creator and add these notes to

your folder. 2 Think about the following questions after you have fi nished the fi rst reading or viewing:

a Why was this text set for study? b What ideas does the text contain that are worthy of

discussion and writing in an English classroom? c What messages come through from the text to you?d What is your opinion of the text?

If you have time, record your feelings and observations about the text as you read or view it, as if you are keeping a reading journal. Make some comments and jot down questions that you might raise with the class and your teacher later.

Second readingThe second reading should take longer; it will be more careful and more focused. You will read as if you were a literary critic. You will analyse the structure and features of the text, and you will make notes as you read, underlining quotes and marking key passages.

Second reading exercisesThink about the following questions as you read it for the second time, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the text. Make notes as you read.

) What motivates the characters? ) How do the characters change or develop through the course of the text? What causes

this? ) What comments is the text making about society? About life? About people? ) What aspects of life and living does the author obviously value?

Why not share the text with a family

member and ask them these questions too?

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) What are the features of the construction and style of the text that add to its quality? ) What quotes are important?

1 Characters ) List the main characters: who they are and their role in the text ) List the minor characters: who they are in relation to the main characters.

2 ThemesDraw a concept map of key themes. Use a template similar to the one below.

TEXT:

THEMES

3 SettingsDraw a concept map of the main settings of the text. Use a template similar to the one below.

TEXT:

SETTINGSUNCORRECTED PROOFS


4 PlotJoin some A4 pages together in landscape layout and draw a timeline of the key events of the plot.

5 QuotesGather quotes about the following:

) the main characters’ signifi cant thoughts, words, attitudes, values, and qualities ) the minor characters’ signifi cant thoughts, words, attitudes, values, and qualities ) the text’s themes ) the text’s messages and values ) signifi cant aspects of the setting ) symbols, metaphors, signifi cant images, motifs and other stylistic features.

Highlight or underline the quotes in your text, and then write or type them again. This will help you to remember them. Record them in chronological order, so that your list of quotes acts as a summary of the text. Some students attach posters of quotes to their bedroom wall, so that they can be seen and read every day. This is especially useful around exam time.

All of the components of literary texts are explored in Chapter 2. You should read through this information before you read the texts for the second time, or perhaps work through Chapter 2 at the same time as your second reading.

Find out which text you are using for the fi rst assessment task and start your second reading of this text as soon as possible. The more you do now in preparation for your assessments, the more time you will save later, when time is scarce and you are under greater pressure.

Third readingYour third reading of the texts will be just before an exam to refresh your memory. You will focus on key sections that are relevant to your exam tasks.

The importance of proofreadingGet into the habit of proofreading your written work right from the start, as you are more likely to achieve a better result if you can minimise the errors in expression and mechanics. (The mechanics of the language are spelling, punctuation and grammar.)

If possible, read what you have written out loud. This means that you are using two senses to check the fl uency of your work: aural as well as visual. Sometimes it is easier to hear that you haven’t expressed yourself clearly enough.

However, in some situations (such as exams) it is not possible to read your work aloud. Therefore, you need to leave at least fi ve minutes at the end of writing to read over your work, looking at how you have expressed your ideas and checking the mechanics carefully. Some students like to use a ruler underneath the line of writing to guide their eyes as they silently proofread. Zoom in on the errors that you know you often make, for example

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confusing ‘their’, ‘there’ and ‘they’re’; forgetting apostrophes (or incorrectly placing them on plural words); or writing run-on sentences.

The best thing to do, of course, is to proofread and edit as you write. Think carefully about each sentence before you write it and read over your work constantly. This might make the writing process a little slower, but hopefully it will result in fewer errors. Try writing the ideas as you would say them; don’t try to sound sophisticated, although it would be a good idea to fi nd alternatives for common words, such as ‘good’, ‘big’, ‘uses’ and ‘says’.

The following mini-thesaurus might help.

Mini-thesaurusUse the mini-thesaurus below for alternatives to the more common words that you might use in your written and spoken assessment pieces. But be careful! Don’t use an unfamiliar term unless you are certain that it fi ts the sentence and conveys the meaning you intended.

Badimmoral, corrupt, wicked, unscrupulous, iniquitous, inhumane, merciless, lacking in compassion, Machiavellian, unreasonable, illogical

Bigsubstantial, significant, important, major, vital, prodigious, gigantic, developed, prominent, powerful, outstanding, superior

Goodadmirable, benevolent, altruistic, moral, upright, honourable, noble, compassionate, merciful, eff ective, successful, reliable

Sayscomments, articulates, conveys a view, expresses a view, admits, observes, remarks, suggests, speaks of

Smallinsignificant, insubstantial, inferior, slight, limited, diminutive, brief, trivial, tiny

Usesincludes, utilises, employs, practises, operates, deals with, controls

EXERCISE 2

In the space below, jot down the kinds of errors that you tend to make in your written work, Watch out for these when you proofread.UNCORRECTED PROOFS


Proofreading checklistBelow is a generic checklist that you can use throughout the year to check your own work or get feedback from others, or both.

Type of piece (circle one):Text response, creative piece, argument analysis, comparative analysis, speech

GOOD OK NEEDS WORK

CONTENT

The introduction is appropriate for the type of writing.

The introduction engages the reader.

The piece contains depth of thought and complexity of ideas.

Each body paragraph contains one main point or argument.

The conclusion is eff ective and appropriate for the type of writing.

The word length is appropriate.

STRUCTURE

Paragraphs are clearly indicated by indenting or leaving a line.

Paragraphs develop the argument, point of analysis or story.

Paragraphs are linked so that the piece has cohesion.

Paragraphs are arranged in a logical order.

EXPRESSION AND MECHANICS

Language choices are appropriate for the type of writing.

Appropriate metalanguage is used.

Ideas are expressed correctly; the meaning is clear at all times.

There are no spelling errors.

There are no punctuation errors.

There is variation in sentences for eff ect.

Tense is correct for the type of writing and is used consistently.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIAAll pieces of work will be assessed according to the following criteria.

Knowledge and understanding ) Knowledge and understanding of ideas and perspectives in texts. ) Knowledge and understanding of ways in which authors use language features, stylistic

features, and conventions to make meaning.

The checklist is available in the digital resources

for this book. Other checklists are available, too.

