Arctic Cordillera:

LocationThe Arctic Cordillera runs along the northeastern fringe of Nunavut and Labrador, notably on Ellesmere and Baffin Islands.

ClimateThis ecozone is one of the most inhospitable in Canada. Summer temperatures range from -2 degrees in the mountains of Ellesmere Island to 6 degrees in northern Labrador, but winter brings temperatures as low as -35ºC in the north. Precipitation is commonly snow, and the north has an average of only 200mm of precipitation a year, although in Labrador it can reach as much as 600mm annually. Although winter is long and dark, the short growing season is aided by the extremely long days come summer.

Geology and GeographyContaining soaring mountain peaks and desolate valleys, the northern extent of this ecozone contains mountains that exceed two kilometres in height, some of the highest in the country. This is the only major mountain chain in Eastern Canada. Precambrian rock is the major component of the bedrock. The drier northern section is largely covered with ice caps while glaciers are common at the more humid southern end.

Flora and FaunaPlantsNot much can grow in the harsh conditions, where killing frosts can come at any time during the year and even soil is rare. Three-quarters of the land here is bare rock; and even lichen have a hard time of it. Trees here are barely recognizable stunted versions of themselves. Plants that do grow here are usually tiny species that often grow in thick insulating mats to protect themselves from the cold or are covered in thick hairs that help to insulate and to protect them from the bitter wind.

Some of the plant species found are arctic black spruce, arctic willow, cottongrass, kobresia, moss species, wood rush, wire rush, purple saxifrage, Dryas species, sedges, Diapensia, arctic poppy, mountain avens, mountain sorrel, river beauty, moss campion, bilberry, and arctic white heather.

AnimalsThe conditions here are far too harsh for reptiles and amphibians to survive, and insects are also rare here.MammalsMuskoxen and barren-ground caribou are the only large herbivores in this ecosystem,

while polar bears and the arctic wolf are the only large carnivores to be found here. Smaller herbivores include the arctic hare and the collared lemming. Arctic foxes and ermines are some of the smaller carnivores found here. Marine mammals include narwhals,beluga whales, walrus, and ringed and bearded seals. BirdsThe furry-legged rock ptarmigan is a common bird in this desolate place. Characteristic birds of prey include thegyrfalcon and snowy owl. Some of the more common shore- and seabirds are the thick-billed murre, black-legged kittiwake, ruddy turnstone, red knot, black guillemot, common ringed plover, little ringed plover and northern fulmar. Songbirds found in the Arctic Cordillera include the hoary redpoll, common redpoll, snow bunting, and lapland longspur. The snow goose, common and king eider, and red-throated loon are some species of waterfowl that live here.

HumansOnly about a thousand people live permanently in this region and most of the population is Inuit. Most people live through subsistence activities, such as hunting, trapping and fishing, although gas and oil exploration also provide a living for some.

Northern Arctic:

LocationMost of the archipelago north of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories are included in the Northern Arctic.

ClimateExtending over most of the arctic islands, this is the coldest and driest part of the country. Winter nights last for days or even months, and average annual temperature is as low as -3ºC in the northerly part of the region. Precipitation is so low here, only 100 to 200mm a year, that the region can be classified as an arctic desert. July and August are the only months in which snow doesn't usually lie on the ground. Permafrost, perpetually frozen ground, is present everywhere in this ecozone and can extend downwards for over a kilometre. Only a thin layer at the surface thaws during summer. The waters in the northern half of the Northern Arctic are permanently frozen, but the southern waters can be open in the summer, although ice still persists offshore throughout the year.

Geology and GeographyThe western section of the ecozone consists of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rock. Towards the east, the bedrock is mostly Precambrian granite. Most of the Northern Arctic is flat or slightly rolling terrain. The west is littered with glacial deposits and shattered limestone. Plains may extend for several kilometres inland from the coast; once underwater, these plains are now rising as the continent rises after having been pushed down by glaciers during previous ice ages. The east is characterized by plateaus and rocky hills, which eventually lead to the Arctic Cordillera ecozone's mountains.

Flora and FaunaPlantsThe entirety of the Northern Arctic lies above the tree line, so no full-sized tree species can be found here. Very few plant species can survive in these conditions. Plants are generally stunted and become more so to the north.

Some plants found here include purple saxifrage, mountain avens, arctic poppy, arctic willow, Dryas species, kobresia, sedges, cottongrass, moss, dwarf birch, northern Labrador tea, Vaccinium species, alder, alpine foxtail, wood rush, wire rush, moss campions, white arctic heather, arctic bladder campion, yellow oxytrope, mastodon flower, arctic lousewort, mountain sorrel, pygmy buttercup, river beauty, chickweed.

Animals Mammals Only about twenty mammal species live here. The largest are the carnivorous polar bear,

andarctic wolf and the herbivourous barren-land caribou and muskox. The smaller carnivores found here include arctic fox, ermine, and wolverine, while smaller herbivores include the snowshoe hare, arctic hare, brown lemming and collared lemming. Aquatic mammals that live in the waters off the coast include walrus, ringed seals, bearded seals, beluga, narwhal, and various other whales.

Birds Most of the bird species migrate to the Northern Arctic in spring to mate, leaving in fall. Birds of prey that can be found in the northern arctic include gyrfalcon, rough-legged hawk, and snowy owl. Waterfowl include snow goose, brant, Canada goose, eider, oldsquaw duck, red-throated loon,arctic loon   and king eider. Shorebirds and seabirds include the red phalarope, parasitic jaeger, red knot, dunlin, long-tailed jaeger, northern fulmar, glaucous gull, white-rumped sandpiper, black-bellied plover, and ruddy turnstone. Some forest birds of the ecozone are the willow ptarmigan,rock ptarmigan, hoary redpoll, snow bunting, lapland longspur, and horned lark.

Amphibians and ReptilesNo reptiles or amphibians can survive the conditions here. 

Humans Approximately 15 000 people live in the Northern Arctic, and the majority of the population is Inuit. Most people live through subsistence activities, such as hunting, trapping and fishing, though gas and oil exploration also provide a living for some, as does tourism.

Southern Arctic

LocationThe Southern Arctic extends across the northern edge of much of the continental Northwest Territories and Quebec, bordered by the tree line to the south and the Northern Arctic ecosystem to the north.

Climate This far north, the summers are short and cool, while winters are long, cold, and dark. Summers average 5ºC, while winters vary between an average of -28ºC near the Mackenzie Delta to -18ºC in northern Quebec.

Precipitation in the west is low, approximately 250mm per year, and only rises to 500mm at the eastern end of the ecozone. Permafrost is found throughout the region, sometimes only a few centimetres below the surface.

Geology and GeographyThe look of the Southern Arctic is largely the result of glaciers. As the glaciers expanded and moved south, they carried rocks and earth with them. Exposed bedrock, which may have been exposed by the scraping of the glaciers, still bears scratch marks from rocks dragged across them by the glaciers' advance. Rocks up to the size of houses were torn from the bedrock and carried by the glaciers, sometimes a few metres and sometimes a few thousand kilometres. When they ended up far from home, these rocks are appropriately known as "glacial erratics".

When the glaciers retreated from this area about 8 500 years ago, soil and rocks were deposited in huge amounts, resulting in all types of characteristic landscape features. The bedrock here is mostly Precambrian granite, which is exposed throughout the area.

Flora and FaunaPlantsThe southern edge of the Southern Arctic is the tree line, a transition zone north of which no full-sized trees are found. Anything north of the tree line is defined as the arctic. The low temperatures, low precipitation, and high winds in most of the ecozone encourages low plants. Stunted forms of tree species such as dwarf birch, alder, arctic willow, white spruce, black spruce, tamarack, least willow, net-veined willow and blue-green willow grow here.

Other plant species that grow in the Southern Arctic include the heath, lichen, northern Labrador tea, Dryas, sedge species, sphagnum moss, cottongrass, ericaceous shrubs, Vaccinium, fragrant shield fern, shrub birch, crowberry, bearberry, moss campion, blueberry, mountain cranberry, cloudberry, and alpine club moss.

Animals North of the tree line, life becomes difficult for animals as well as plants. Most impressive of the animals here is the caribou and their massive migrations. Many birds also migrate, though they fly over the ecozone as much as land in it.

Mammals Larger carnivores in the Southern Arctic include the grizzly bear, black bear and polar bear as well as wolves. The most common large herbivores are barren-ground caribou, woodland caribou,moose, and muskox. Smaller carnivores, such as the red fox, arctic fox, lynx, coyote, weasels,wolverine and ermine prey on smaller herbivores, which include the arctic ground squirrel, brown lemming, showshoe hare, arctic hare masked   shrew , tundra redbacked vole   , and beaver. Aquatic mammals include walruses, various seals, belugas, and narwhals.

Birds Many birds migrate here in the spring to breed, but spend the long cold winters further south. Many others pass over the Southern Arctic during their migrations to breed still further north. Four characteristic birds of prey include the snowy owl, gyrfalcon, osprey, and rough-legged hawk. Waterfowl that can be found here include Canada goose, yellow-billed loon, arctic loon, red-throated loon, tundra swan, whistling swan, snow goose, oldsquaw duck and sea ducks. Some common shorebirds and seabirds in the Southern Arctic are the semi-palmated plover, red-necked phalarope, lapland longspur, parasitic jaeger, and semi-palmated plover. Songbirds also live here, including the snow bunting, raven, American tree sparrow, and hoary redpoll. Willow ptarmigan,rock ptarmigan and spruce grouse are a few of the ground-dwelling birds.

Reptiles and Amphibians This ecozone is too harsh for either reptiles or amphibians to live in.

MolluscsThree species of molluscs that live in the Southern Arctic are the muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea clam.

Humans Extremely few people (only about 10 000) live here, and the majority of the population is Inuit. Most people live through subsistence activities, such as hunting, trapping and fishing, though gas and oil exploration also provide a living for some, as does tourism.

Taiga Plains:

LocationThe Taiga Plains are centered around the Mackenzie River in the western Northwest Territories, bordered by the mountains to the west, the arctic to the east, and the boreal forests of the boreal plains to the south.

Climate Like the Taiga Shield to its east, the Taiga Plains has short, cool summers and long, cold winters. Mean summer temperatures range from 7ºC in the north to 14ºC in the south. Winter brings averages of -26ºC in the Mackenzie delta and a relatively mild -15ºC in the portion contained in Alberta and British Columbia. Snow and freshwater ice lasts for six to eight months, and permafrost is widespread. There is generally little rainfall here, only 200-500mm a year.

Geology and Geography Geologically, this ecozone is primarily horizontally layered sedimentary rock; limestone, shale, and sandstone. The largest river in the country, the Mackenzie, flows through this ecozone and dominates its west, while the east is in turn dominated by the Great Slave and Great Bear lakes. Most of the terrain is flat or slightly rolling, but where the river or its tributaries have cut through the ground, canyons hundreds of metres deep can be found. The permafrost leads to large areas being waterlogged and remnants of glacier activity make the landscape more varied.