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) Knowledge and understanding of ways in which texts are created for different purposes, audiences and contexts.

Analysis ) Analysis of language features, stylistic features and conventions, and evaluation of how

they infl uence audiences. ) Analysis and evaluation of ways in which ideas, perspectives and/or aspects of culture

are represented in texts. ) Analysis of similarities and differences in texts.

Application ) Use of language features to create coherent texts that address the purpose, audience and

context. ) Use of evidence from texts to develop and support a response. ) Use of clear, accurate and fl uent expression.

TEN TIPS FOR SUCCESS IN SACE ENGLISH 1 Make sure that you have all the necessary equipment, such as books, stationery, a small

dictionary for exams, and so on. Purchase these items before the school year begins. 2 Organise your study space at home and a folder for your written work. 3 Complete the fi rst reading of all your literary texts as soon as possible. 4 Establish a study routine and do some homework every night, whether it is set by your

teacher or not. 5 Use a dictionary often, not only in English/EAL, but also in other language-based

subjects. This should help you to become more profi cient in dictionary usage. 6 Keep up-to-date with current affairs. Read the newspapers and watch the news. 7 Keep up-to-date with your school-assessed coursework. Hand in your homework on

time. 8 Stay calm. Don’t let bad stress dominate. Be positive. 9 Keep fi t and healthy. 10 Make yourself known to your teachers for the right reasons. Be interested, attentive

and hardworking. Sit close to the front of the class if possible.Tips for success in each individual area of VCE English/EAL are provided at the end of the chapters that follow.

Work hard. Do your best. Good luck!UNCORRECTED PROOFS

2 EXPLORING LITERARY TEXTS 9ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0

Not to be confused with media texts, such as newspaper articles, literary texts are novels, graphic novels, plays, fi lms, short story and poetry collections, and nonfi ction texts, such as documentaries, biographies and autobiographies.

By now you should have completed your fi rst reading or viewing of all the literary texts that are set for study. If you have not yet completed your fi rst reading, make this your homework priority now.

Work through the information contained in this chapter before or during your second reading of the texts (see page x in Chapter 1). Begin with the literary text that has been set for the fi rst assessment task.

EXPLORING A TEXT’S COMPONENTSIn order to gain a deeper understanding of a literary text and develop an interpretation of its meaning and messages, you need fi rst of all to explore all of its components. You can see these components in the fi gure below.

COMPONENTS OF A LITERARY TEXT

Narrative perspectiveand narrative voice

Themes, ideas,messages

Stylistic features

Values

Characterisation

Sociohistorical contextand settings

Plot

Now we will revise these seven components in more detail, so that you can apply this knowledge to the assessment tasks that are related to responding to texts.

2 EXPLORING LITERARY TEXTS

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Narrative perspective and narrative voiceNarrative perspective refers to the point of view from which the story is told. Narrators can set up a relationship with the reader or viewer, infl uencing our opinions of characters and events. It is important to remember that the narrator does not always refl ect the views and values of the author, and sometimes the narrator may be somewhat unreliable—that is, we might question their version of the events.

The narrative point of view may change through the course of the text, such as in Wuthering Heights, by Emily Brontë. Mr Lockwood begins the story and then Mrs Nelly Dean takes over the narration, so that we get their different perspectives: that of a visitor, who does not know the characters, and that of a servant, who has intimate knowledge of the characters and events. Both narrators infl uence our opinions.

Narrative voice refers to the way the events are narrated. If the story is told to us by one of the characters, such as in To Kill a Mockingbird, which is narrated by Scout Finch, we call this fi rst-person narrative voice. This is a limited narrative voice, as readers can only know the innermost thoughts of that character and we can only see events from that character’s point of view. We cannot ‘hear’ the thoughts of the other characters, only their words through dialogue, and we cannot know what is happening in other places if the narrator is not there.

When the story is told in third person about the characters, we call this the voice of the omniscient narrator, which is usually the author. ‘Omniscient’ means ‘all-knowing’; when a story has an omniscient narrator, we can fi nd out everything about every character—their thoughts, feelings, actions and words—and we can easily visit many different settings in the story. We often fi nd omniscient narrators in fantasy novels, such as J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings.

Sometimes the third-person narrative voice can be limited too, if the focus is on one particular character and we are not privy to the thoughts and feelings of others. You can see an example of the omniscient narrator in the extract from Burial Rites on page x. If you know this text, you will know that Hannah Kent uses both narrative voices to tell the story of Agnes Magnúsdóttir—fi rst person (Agnes relating her version of events) and third person (the omniscient narrator).

Voice over is a narrative technique in a fi lm that allows us to hear the voice of the narrator. A good example of this is the voice over narration of Addison DeWitt at the start of the fi lm All about Eve, directed by Joseph L Mankiewicz.

PlotPlot refers not only to what happens in the story, but also the reasons for events occurring and the connections between them. The events of the story can be related in linear, chronological order, or in some other way, such as through fl ashbacks. A circular narrative structure is when the text begins and ends at the same point in the story.

The typical linear plot structure of a narrative is shown in the fi gure on page x. If you are intending to create a short story for your assessment, this is probably the easiest structure to follow.

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ISBN: 978 1 4202 3729 0 2 EXPLORING LITERARY TEXTS 11

LINEAR PLOT STRUCTURE OF A NARRATIVE

• establish setting• establish characters• launch the plot

OrientationFirst crisis or

problem

Climax(highest point of

dramatic tension)

Resolution ordenouement

• all problems are resolved• story’s conclusion is plausible• readers are usually satisfied

Second crisis

Resolve the crisis

Resolve the crisis

CharacterisationCharacterisation refers to the process of creating characters in a literary text, so that readers or viewers gain knowledge and understanding of them, and as a result, gain greater insight into the human condition. Usually, the main characters will be authentic and complex, and they will change, grow or develop in some way through the course of the text. Characters often convey the author’s messages and values.

In literary texts, characters can be revealed to us in several ways. These are described below.

The author’s description of a character’s appearance, personality traits, thoughts and feelingsExampleIn The Crucible, playwright Arthur Miller occasionally breaks up the action and dialogue with information about his characters, who were real people from history. For example, in Act One, Miller introduces us to Giles Corey, a man in his eighties, who ‘didn’t give a hoot for public opinion’ and who was a ‘crank and a nuisance, but withal a deeply innocent and brave man’. In giving us his opinion like this, Miller is able to evoke our sympathy for Corey, so that we feel even more horrified at what happens to him later in the play.

The character’s actionsSometimes authors do not need to tell us about a character’s emotional responses; they can show us through the character’s actions.

There will be more crises in a longer text, such as a

novel or a fi lm.

When you read your texts for the second time, you should make note of key

moments in the plot (see page 41).

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ExampleIn the following extract, from Burial Rites by Hannah Kent, we see the reactions of a mother (Margret) and her daughter (Steina) when they find out that a convicted murderess will be staying with them on their farm. Notice how their reactions to this information reveal their values and attitudes.

‘And in the meantime I am left alone with the woman who killed Natan Ketilsson.’

Jón looked at his wife calmly. ‘You will have your daughters.’

Margrét began to say something further, but then thought better of it. She gave her husband a hard look, took up her knitting and began working the needles furiously.

Steina watched her mother and father from under lowered brows, and picked up her dinner, feeling sick to her stomach. She held the wooden bowl in her hands and examined the gobbets of mutton swimming in the greasy broth. Slowly taking her spoon, she lifted a piece to her lips and began to chew, her tongue locating a lump of gristle within the flesh. She fought the instinct to spit it out and ground it under her teeth, swallowing in silence.

Hannah Kent

What others say about the characterThe narrator and other characters can infl uence our opinions of characters.

ExamplesIn the extract below, from To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee, Scout has this to say about her brother, Jem.

Jem was twelve. He was diff icult to live with, inconsistent, moody. His appetite was appalling, and he told me so many times to stop pestering him I consulted Atticus: ‘Reckon he’s got a tapeworm?’ Atticus said no, Jem was growing. I must be patient with him and disturb him as little as possible.

Harper Lee

In the extract below, from Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, the narrator tells us about a man he has just met, and he intrigues the readers with this description.

I never saw a more interesting creature; his eyes have generally an expression of wildness, and even madness, but there are moments when, if anyone performs an act of kindness towards him or does him any the most trifling service, his whole countenance is lighted up, as it were, with a beam of benevolence and sweetness that I never saw equalled. But he is generally melancholy and despairing; and sometimes he gnashes his teeth; as if impatient of the weight of woes that oppresses him.

Mary Shelley

You have probably heard of one of the rules of

storytelling: ‘Show, don’t tell’. Remember this if you are considering creating a story.

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What characters say about themselves, or what they say to others during conversationsExampleIn this extract from Nineteen Eighty-four by George Orwell, Julia tells Winston her attitude towards the totalitarian government that they are living under, which gives readers an insight into her values.

The images in films or graphic novelsImages in multimodal texts, such as fi lms and graphic novels, convey messages about characters. For example, a long shot of a character alone on a beach looking over the ocean towards the horizon might suggest that the character is trying to make a diffi cult decision. A high-angle shot of a character might suggest that he or she is vulnerable or powerless. In a fi lm, often these images will be accompanied by appropriate music or sound effects.

ExampleIn the two panels below, from Art Spiegelman’s graphic novel The Complete Maus, Spiegelman has drawn himself as a small, child-like figure to symbolise how overwhelmed and out of control he is feeling at that moment.

‘Where did you get this stuff ?’ he said.

‘Black market,’ she said indifferently. ‘Actually I am that sort of girl, to look at. I’m good at games. I was a troop-leader in the Spies. I do voluntary work three evenings a week for the Junior Anti-Sex League. Hours and hours I’ve spent pasting their bloody rot all over London. I always carry one end of a banner in the processions. I always look cheerful and I never shirk anything. Always yell with the crowd, that’s what I say. It’s the only way to be safe.’

George Orwell

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Stage directions in playsIn plays, the stage directions will tell the actors how to say the lines and how to move on stage. For example, pacing up and down across the stage might suggest that the character is feeling anxious. If an actor is directed to shout the lines, this tells us the character is feeling angry or annoyed.

ExampleNotice how the following stage directions, from No Sugar by Jack Davis, tell the character how to move, and this conveys to the audience an idea of the character’s emotional state.

• ‘Mr Neville briskly approaches his office.’• ‘Neville storms into his office.’• ‘Jimmy ventures into Miss Dunn’s part of the office.’• ‘Jimmy barges into the Chief Protector’s office.’• ‘Jimmy ambles out and stretches out on the bench.’

Character developmentThe main characters in literary texts will not be static. They will change, grow or develop in some way during the course of the text.

EXERCISE 1For a more in-depth study of each of the main characters in your set texts, access the table below from the online resources, or draw up your own version of the table, and record the significant events that have had an impact on the main characters in some way. Find key quotes that provide evidence of this impact.

Complete one table for each major character. Start with the set text for Outcome 1.

Text:

Character’s name:

1. [Beginning of the text] Make brief notes (dot points are fine) about what the character is like when we first meet them at the beginning of the text.

Think about how characters are

revealed when you read your literary texts for the second time.

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2. Complete the table by adding as much detail and as many examples as possible.

Page no. Significant event Impact on character Key quotes

3. [End of the text] Make brief notes about what the character is like at the end of the text. How has the character changed or developed? Have the changes been positive? Have the changes had an impact on anyone else in the text?

4. On your completed table, highlight the significant event that you feel has had the MOST impact on the character’s development. Below that, write a brief paragraph that analyses how and why this scene is such a pivotal moment.

Access this template in the

online resources.

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Sociohistorical context and settingsThe sociohistorical context refers to the historical time period and place in which the text’s events occur. Readers will have expectations about this context, which the text will confi rm or challenge, or we might learn new things about the political and social conditions of that particular time and place. We can then ask questions about the author’s view of this world: what aspects of it are valued, condemned or questioned?

For example, through reading F Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby we gain insight into the preoccupations, values and practices of the privileged class of 1920s America. Hannah Kent’s Burial Rites gives us a picture of 19th-century Iceland. Arthur Miller’s The Crucible explores the witch trials of Salem, Massachusetts in 1692.

In a fi lm, the sociohistorical context can be indicated in the opening scene through an ‘establishing shot’, which is often a wide-angle, long-distance shot.