Flora and Fauna Plants Fires are fairly common, and many species are especially adapted to it, resulting in a patchwork of forest types where each patch is at a different stage of recovery from fire. Trees in the Taiga Plains include paper birch, willows, trembling aspen,tamarack, green alder, white spruce, balsam poplar, lodgepole pine, jack pine, dwarf birch, black spruce, and balsam fir. Some of the smaller plants that grow here are fire snag, wild rose, Labrador tea, bearberry, sedges, eriacaceous shrubs, cottongrass, moss, sphagnum moss, feathermoss, bog cranberry, and blueberry.

Animals Mammals The black bear, lynx, and wolf are the only large carnivores to be found here; smaller carnivores include red fox, ermine, and marten. Large herbivores include woodland caribou, wood bison,moose, and barren-ground caribou, while snowshow hare, red squirrel, arctic ground squirrel are some of the smaller herbivores.

Birds Some of the most common birds of prey here, the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and osprey, are fish-eaters, though the hawk owl is not. Waterfowl, most of whom migrate to the Taiga Plains in spring and summer, include the red-throated loon, ring-necked duck, greater scaup, canvasback, and all manner of other ducks, geese and swans. Some ground-dwelling birds are the sharp-tailed grouse and willow ptarmigan, while some common birds of the forest include the raven, gray jay,boreal chickadee, common raven, and common redpoll.

Reptiles and Amphibians This region is too far north for reptiles, but the western toad, striped chorus frog, and wood frog can be found here.

Fish Fish that can be found in the lakes and rivers of the region include arctic lamprey, lake trout, lake and mountain whitefish, arctic cisco, longnose sucker, arctic grayling, dolly varden, burbot, walleye, and northern pike.

Invertebrates The large numbers of insects in this ecozone provide food for the insectivorous birds that come here to feed and breed. Molluscs like the muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, andglobular pea clam live in the waters of this ecozone.

Humans Most settlements in the Taiga Plains are located by rivers, and most of the landscape has been virtually untouched by human activity. A majority of the 22 000 people who live here make their living through subsistence activities, but petroleum exploration, mining, and forestry also take place.

Taiga Shield:

Location This ecozone stretches eastward from the Taiga Plains, just south of the Southern Arctic. It is interrupted by Hudson Bay and the Hudson Plains, but then continues to the Atlantic.

Climate This ecozone has short summers with long days and cold, long winters with long nights. Average annual temperatures are just below freezing, and mean summer temperatures are at most 11ºC. Precipitation ranges from 200mm a year in the west to 1000mm on the Labrador coast.

Geology and Geography As part of the Canadian Shield, the bedrock here is extremely old, and the region north of Great Slave Lake contains the oldest rock on the planet, over four billion years old. The terrain here is either flat or rolling hills. Advancing and retreating glaciers have scraped the ground bare at several points in the past, and the millions of depressions that have been left are now lakes. Much of the flat lands are temporarily or permanently waterlogged.

Flora and FaunaPlants A patchwork of wetlands, forests, meadows, and shrublands covers this area. The northern edge of the ecozone is delineated by the tree line, and it is north of this that the more typical arctic tundra begins.

Trees in the Taiga Shield include black spruce, jack pine, green alder, paper birch, willow,tamarack, white spruce, balsam fir, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, white birch, and dwarf birch.

Other plants in the area include ericaceous shrubs, cottongrass, lichen, moss, sedge, sphagnum moss, Labrador tea, feathermoss, northern Labrador tea, yellow pond lily, cattail, water parsnip, water smartweed, water horsetail, water arum, marsh five-finger, ground juniper, kinnikinick, lichens, goldenrod, grass of Parnassus, shrubby cinqfoil, sweet gale, northern commandra, wild rose, wood horsetail, wild chives, twinflower, feathermoss, soapberry, cupidberry, crowberry, bearberry, high-bush cranberry, fireweed, fire snag, rock harlequin, fragrant shield fern, creeping juniper, prickly saxifrage, mountain cranberry, and gooseberry.

AnimalsMammalsAbout fifty species of mammals are found in the Taiga Shield, including the large herbivoresbarren-ground caribou, woodland caribou, and moose. Wolves, black and grizzly bears and thelynx are the larger predators. Smaller predators include the coyote, red and arctic fox, muskrat,wolverine, weasel, mink, marten,

otter, and least weasel. The smaller herbivores include thesnowshoe hare, beaver, brown lemming, red-backed vole,  northern red-backed vole , and red squirrel.

Birds Spring migration brings a multitude of bird species through this region, including various ducks, geese, loons and swans. Some stay, but others continue north to the arctic to breed. Representative birds of prey are the osprey and bald eagle. Shorebirds and seabirds found here include northern phalarope, Bonaparte’s gull, arctic tern, greater scaup, mew gull, Characteristic waterfowl are the arctic, pacific, and red-throated loons, red-breasted merganser, and the green-winged teal. Forest birds in the ecozone include northern shrike, tree sparrow, gray-cheeked thrush, raven, red-breasted merganser, red-winged blackbird, yellow warbler, common redpoll,white-crowned sparrow, flicker, and yellow-rumped warbler. Two representative ground-dwelling birds are the spruce grouse and willow ptarmigan.

Reptiles and AmphibiansThree species of amphibians, the mink frog, wood frog, and blue-spotted salamander live here, but there are no reptiles.