ExampleThe establishing shot below, from On the Waterfront, directed by Elia Kazan, indicates that the setting of the film is the docklands and the costumes worn by the men suggest a mid-20th-century time period.

Within the text, there will be a number of different physical settings—the places inhabited by the characters. These environments will have an impact on the characters and the storyline. For example, aspects of the physical landscape may refl ect the emotional state of the characters; they can help to shape our responses to characters, and they can add mood or atmosphere to a particular scene.

ExamplesIn the extract below, from Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë, the narrator describes the house in the country that he is visiting and the landscape that surrounds it. As we read the novel, we discover how the character of Mr Heathcliff has been shaped by this harsh, rugged landscape.

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Wuthering Heights is the name of Mr Heathcliff ’s dwelling, ‘Wuthering’ being a significant provincial adjective, descriptive of the atmospheric tumult to which its station is exposed in stormy weather. Pure, bracing ventilation they must have up there, at all times, indeed: one may guess the power of the north wind, blowing over the edge, by the excessive slant of a few, stunted firs at the end of the house; and by a range of gaunt thorns stretching their limbs one way, as if craving alms of the sun. Happily, the architect had foresight to build it strong: the narrow windows are deeply set in the wall, and the corners defended with large jutting stones.

Emily Brontë

In the extracts below, from Burial Rites, notice how the descriptions of the weather contribute to the mood. In the first example, the sky clears and the mood is joyful, as the family begins the summer harvest. In the second example, the description of the snow and references to a ‘shroud’ and ‘dead body’ create a sombre mood, as the main character faces execution.

The fog had dispersed into the blue of the day, and the wet baubles on the grass had dried by the time the family of Korsná gathered at the edge of the home field to begin cutting the hay.

Snow lay over the valley like linen, like a shroud waiting for the dead body of sky that slumped overhead.

Themes, ideas, messagesThe literary texts set for study will contain themes, ideas and messages about the world around us and human experiences. All good writing will have messages for the reader or viewer. Think about the ideas and issues raised by your set texts.

Some examples of themes are: ) confl ict and war ) relationships ) growing up ) the quest for justice and the truth ) family life ) social expectations

) gender roles and expectations

) identity ) power and politics ) journeys ) the human spirit.

Theme study is especially relevant to the comparative analysis area of the course. The pair of texts that you will study for this task may share one or more key themes and present ideas in similar and/or different ways.

ValuesThe literary texts that are set for study in SACE English are chosen because they invite us to think critically about the world and important social issues. They convey the messages and values of the author, poet, playwright or fi lmmaker, and challenge us to agree or disagree with those values.

During your second reading, complete a

concept map of settings.

During your second reading, complete a

concept map of themes.

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Values are not fi xed; they change over time and differ from culture to culture. For example, the qualities of an ‘ideal’ man and woman would be quite different today from those valued by Plato in about 400 BCE. Plato wrote:

First, if you want the excellence of a man, that’s easy, for this is the excellence of a man, to be competent to conduct the affairs of his city, and in so doing to benefi t his friends and do down his enemies, and take care that he is not done down. If you want the excellence of a woman, it’s not hard to explain, for she must run her home well, looking after what’s in it and being obedient to her husband.

Plato (c. 400 BCE)

The values that come through to us from the text and its creator are conveyed through the interaction of the text’s setting, plot, narrative voice, characters and stylistic features. Ask questions about your texts, such as: What human qualities are valued by the creator of the text and which are condemned? Are we positioned to admire some characters as heroes and condemn others as villains? What textual features infl uence us in this way?

Explicit and implicit valuesSome values are explicitly conveyed to the audience by characters or the narrator.

ExamplesIn Greek drama, the Chorus conveys the values of the society of the time, which we can see in this extract from Medea, when the Chorus of Corinthian women chant their condemnation of Medea’s actions.

CHORUS [Strophe]: O Earth, O sun whose rays illumine all, look down, look upon that deadly woman before she lays bloody hands upon her children, slaying her own flesh and blood! For they are yours, sprung from your golden race, and it is a fearful thing that human hands should spill the blood of a god. No, brightness born of Zeus, restrain her, hold her back, drive her from the house, the wretched woman whom fiends have turned into a murderous Fury!

Euripides

One of the concerns of Shakespeare’s play Measure for Measure is the nature of good government. In the extract below, the female protagonist, Isabella, speaks about the need for leaders to temper their judgements with mercy and compassion, thus conveying Shakespeare’s values and messages about leadership.

ISABELLA: Well, believe this,No ceremony that to great ones ’longs,Not the king’s crown, nor the deputed sword,The marshal’s truncheon, nor the judge’s robe,Become them with one half so good a graceAs mercy does.

William Shakespeare

‘longs’ = belongs

‘Become them’ = suit them

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On the other hand, some values are implied. That is, they come to us through symbolic elements, or in the case of fi lms, the director’s shot choices.

ExampleThese shots, from the final scenes of On the Waterfront, depict the main character Terry Malloy’s struggle to walk into the workplace. We can tell from the director’s choice of shots that he values the decision made by Terry Malloy to cooperate with the authorities and defy the mobster boss’s orders to stay away from the waterfront. Kazan shows viewers in close-up the physical cost to Terry of telling the truth and fighting corruption, and the low-angle shot looking up at the character influences us to see him as a hero.

In poetry, the values and messages of the poet can be implied through imagery and sounds.

ExampleIn the poem Beach Burial, Kenneth Slessor describes the bodies that are washed up onto the shore aft er a sea battle and we can hear the pity he feels for these victims of war in the soft tones and evocative imagery of these lines.

Texts often challenge us to think about our own values too, inviting us to question our morals and beliefs. Sometimes the values we hold will have an impact on how we feel about the texts we are studying and the meanings we gain from them. What do you believe in? What do you value?

EXERCISE 2Discuss the following questions with your classmates and record a brief, personal response in the spaces provided.

1 Does the end ever justify the means? That is, does the desired goal justify doing whatever it takes to achieve that goal?

Softly and humbly to the Gulf of ArabsThe convoys of dead sailors come;At night they sway and wander in the waters far under,But morning rolls them in the foam.

Slessor

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2 What is your definition of ‘goodness’ in a person?

3 What kinds of actions do you consider to be immoral?

4 Are values linked to a particular culture and/or historical period? Explain.

5 Are there any values that are or should be universal and timeless? Explain.

6 What is a moral code and why is it important for people to have one?

7 How do we develop a moral code?

8 Do you think that children instinctively know the diff erence between correct and incorrect behaviour or do they need to be taught? UNCORRECTED PROOFS


9 What is your conscience? How does one acquire a conscience?

10 What role does religion play in today’s world? What role does it play in your life?

EXERCISE 3

Now choose one of your set texts and complete the table below. In the left column, list the human qualities that you have ticked to indicate that they are evidently valued in that text. In the right column, provide evidence, in the form of examples and quotes, to support your claim.

TEXT TITLE:

VALUE EVIDENCE

This table is available in the

online resources.

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VALUE EVIDENCE

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VALUE EVIDENCE

StyleThe stylistic features of literary texts refl ect the author’s unique vision and make their work more memorable. The following table explains the features of style that you will fi nd in novels, short stories, plays, poetry, fi lms and, to some extent, in nonfi ction texts.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

Antithesis Antithesis is a balanced contrast for a special eff ect. For example, in the opening lines of A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens is suggesting that in the cities of London and Paris during the time of the French Revolution, people had conflicting values and diff erent beliefs about the political upheaval they were witnessing or participating in (or both). Notice the antithesis in these lines:

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way ...

A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens

continued

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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

Apostrophe Apostrophe is a comment or question directed to an absent or abstract identity. For example:

Death, be not proud, though some have called thee mighty and dreadful ...

‘Death be not proud’, John Donne

Epigram An epigram is a concise, clever statement (or it could be a short poem that ends with such a statement). For example:

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, – that is allYe know on earth, and all ye need to know.

‘Ode on a Grecian urn’, John Keats

What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole,Its body brevity, and wit its soul.

‘Epigram’, Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Hyperbole Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration for dramatic eff ect. For example, in the extract below, the hyperbole in Cleopatra’s description of her beloved Antony reflects her opinion of his power and influence.

CLEOPATRA: His legs bestrid the ocean. His reared armCrested the world. His voice was propertiedAs all the tunèd spheres, and that to friends.But when he meant to quail and shake the orb,He was as rattling thunder.

Antony and Cleopatra, William Shakespeare

Metaphor A metaphor is a comparison that excludes ‘like’ or ‘as’. It says that one thing is another. For example:

... when the dice of life falls badly for a master, a good slave’s heart shares the pain.

Medea, Euripides

Oxymoron Oxymoron is when words contradict themselves. For example:

Parting is such sweet sorrowRomeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare

Paradox A paradox is a contradiction, which on closer inspection, appears to have some truth. For example:

Fair is foul and foul is fairMacbeth, William Shakespeare

Personification Personification is when non-living things are given human qualities. For example:

The hut was silent. Even the water at the foot of the rocks was holding its breath.

The Lieutenant, Kate Grenville

Simile A simile is a comparison that begins with ‘like’ or ‘as’. For example:

One morning, the door creaked open, and a lizard jumped out. It was light green in colour, like a half-ripe guava.

The White Tiger, Aravind Adiga

continued

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LAYERS OF MEANING EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

Allusion An allusion is a reference to another text, or to a person or event with historical, cultural or political significance. For example, the poem ‘Out, Out’ by Robert Frost, about the death of a young man working in a timber mill, alludes to the speech made by Macbeth aft er he hears of his wife’s death. Part of that speech includes the lines: ‘Out, out, brief candle ...’

Irony Verbal irony is when there is a diff erence between what is said and what is meant. For example:

MEDEA: I will do as you say; I will take you at your word. A woman is a soft creature, made for weeping.

Medea, Euripides

Irony (continued) Medea’s words to her husband, Jason, are ironic, as she is anything but a ‘soft creature’; we know that she intends to exact the most awful revenge on Jason for marrying another woman.An ironic situation is when there is an outcome that is diff erent from what is expected. For example, when Macbeth thinks that ‘none of woman born’ can harm him.Dramatic irony is when the reader or viewer of a text knows something that the character does not know. For example, in Macbeth, when King Duncan arrives at Macbeth’s castle and comments on its pleasantness and sweet air, the audience knows something he does not – that the owners of this castle intend to murder him that night.

Motif A motif is a symbol that recurs several times in the text. For example:

The inspector pointed his cane straight at me. ‘You, young man, are an intelligent, honest, vivacious fellow in this crowd of thugs and idiots. In any jungle, what is the rarest of animals—the creature that comes along only once in a generation?”

I thought about it and said:

‘The white tiger.’

‘That’s what you are, in this jungle.’The White Tiger, Aravind Adiga

The white tiger, which is also the title of the novel, is a motif suggesting the uniqueness of the main character.

Symbol A symbol is something that represents something else. For example:

There was a violent wind, as well as thunder, and either one or the other split a tree off at the corner of the building ...

Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë

The split tree symbolises the estrangement of the two main characters, Heathcliff and Cathy.

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MUSICAL EFFECTS EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of consonants, most oft en at the beginning of words. For example:

Busy old fool, unruly Sun,Why does thou thus,Through windows, and through curtains call on us?Must to thy motions lovers’ seasons run?

‘The sun rising’, John Donne

Assonance Assonance is when vowel sounds rhyme, rather than consonants. For example:Busy old fool, unruly Sun,Why does thou thus,Through windows, and through curtains call on us?Must to thy motions lovers’ seasons run?

‘The sun rising’, John Donne

Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is when words suggest sounds. For example:A little black thing among the snow,Crying ‘weep! weep!’ in notes of woe!

‘The chimney sweeper’, Songs of Experience, William Blake

Repetition Words and concepts are repeated to emphasise an idea, to draw the audience’s attention, and to add cohesion to the text.

MEDEA: Oh, I am wretched, pity me for my suff erings! Oh, if only I could die!

...MEDEA: Oh, the pity of it, the pity!

Oh, to die and so find rest,leaving behind loathsome life!

Medea, Euripides

Rhyme Rhyme is the repetition of sounds. We find this mostly in poetry, as you can see in the following example:

I wonder, by my troth, what thou and IDid, till we loved? Were we not weaned till then?But sucked on country pleasures, childishly?Or snorted we in the Seven Sleepers’ den?’Twas so; but this, all pleasures fancies be.If ever any beauty I did see,Which I desired, and got, ’twas but a dream of thee.