InvertebratesThe American copper butterfly is found here, as are the molluscs muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea clam.

Humans This ecozone is more developed than others to the north of it, thanks to hydroelectric development and mining. It is also more densely populated, with 340 000 people, 60% of whom are First Nations. Settlements along the coast arose during the time of the fur trade, but later settlement has been largely dictated by mining. Most of the urban areas still have untouched land nearby, and subsistence activities such as hunting, trapping and fishing are still common.

Taiga Cordillera:

Location This ecozone extends along most of the border between the Yukon and Northwest Territories.

Climate The Taiga Cordillera contains the northernmost of the Rocky mountains in Canada and also some of its highest waterfalls, deepest canyons and wildest rivers. Mountains block much of the precipitation, which averages 250 to 300mm per year. Its northerly position gives it cold winters (-22ºC average temperature) with very short days and short cool summers (average temperature 8ºC). Snow lasts on the ground for six to eight months of the year.

Geology and Geography Most of the ecozone is covered with steep mountains and narrow valleys, although the northwest contains wetlands and rolling hills and the north contains tundra; this tundra is above the treeline, so only smaller plants are found there.

Flora and FaunaPlantsLocation on the slopes of the ecozone determines which plants are to be found. Western-facing slopes recieve more precipitation than those that face the east, while southern slopes are warmer, brighter and drier than north-facing slopes. Distinct zones also occur as altitude increases.Some of the trees found here include paper birch, alpine fir, lodgepole pine, black spruce, white spruce, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, water birch, Alaska paper birch, blue-green willow, Bebb willow, and net-veined willow. Other plants include mountain aven, eriacaceous shrubs, sedge, cottongrass, Labrador tea, fire snag, larkspur, forget-me-not, wooly lousewort, arnica, hedysarum, white camas, purple mountain saxifrage, yellow mountain saxifrage, alpine bearberry, arctic white heather, alpine bearberry and prickly saxifrage.

AnimalsAs with the plants, the animal species to be found depend upon their location in the ecozone. Alpine regions, lowland forests and wetlands all have characteristic species.

MammalsLarge carnivores that are found here include black bear, grizzly bear, wolf and lynx. The large herbivores include Dall’s sheep, caribou, moose, and mountain goat. Small carnivores such ascoyote, red fox, least weasel, mink, wolverine, muskrat, and marten can be found here, preying in part on arctic ground squirrel, American pika, hoary marmot, beaver, and brown lemming.

BirdsSome of the characteristic birds of prey are gyrfalcon, golden eagle, bald eagle, osprey, northern goshawk, boreal owl, short-eared owl, red-tailed hawk, northern harrier, American kestrel, andmerlin. Shorebirds and seabirds that are found here include spotted sandpiper, common snipe,wandering tattler, herring gull, and mew gull. The songbirds of the Taiga cordillera includecommon redpoll, rusty blackbird, gray-cheeked thrush, tree swallow, dark-eyed junco, varied thrush, raven, white-winged crossbill, Lincoln’s sparrow, Townsend’s solitaire, water pipit, violet-green swallow, and gray jay. Waterfowl such as Canada geese, northern pintail, mallard,canvasback, and arctic loon are found here. Ruffed grouse, spruce grouse, northern flicker, willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan, and white-tailed ptarmigan are some of the birds of the forest.

Amphibians and ReptilesThe Taiga Cordillera is too far north for amphibians and reptiles.

FishPredators such as the northern pike feed on species including lake whitefish and lake chub. Chinook salmon and chum salmon come in from the ocean to spawn.

MollucscsTwo of the mollusc species found in this ecozone are the muskeg stagnicola and arctic-alpine fingernail clam.

Humans Only a few hundred people live here, and subsistence activities are the norm. Otherwise, there is some tourism, but no major urban centres or industries exist here.

Boreal Shield:

Location The Boreal Shield covers a wide swath from Alberta to Newfoundland, south of the Taiga Shield and Hudson Plains and north of various ecozones, including the Boreal Plains, Mixedwood Plains, and Atlantic Maritime.

Climate Largest of Canada's ecozones, the Boreal Shield provides the images of exposed bedrock, endless forests, and rushing rivers that characterize the image that much of the world (as well as many Canadians) has of Canada. Summers have roughly the same average temperature throughout the area, about 13ºC. The maritime influence in the east gives it a milder winter, with a mean temperature of about -1ºC, while the western edge suffers through average winter temperatures of -20ºC. Precipitation in the west is low, about 400mm a year, but it can be a high as 1600mm a year in some areas of Newfoundland, largely due to its position in the Atlantic.

Geology and Geography This ecozone is named after the intersection of the boreal forest and the Canadian Shield, and the Precambrian granite bedrock of the latter is commonly exposed here. This may have once been a soaring mountain range, judging by its tumultuous geological past, but that was a billion years ago, and all that is left now is rolling hills. Glaciers swept over this area many times, and the resulting series of depressions and deposits have given rise to the millions of lakes and wetlands in the region.

Flora and Fauna Plants Forest fires create a patchwork of forest types in different stages of recovery from the fire. Trees to the north are coniferous, but broadleaf trees appear further south and trees normally found in much warmer climates, such as the yellow birch and sugar maple, can be found in the south of the ecozone. Bogs and other wetlands, some of the most diverse and productive areas in the Boreal Shield, cover one-fifth of the land. Tree species that can be found here include the white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, tamarack, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, white pine, red pine, jack pine, eastern white pine, red maple, mountain maple, eastern red cedar, eastern hemlock, black ash, speckled alder, pin cherry, paper birch and white birch. Some of the other plants that grow here are ericaceous shrubs, sphagnum moss, willow, alder, Labrador tea, blueberry, bog rosemary, feathermoss, cottongrass, sedges, kalmia heath, high bush cranberry, baneberry, wild sarsaparilla, bunchberry, shield fern, goldenrod, water lilies and cattails.