‘The good morrow’, John Donne

Near rhyme is when the sounds are almost the same. For example, And now good morrow to our waking souls,Which watch not one another out of fear;For love, all love of other sights controls,And makes one little room, an everywhere.

‘The good morrow’, John Donne

Shakespeare oft en ended an important speech with a rhyming couplet. For example, the following couplet ends a speech and also ends the whole play:

So, bring us to our palace; where we’ll showWhat’s yet behind, that’s meet you all should know.

Measure for Measure, William Shakespeare

continued

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MUSICAL EFFECTS EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

Rhythm Rhythm refers to the movement of the language, whether it has a fast or slow beat. Rhythm is created through word choices (the number of syllables in the words contribute to the rhythm) and the length of sentences or lines in a poem. In poetry especially, the rhythm will match the content, mood and messages of the poem. Some adjectives to describe rhythm include:

) dirge-like ) tripping ) lilting ) sing-song ) marching

) stumbling ) chanting ) dancing ) walking

Here are some examples of diff erent rhythms. Read the extracts aloud to hear the beat of the lines.

) The following comes from a poem about the power of a tiger. Notice the short phrasing and one- and two-syllable words, which give the lines a regular, pacing rhythm.

Tyger! Tyger! Burning brightIn the forests of the night,What immortal hand or eyeCould frame thy fearful symmetry?

‘The tyger’, William Blake

) These lines come from a poem about the destruction of Indigenous culture. Notice how the sing-song rhythm helps to convey a mocking tone, and acts as an ironic counterpoint to the serious message of the poem.

No more boomerangNo more spear;Now all civilised—Colour bar and beer.

‘No more boomerang’, Oodgeroo Noonuccal

) The following extract comes from a poem about birth. The tick-tock rhythm matches the meaning of the lines: our life-clock begins at birth.

Love set you going like a fat gold watch.The midwife slapped your footsoles, and your bald cryTook its place among the elements.

‘Morning song’, Sylvia Plath

) The following extract is from a poem in which a young man is trying to reassure his lover that he will return to her aft er his trip overseas. Notice how the upbeat rhythm (like a song) is an attempt to make the woman feel positive about the situation.

Sweetest love, I do not go,For weariness of thee,Nor in hope the world can showA fitter love for me;But since that IMust die at last, ‘tis bestTo use myself in jestThus by feign’d deaths to die.

‘Song’, John Donne

If you are studying poetry, be sure to read the poems out loud in order to hear their rhythm.

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MUSICAL EFFECTS EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES (continued)

Sentence patterns Writers employ sentences of diff erent lengths and shapes for particular eff ects. For example, notice how short sentences help to build suspense in the following torture scene:

‘The pain flowed into Winston’s body. The needle must be at seventy, seventy-five. He had shut his eyes this time. He knew that the fingers were still there, and still four. All that mattered was somehow to stay alive until the spasm was over. He had ceased to notice whether he was crying or not. The pain lessened again. He opened his eyes. O’Brien had drawn back the lever.’

Nineteen Eighty-four, George Orwell

Sound patterns Sometimes sounds are repeated for a particular eff ect. Harsh sounds are created through the repetition of hard-sounding letters, such as ‘b’, ‘d’ and ‘t’; soft , comforting sounds are created through the repetition of the somewhat voiceless letters, such as ‘f’, ‘s’ and ‘m’. For example, the following extract is a stanza from a poem about death. Notice the harsh sounds, which reflect the message of the poem, urging the audience to resist death.

Do not go gentle into that good night,Old age should burn and rave at close of day;Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

‘Do not go gentle into that good night’, Dylan Thomas

Notice in the following extract how the repetition of the soft -sounding letters ‘th’, ‘m’ and ‘l’ reflect the soft ness and gentle nature of the subject of the poem: a lamb.

Little lamb, who made thee?Doest thou know who made thee?Gave thee life and bid thee feed,By the stream and o’er the mead;Gave the clothing of delight,Soft est clothing woolly bright;Gave thee such a tender voice, making all the vales rejoice!

‘The lamb’, William Blake

LANGUAGE REGISTER EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

Formal Formal language will contain complex sentence structure and sophisticated lexicon, which is typical of 19th-century novels. For example:

He was respected by all who knew him, for his integrity and indefatigable attention to public business. He passed his younger days perpetually occupied by the aff airs of his country; a variety of circumstances had prevented his marrying early, nor was it until the decline of life that he became a husband and the father of a family.

Frankenstein, Mary Shelley

Informal Informal language register uses colloquialisms and slang. The sentences will not be as long or complex, and tone will be more conversational. For example:

He wiped a hand over his face.

‘We got ourselves backed into the shallow water there, held up the fish. Well, they were smart enough to be careful at the start. But we called and coaxed and dangled the damned fish ... we grabbed two poor devils, they were slippery as eels and fought like the blazes but I had eight good men there, we got the ropes around them in the end.’

The Lieutenant, Kate Grenville

Try to employ some of these features in

your creative response to text.

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When you read your text for the second time, identify and highlight the stylistic features. Consider how they add meaning to the text and increase our appreciation of it.

FEATURES OF PLAYS, FILMS, GRAPHIC NOVELS, POETRY AND NONFICTIONPlays, fi lms, graphic novels, poems and nonfi ction texts have special stylistic features, which are described below.

PlaysThe features of plays include the following: 1 A set design—this is often described by the playwright in a

stage direction at the start of the text. The set design conveys information about the time and place in which the play is set.

2 Costumes and props—the props of a play are the ‘properties’; that is, physical items such as furniture, accessories, knick-knacks, and so on. Ask yourself how costumes and props convey messages about characters, themes and values.

3 Sound and lighting effects—these enhance the action of the play and contribute to the mood or atmosphere.

4 Confl ict—confl ict is the essence of good drama. What confl icts are evident in the play? What are the causes and effects of these confl icts?

5 Characterisation—the following aspects of the play’s characters contribute to our understanding of the playwright’s messages and values: dialogue, appearance, tone of voice, stance, movements and interactions with other characters on the stage.