AnimalsMammalsSome of the characteristic large herbivores of the region include woodland caribou, barren-ground caribou, white-tailed deer, and moose. The larger carnivores in the Boreal Shield are the black bear, lynx, bobcat, and wolf. Small herbivores and herbivores include raccoon, striped skunk,eastern chipmunk, beaver, muskrat, showshoe hare, red-backed vole, red squirrel, least chipmunk,porcupine, woodchuck, southern bog lemming and arctic hare. They are in turn preyed upon such smaller carnivores as the marten, short-tailed weasel, fisher, ermine, mink, river otter, coyote, andred fox.

Aquatic mammals found off of the eastern coast of the ecozone include grey seal, harp seal,hooded seal, ringed seal   , sperm whale, orca, Atlantic pilot whale, fin whale, blue whale, northern right whale, bowhead whale,and humpback whale.

BirdsBirds of prey in this ecozone include the boreal owl, great horned owl, hawk owl, bald eagle, red-tailed hawk, turkey vulture, and broad-winged hawk. The yellow rumped warbler, blue jay, evening grosbeak, gray jay, common nighthawk, raven, mourning dove, cardinal, wood thrush, rock ptarmigen, willow ptarmigan   and white-throated sparrow are just a few of the songbirds found here. The forests hold such species as spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, and thepileated woodpecker. Spring brings large flocks of waterbirds to nest and breed in the wetlands or just to feed for the rest of their migration further north. They include the common loon, sandhill cranes, hooded merganser, American black duck, wood duck, Canada goose, great blue heron,ring-necked duck, and bufflehead. Shorebirds and seabirds found off the eastern coast include theherring gull, double-crested cormorant, and Atlantic puffin, along with various murre, eider, tern and pelican species.

Reptiles and AmphibiansMany species of reptiles and amphibians live in the Boreal Shield. Some of the frogs and toads include the spring peeper, wood frog, mink frog, and northern leopard frog. Yellow-spotted salamanders, blue-spotted salamanders, eastern redback salamanders, and eastern newts can be found in moist areas. The common snapping turtle and painted turtle are two of the turtle species that live in the ecozone. Two types of garter snake, the maritime garter snake and common gartern snake, as well as the redbelly snake, make their home here.

FishPredatory fish in the ecozone include the lake sturgeon, brook trout, lake trout, northern pike, muskellunge, largemouth bass, sauger, and walleye. Some of the fish that they prey upon include cisco, (lake herring), blackfin cisco, lake whitefish, rainbow smelt, lake chub, golden shiner, and yellow perch. Anadramous fish, which live in the ocean but enter freshwater to spawn, include the silver lamprey, northern brook lamprey, american brook lamprey, sea lamprey, alewife and Atlantic salmon.

MolluscsThe valve snail, ordinary spire snail, eastern elliptio, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea clam are just a few of the mollusc species in the Boreal Shield.

InsectsInsects are common in the Boreal Shield; some of the species include the German cockroach, red turpentine beetle, boreal spittlebug, spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, and bush katydid.

HumansThe extensive waterways in the Boreal Shield were the roads of the fur trade. More recently, some rivers have been altered and degraded by mining, hydroelectric development, and logging practices, though many are still relatively unaffected. Insect control, monoculture tree plantings, control of natural forest fires and acidification of the lakes and soil all affect the natural system, but in many cases the long-term effects are unclear. The current population is approximately three million.

Boreal Plains:

Location The Boreal Plains are found in the centre of Alberta, extending east through the centre of Saskatchewan and slightly south of centre Manitoba.

Climate A more northerly extension of the Prairie ecozone to its south, the Boreal Plains ecozone endures mean annual temperatures of around freezing. Summers are short and warm, winters cold. The Rocky Mountains block much of the moisture, resulting in precipitation of 300mm in the west to 625mm in the east.

Glaciers from many ice ages have flattened the landscape, and the large ancient lakes that resulted from their meltwater have left many dunes and are still present in many cases as smaller lakes.

Geology and Geography Flat or slightly rolling terrain is the rule here, and thick soil deposits overlay Cretaceous shale bedrock.

Flora and FaunaPlantsMuch of the Boreal Plains are covered with forests despite heavy logging. Fires are common, and many species are very well adapted to them. Dominant tree species include white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, jack pine, tamarack, white birch, water birch, Alaska paper birch, mountain alder, trembling aspen, Pacific willow, Bebb willow, pussy willow, Manitoba maple, and balsam poplar. The deciduous species are most commonly found in the south, the coniferous species to the north. The Saskatoon berry bush is one of the other plant species found here.

AnimalsExtensive logging has reduced the population and ranges of many species. Wetlands and rivers have also suffered from pollution, increased water use and other human activities.

MammalsLarge carnivores in the ecozone include the black bear, wolf, and lynx. The most common large herbivores are elk, mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, caribou, and bison. Smaller carnivores include the coyote, least weasel, river otter, badger, striped skunk, muskrat, marten, and fisher. There are many rodents, such as the northern pocket

gopher, beaver, woodchuck, Richardson's ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, Franklin's ground squirrel, least chipmunk,porcupine, eastern cottontail, and snowshoe hare.

BirdsCharacteristic birds of prey include the great horned owl, boreal owl, northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, Cooper's hawk, red-tailed hawk, broad-winged hawk, and turkey vulture. Some of the songbirds found here are the blue jay, evening grosbeak, rose-breasted grosbeak, ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing, whip-poor-will, purple finch, brown creeper, sedge wren, and thecommon crow. Some other birds of the forest are ruffed grouse, spruce grouse, northern flicker,downy woodpecker, and pileated woodpecker. Waterfowl include Franklin’s gull, American white pelican, common loon, sandhill crane, western grebe, wood duck, ring-necked duck, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, redhead, canvasback, Canada goose, and whooping cranes, which nest in wetlands in the extreme north of the ecozone.

Amphibians and reptilesTwo of the amphibian species here are the wood frog and american toad. The common garter snake can also be found.

FishPredatory fish here include lake sturgeon, brown trout, lake trout, northern pike, and walleye. They prey on such species as cisco (lake herring), lake whitefish, goldeye, lake chub, emerald shiner, and yellow perch.

InsectsA few of the insect species found here are the boreal spittlebug, spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, and American cockroach.

MolluscsTwo species of molluscs found in the Boreal Plains are the arctic-alpine fingernail clam and theglobular pea clam.

Humans When first settled, the Boreal Plains were important for trading companies and the fur trade. For the past fifty years oil and gas has been the major economic focus in Alberta. Other natural resources have been important as well, especially forestry. The three-quarters of a million people who live in this ecozone are scattered in small communities rather than the larger urban concentrations found in most southern ecozones.

Boreal Cordillera:

Location This ecozone contains the mountainous southern Yukon and northern British Columbia.

Climate The mountains in the west of the Boreal Cordillera stop much of the precipitation that would normally fall, so the region tends towards dryness, with less than 300 mm of precipitation in the west. Precipitation rises to the east, with up to 1500 mm falling on some slopes. From one third to two-thirds of the precipitation falls as snow. Average winter temperatures are -18ºC, while the short summer averages 10ºC.

Geology and Geography Mountains and plateaus are the dominant features, separated by lowlands and valleys. Debris and deposits from glaciers cover the plateaus and valleys, and even the lower slopes of the mountains have deposits.

Flora and Fauna PlantsTrees grow in the lowlands and on the lower slopes. As elevation increses, trees become stunted and above the treeline only shrubs, moss, lichen and herbs are found. Much of the upper slopes is bare rock, snow and ice. Trees of the area include white spruce, black spruce, Engelmann spruce,alpine fir, lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, white birch, water birch, scrub birch, and Bebb willow. Some of the other plants in the ecozone are Labrador tea, mountain aven, eriacaceous shrubs, sphagnum moss, cottongrass, and mountain hemlock.

AnimalsMammalsSome of the large herbivores are caribou, moose, Dall’s sheep, mountain goat, and bison. Large carnivores that are found here include black bear, grizzly bear, lynx, and wolf. The smaller herbivores include hoary marmot, woodchuck, arctic ground squirrel, beaver, brown lemming,collared lemming, American pika, and snowshoe hare. Smaller carnivores such as marten, least weasel, river otter, striped skunk, mink, coyote, muskrat, and red fox are found here.

BirdsSome of the characteristic birds of prey are the snowy owl, boreal owl, short-eared owl, northern goshawk, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Swainson's hawk, and common nighthawk. Shorebirds and seabirds that can be found here include common snipe, wandering tattler, herring gull, mew gull, and Bonaparte's gull. The birds of the forest include willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan, white-tailed ptarmigan, blue grouse, spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, northern flicker, anddowny woodpecker. Waterfowl such as northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, canvasback, and Canada goose can be found in the Boreal Cordillera. The songbirds of the area include raven,red-winged blackbird, purple finch, American dipper, rusty blackbird, common yellowthroat, andvaried thrush.

Amphibians and ReptilesAlthough the climate here is too hostile for most amplibian and reptile species the wood frog can be found.

FishPredatory species such as the northern pike prey on species that include lake whitefish and white chub. Several species, including white sturgeon, pink salmon, chum salmon, coho salmon, and sockeye salmon, come inland to spawn.

MolluscsThree of the molluscs found here are the valve snail, muskeg stagnicola, and arctic-alpine fingernail clam.

Humans Mining has historically been economically important for this ecozone, the Klondike gold rush being the best known incident. Most mines have closed down recently, and forestry is becoming more important. Wherever mines have been, their toxic tailings and environmental damage have long-lasting effects.

Montane Cordillera:

Location This ecozone covers most of southern British Columbia and some of southwestern Alberta.

Climate This is the most diverse of the country's ecozones in all respects. The effects of two mountain ranges means that climate varies in all three dimensions. The average annual temperatures in the north of the ecozone is 0.5ºC, in the south 7.5ºC. The dry summers and wetter winters alike are mild, though increased elevation brings lower temperatures.

The Coast Mountains force air masses to rise, where they cool off and lose their moisture as rain or snow, a phenomenon known as orographic precipitation. The western side of the Coast Mountains receives 1200 to 1500mm of precipitation in this way, while the eastern side receives only 300mm in the south and 500 to 800mm in the north and interior due to the dry air that makes it over the mountains. The Rocky Mountains at the eastern edge of the ecozone again catch precipitation, bringing 1200mm of precipitation annually to the western side of the mountains.

Geology and Geography The mountains that make up much of the ecozone are formed of faulted sedimentary rock. The plains and valleys here often consist of glacial moraine or deposits from ancient lakes.