6 Stage directions—these are the messages from the playwright to the actors and director. They add meaning to the text. Arthur Miller’s plays, for example, contain many stage directions. Shakespeare’s plays, on the other hand, contain very few.

FilmsSimilar to novels and short stories, fi lms have story elements, such as settings, plot development, characterisation and sometimes a narrative voice (a voice over), but the unique features of fi lms are the production elements (cinematic devices). These elements contribute meaning and enhance our understanding of the fi lmmaker’s values and messages.

The features of fi lms include the following: 1 Sound and lighting effects—these can be used to create a particular mood or

atmosphere. 2 A musical score—this often contributes messages and adds to the mood of

certain scenes.

If one of your set texts is a play, complete the table

‘Stylistic features of plays’, which is available in the online resources for this book.

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3 Editing—this involves putting all the shots together in a coherent order that conveys meaning for the viewers. Choices are made about the length of time the viewers see a particular shot and the order in which the shots will be presented in the fi lm. There may be lots of quick cuts to create tension and suspense, such as during a chase scene. There may be a juxtaposition of shots to convey confl icting views. Think about why the camera lingers on a particular character or scene, and if the fi lm uses fl ashbacks, think about the reasons for this.

4 Shots—different types of shots are chosen for particular reasons. For example, panoramic shots are often used to establish the setting of the fi lm. Medium shots (mid-shots) and long shots set up the fi lm’s characters, plot and messages, and develop the storyline. Close-ups and extreme close-ups reveal detail, such as a character’s facial expressions and emotions. Subjective shots are used in order to reveal a character’s perspective. Analyse the purpose of certain shot choices in the fi lm you are studying.

5 Camera angles—these are chosen for particular reasons. For example, high-angle shots looking down on the subject can suggest inferiority or vulnerability, while low-angle shots looking up at the subject can suggest superiority or heroism. Flat-angle shots drive the plot forward and are often used when characters are engaged in dialogue.

6 Camera movements—these include tracking, panning, zooming in or out, dollying and handheld camera effects, all of which all convey messages about the plot and characters as well as contributing to the mood of a scene.

7 Special effects—these include rapid shot changes, fades or sequences of computer animation. Think about the reasons for these special effects and their impact.

8 Mise en scène—this refers to the arrangement of all the elements in a scene to create meaning. Think about how the mise en scène builds our understanding of the characters, plot, messages and values of the fi lm.

Graphic novelsGraphic novels will have some features in common with other fi ction texts, such as characters, setting(s) and plot, but the difference, of course, is that, like fi lms, they contain images.

These images can be photographs or drawings and they will convey messages that are just as important as the dialogue spoken by the characters, and the sections of narration.

If one of your set texts is a fi lm, complete the table

‘Stylistic features of fi lms’, which is available in the online resources for this book.

Sometimes nonfi ction texts, such as autobiographies, contain visual

elements, too. Some of the features below may be relevant if your text is nonfi ction and contains images.

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The features of graphic novels include the following: 1 Panels—these are the ‘boxes’ that contain the images and they can be full-page in

size, half-page or smaller. Think about the reason for the size of the panels. Sometimes panels can overlap, to suggest some connection between characters and events.

2 Framing choices—analyse what the eye of the reader is initially drawn to in each panel. Look at what is in the foreground, midground and background and think about the possible reasons for these choices.

3 Shading and colour tones—these can have an impact on the mood of the scene. Heavy shading or dark tones suggest mystery, tension or suspense, while lighter tones convey a more positive mood. Colour choices can symbolise the emotional state of the characters.

4 Bleed—this is when the panel extends beyond the edge of the page.

5 Splash—this is when the panel extends across the whole page.

6 Gutter—this is the space between the panels. The gutter may contain words or images for particular purposes, or it may be empty.

7 Speech balloons and thought bubbles—these features are used for dialogue and character development.

8 Narrative—there will be sections of narrative to move the story along and convey more information about plot and character.

9 Onomatopoeia—this refers to words that convey sounds. For example, ‘ping’, ‘whoosh’, ‘miaow’. Think about why the graphic novelist wanted sound effects at particular points in the text.

10 Emanata—this refers to details of the image that suggest an emotion, for example, a teardrop on a cheek to suggest sadness.

PoetryAs well as linguistic elements, poems have musical features too, and if you read the poetry out loud, you can hear these musical effects.The features of poems include the following: 1 Word choices—the words of a poem often have layers of meaning. As you may know

from the study of arguments and persuasive language, words can evoke emotions and have positive or negative connotations. Poems have a limited space in which to get messages across, so the words are chosen for maximum impact.

If one of your set texts is a graphic novel, complete the

table ‘Stylistic features of graphic novels’, which is available in the online support material for this book.

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2 Alliteration and assonance—alliteration is when consonants are repeated. For example, the letter ‘s’ is repeated in the following lines:

As virtuous men pass mildly away,And whisper to their souls to go.

Assonance refers to the repetition of vowel sounds, in the words ‘fall’ and ‘bore’, for example. Alliteration and assonance create sound patterns in the poem.

3 Sound patterns—soft-sounding letters, such as ‘m’, ‘s’ and ‘f’, and harsh sounds like ‘b’, ‘d’ and ‘t’ add to the mood of the poem and help to convey certain emotions.

4 Imagery—poets create images or pictures for us through their choice of words. Think about what you can visualise when you read a poem. Think about the words and images that stand out for you and why.

5 Symbols—poems often contain words that have symbolic signifi cance. For example, some colours are associated with moods and emotions: purple is associated with royalty; red is symbolic of anger or passion; green is associated with new life and growth, or jealousy; blue is symbolic of calmness and peace, and yellow is meant to be associated with intellectual stimulation.

6 Repetition—sometimes words or images are repeated in the poem to emphasise a concept or message, or for a rhythmic effect. You probably know the poem that begins with: ‘Tyger, tyger, burning bright/In the forests of the night.’ The repetition of the word ‘Tyger’, combined with the other two-syllable words in the lines, give the poem a slow, walking movement, as if a tiger is pacing in the jungle, searching for prey.

7 Rhythm—poems are meant to be read aloud. If you do this, you can hear the rhythm or movement of the poem. A poem can bounce along, like a nursery rhyme, or it can be slow and solemn, like a dirge (a funeral march). The poem’s rhythm will refl ect or enhance (or both) its mood and its messages. If the rhythm changes, it will be signifi cant in some way. The poet may want to draw our attention to an important message.