Flora and FaunaPlantsPlants in the ecozone are as varied as the landforms they grow on. Vegetation that may be common in one area are often completely absent from another. Trees in the area includeEngelmann spruce, alpine fir, interior Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, western white pine, Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine, trembling aspen, western hemlock, Rocky Mountain red cedar, balsam poplar, paper birch, black spruce, white spruce, and western larch. Some of the other species found here are sagebrush, rabbitbrush, antelope-bush, mountain avens, bunchgrass, pine grass, and bluebunch wheat grass.

AnimalsMammalsThe large herbivores include caribou, mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, mountain goat,California bighorn sheep, and American elk. The large carnivores are the black bear, grizzly bear,wolf, lynx, bobcat, and cougar. Some of the small herbivores here are hoary marmot, yellowbelly marmot, Columbian ground squirrel, beaver, golden-mantled squirrel, yellow pine chipmunk,redtail chipmunk, beaver, northern bog lemming, and pika. Small carnivores that are found here include coyote, red fox, marten, wolverine, muskrat, badger, marten, mink, pallid bat, and striped skunk.

BirdsBirds of prey such as northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, burrowing owl,cooper's hawk, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, northern goshawk, and turkey vulture are found here. The shorebirds and seabirds of the area include long-billed curlew, spotted sandpiper,american bittern, common snipe, killdeer, and black tern. Songbirds of the Montane Cordillera include Stellar’s jay, black-billed magpie, sage thrasher, white-throated swift, red-winged blackbird, cedar waxwing, cassin's finch, house finch, purple finch, brown creeper, and American dipper. Waterfowl that are found here include sandhill crane, northern pintail, blue-winged teal,mallard, gadwall, redhead, ring-necked duck, canvasback, and Canada goose. The birds of the forest include blue grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, spruce grouse, chukar, California quail, Lewis' woodpecker, and downy woodpecker.

Amphibians and ReptilesSome of the characteristic frogs and toads of the area are the wood frog, spotted frog, and western toad. One of the salamander species present here is the long-toed salamander. Snakes found in the region include rubber boa, common garter snake, racer, western rattlesnake, night snake, andwestern terrestrial garter snake. One of the lizards found here is the western skink.

FishFish species that live in the ecozone include lake whitefish, chiselmouth, lake chub, peamouth, leopard dace, and redside shiner. White sturgeon and sockeye salmon both come to freshwater to spawn.

MolluscsMolluscs found here include pig-toe, western-river pearl mussel, western floater, and arctic-alpine fingernail clam.

InsectsA few of the insects that live here are red turpentine beetle, boreal spittlebug, spring azure,mourning cloak, and migratory grasshopper.

Humans Cattle grazing, forestry and mining are three of the major activities here. These and population growth all put pressure on the natural systems and even the many provincial parks in the ecozone through encroachment and habitat fragmentation. Tourism is also having an increasingly large effect on the area.

Hudson Plains:

Location The Hudson Plains stretch from Manitoba to Quebec along the southern edge of Hudson Bay.

Climate Canada contains a quarter of the world's wetlands, and the Hudson Plains ecozone's poor drainage has resulted in the largest continuous wetlands in the world. Hudson's Bay moderates the temperature in summer, but the ice that covers it in winter prevents most of this; average summer temperatures are 11ºC, but in winter the average temperature is -18ºC. Precipitation ranges from 400mm in the northwest to 800mm in the southeast.

Geology and Geography The terrain here is flat, and the poor drainage encourages the creation of wetlands and bogs. Palaeozoic and Proterozoic sedimentary bedrock slopes gradually towards Hudson Bay.

Flora and Fauna PlantsVegetation here follows two basic patterns. The first ranges from north to south; in the north, the terrain is treeless tundra, but in the more southern taiga trees appear, getting thicker as one keeps moving south. The second pattern follows altitude. Because the drainage here is poor, trees are only found at the drier higher altitudes, while the lower altitudes lack trees. This results in belts of trees following the ridges in striking patterns. Some characteristic tree species are black spruce,white spruce, tamarack, balsam poplar, dwarf birch, paper birch, shining willow, Bebb willow, andtrembling aspen. Other plants include eriacaceous shrubs, cottongrass, sphagnum moss, northern Labrador tea, lapland rosebay, black crowberry, blueberry, cloudberry, arctic aven, purple saxifrage, prickly saxifrage, lousewort, reindeer moss, and caribou lichen.

AnimalsDiversity is highest in summer, when migrating birds appear in huge numbers to breed. The region is more famous for its biting insect population, which takes advantage of the poor drainage to breed in huge numbers. A single hectare is estimated to be able to produce ten million black flies, no-see-ums and other biting insects!

MammalsCharacteristic large herbivores include caribou, mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, mountain goat, and California bighorn sheep. Large carnivores that are found here include black bear,grizzly bear, polar bear, wolf, and lynx. The small herbivores include hoary marmot, Columbian ground squirrel, brown lemming, snowshoe hare, beaver. The small carnivores of the Hudson Plains include coyote, red fox, arctic fox, fisher, marten, mink, wolverine, hoary bat, red bat, andriver otter. Some aquatic

mammals that can be found are bearded seals, harbour seals, ringed seals, beluga, and bowhead whales.