8 Rhyme—poetry does not always rhyme, but when it does, it makes the poem more memorable and it gives the poem unity. Sometimes words will almost rhyme, such as the words ‘move’ and ‘love’, or ‘yet’ and ‘beat’. If a regular rhyme pattern in a poem is altered suddenly, it will be signifi cant in some way. The poet may want to draw our attention to an important message.

9 Enjambment—poems are often divided into lines, which are grouped into verses (called ‘stanzas’). These are similar to the paragraphs in a prose piece. Sometimes, however, a message or thought fl ows without a break over a number of lines; even a number of stanzas. This is called ‘enjambment’ and it can have an impact on the poem’s rhythm, keeping the poem moving forward and the ideas fl owing. Enjambment can contribute to the messages or the feel and mood of the poem. Here is an example, from

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a poem called ‘Barn owl’, by Gwen Harwood. It is about a child who kills an owl and the enjambment in the following lines suggests the child’s horror at what she has done.

My first shot struck. He swayed,ruined, beating his onlywing, as I watched, afraidby the fallen gun, a lonelychild who believed death cleanand final not this obscene

bundle of stuff that dropped,and dribbled through loose strawtangling in bowels, and hoppedblindly closer. I sawthose eyes that did not seemirror my cruelty

while the wrecked thing that couldnot bear the light nor hidehobbled in its own blood.

Nonfiction textsNonfi ction texts will have some features in common with fi ction texts, such as characters, setting(s) and plot, but obviously the difference is that these aspects are real, not imaginary.

These texts can enrich our reading experience, teaching us about real life in a particular time and place. We might be able to identify or empathise with the characters and situations, and our eyes may be opened to new and fascinating people, places, experiences, ideas and values.

The features of nonfi ction texts include the following: 1 Inclusion/omission of information—the creator of the text needs to choose which

facts to include and which to omit. This raises important questions, such as who is the target audience? What would this target audience want to read about? Who is likely to be affected by the contents of the text? Would they be offended by what they read? The legal aspects of memoirs, biographies and autobiographies need to be considered carefully. These considerations would make readers ask questions about whether we are receiving the whole truth or a watered-down version of it.

2 Keep it interesting—the writers of personal memoirs, biographies and autobiographies need to make their subject matter interesting for readers. If your set text is of this genre,

If one of your set texts is a collection of poetry,

complete the table ‘Stylistic features of poetry’, which is available in the online resources for this book.

may be l i id d l

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think about what it is about the characters and events that makes it interesting to read. Alternatively, if the text does not interest you, why not?

3 Inclusion of images—the creator of the text may choose to include photographs, diagrams, maps or other images, which may add interest and authenticity to the story. If images have been included in the text you are studying, think about the possible reasons for this. If there are no visuals, why not?

Making notes about a literary textAfter you have read your texts for the second time, record notes in answer to the following questions. The template for this is in the online resources. This task is especially important for the texts you are using for analytical responses in school-assessed coursework and examinations. 1 Narrative perspective

) How is the text narrated? If it is a fi lm, is there a voice over narration? If so, whose voice/s do we hear and why? In a narrative, whose perspective are we getting? Is one of the characters telling the story, or the omniscient narrator? Is the narrator reliable? Are we getting the whole truth? Is the narrator unbiased? Does the narrative perspective change? Why did the text’s creator make this choice? If you are studying a poem, who is the ‘speaker’ of the poem?

2 Plot ) Why do the events occur? What are the causes and effects of key events in the text?

What is signifi cant about the order in which these events occur? 3 Characterisation

) Why do the characters act and react in certain ways? What motivates them? How do they change, grow or develop through the course of the text?

4 Sociohistorical context and settings ) What insights does the text give us into the sociohistorical context in which the

text is set? How are the settings of the storyline signifi cant? What impact does the landscape have on the characters who inhabit it? How do elements of the external world refl ect or symbolise the internal world of the characters? Complete a ‘Settings concept map’. There is a template for this in the online resources.

5 Themes, ideas, messages ) What is the creator of the text saying? What messages are conveyed to the reader

or viewer? What themes does the text explore? Complete a ‘Themes concept map’. There is a template for this in the online resources.

6 Values ) What values are coming through to us from the text and its creator? What aspects of

life and human behaviour are seen as important, good or valuable? What aspects of

If one of your set texts is a nonfi ction text,

complete the table ‘Stylistic features of nonfi ction texts’, which is available in the online resources for this book.

Access the template for this in the online

resources.

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life and human behaviour are condemned? Complete a ‘Values table’. There is a template for this in the online resources.

7 Stylistic features ) How does the author or fi lmmaker convey

the messages and values? What are the stylistic features of the text and how do they create meaning? Consider features such as:

» similes » metaphors » symbols » motifs » dramatic devices to build tension, such as

short sentences for passages of action or suspense » visual features (such as those found in graphic novels, fi lms and nonfi ction

texts). Note: If one of your texts is a graphic novel, fi lm or nonfi ction text containing visuals, you should complete the relevant table for this text, which is available in the online resources.

TEN TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL EXPLORATION OF LITERARY TEXTS 1 Familiarise yourself with the purpose of your three or four set texts: are they for

analytical, creative, or comparative responses? 2 On your second reading of the texts, read closely and carefully, thinking and making

notes about all the components mentioned in this chapter. 3 You need a quiet place to read and concentrate on a literary text. You cannot do this

kind of homework and study in front of a television or computer, or while you are listening to loud music.

4 Read with a dictionary and build up a word bank as you come across unfamiliar words. 5 If one of your texts is a collection of poetry, fi nd out which poems are set for study and

read the poems aloud several times in order to hear their musical qualities. 6 If one of your texts is a fi lm, make sure you have access to a copy of the fi lm so that

you can watch it several times. Try to access the screenplay too. 7 The sooner you develop a collection of quotes the better. This is especially important

for the text designated for analytical responses. 8 Use the internet to search for information about your set texts and their creators. 9 Invite family members or friends who are not students to read the set texts and give you

their opinions. 10 Set up a study group with your friends, similar to a book club, to read extracts from the

texts and share opinions about them.

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