BirdsSome of the characteristic birds of prey are northern goshawk, boreal owl, short-eared owl, red-tailed hawk, common nighthawk, and merlin. Shorebirds and seabirds that are found here includesemipalmated sandpiper, spotted sandpiper, pectoral sandpiper, american bittern, common snipe,killdeer, and yellow rail. The songbirds of the region include Stellar’s jay,  black-billed magpie ,Smith's longspur, common redpoll, common crow, rusty blackbird, and tree swallow. Waterfowl such as Canada goose, snow goose, American black duck, northern pintail, tundra swan, green-winged teal, mallard, American black duck, and ring-necked duck are found here. Birds of the forest include blue grouse, ruffed grouse, willow ptarmigan, northern flicker, and downy woodpecker.

Amphibians and ReptilesThree frog species that live in the Hudson Plains are the striped chorus frog, northern leopard frog, and wood frog.

FishPredators such as lake sturgeon, brook trout, northern pike, and walleye prey on such species as lake herring, lake whitefish, lake chub, pearl dace, and ninespine stickleback.

MolluscsBoth the muskeg stagnicola and arctic-alpine fingernail clam can be found here.

InsectsThe Hudson Plains are notorious for their populations of biting insects.

Humans A lack of timber and minerals means that tourism and subsistence activities are the means by which the 10 000 people who live here make their living.

Prairies:

Location The Prairies cover the south of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan.

Climate The Prairies are the northernmost branch of the Great Plains of North America and the most altered of the ecozones. The mountains to the west block much of the precipitation that would otherwise fall. That and the high winds make this ecozone very dry, although precipitation does generally increase towards the east. Temperatures are extreme due to the lack of access to the ocean's buffering. Winter temperatures average -10ºC and summers average 15ºC.

Geology and Geography Glaciation has left its mark on the Prairies, flattening the landscape and leaving deposits from inland seas left behind by melting glaciers. These deposits are now the fertile plains that largely define the Breadbasket of Canada. Huge numbers of small temporary wetlands form in years with high precipitation. Gas and oil is plentiful in the region.

Flora and Fauna PlantsAlmost 95% of the Prairies have been converted into farmland, with predictable effects on the original plant populations. Trees and shrubs are most commonly found in the eastern region. Trees found in the Prairies include white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, tamarack, water birch, Bebb willow, peachleaf willow, wolf willow, lodgepole pine, box elder, choke cherry, black cottonwood,eastern cottonwood, bur oak, trembling aspen, and balsam poplar. Just a few of the other plants that grow here are spear grass, wheat, blue grama grass, sagebrush, yellow cactus, prickly pear, buckbrush, chokecherry, Saskatoon berry bush, alkali grass, wild barley, red sampire, sea blite, Parry oat grass, June grass, yellow bean, sticky geranium, bedstraw, chickweed, needle grass, thread grass, snowberry, American silverberry, rose, silverberry,

dryland sedge, black hawthorn, greasewood, plains larkspur , death camas, wild lupine, smooth aster, prairie sedge, and cattail .

AnimalsThe widespread alteration of the natural habitat has resulted in diminished populations and ranges of many animals, and the Prairies contain a disproportionate number of threatened and endangered species.

MammalsThe only large carnivore in the Prairies is the black bear. Large herbivores include whitetail deer (a recent invader), mule deer, pronghorn antelope, elk, and moose. Small carnivores include coyote,badger, red fox, longtail weasel, mink, river otter, black-footed ferret, and striped skunk. Rodents are numerous, such as the black-tailed prairie dog, white-tailed jack rabbit, snowshoe hare,Richardson’s ground squirrel, Franklin’s ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, least chipmunk, northern pocket gopher, olive-backed pocket mouse, Ord's kangaroo rat, white-footed mouse and beaver.

BirdsSome of the birds of prey are the ferruginous hawk, red-tailed hawk, Swainson’s hawk, burrowing owl, northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, and turkey vulture. Songbirds include black-billed magpie, northern oriole, Audubon’s warbler, grasshopper sparrow, lark sparrow, ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing, lark bunting, chestnut-collared longspur, andblack-billed cuckoo. Birds of the forest that are found here include ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, sage grouse, northern flicker, downy woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, and western meadowlark. Some of the waterfowl found here are the American avocet, great blue heron, snow goose, Canada goose, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, redhead, western grebe, lesser scaup, ring-necked duck, canvasback, Eskimo curlew, piping plover, and whooping crane.

Reptiles and AmphibiansAmong the amphibians that can be found here are the northern leopard frog, striped chorus frog,plains spadefoot, American toad, great plains toad, and tiger salamander. The area has several species of snakes and lizards, including the plains garter snake, gopher snake, western rattlesnake, western terrestrial garter snake, short-horned lizard, and prairie skink.

FishPredatory fish in the Prairie waterways include northern pike, carp, and sauger. They prey on such fish as the lake whitefish, goldeye, lake chub, brassy minnow, emerald shiner and yellow perch.

InsectsJust a few of the insects are the German cockroach, boreal spittlebug, silver-spotted skipper, spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, eastern black swallowtail,migratory grasshopper, and pallid-winged grasshopper.

MolluscsThree of the mollusc species in the Prairies are the valve snail, umbilicate promenetus, andglobular pea clam.

Humans The Prairies are the most altered of the ecozones. Agriculture covers almost all of the land, and almost none of the original ecosystems are left aside from tiny remnants. Despite the huge amounts of land given over to farming, farmers comprise less than 10% of the four million people, and 80% of the population lives in urban areas. Mining and services are the employers of most of the population.

Mixedwood Plains:

Location The Mixedwood Plains extends along the Quebec City-Windsor corridor, including the densely-populated region of southern Ontario.

Climate Smallest of the ecozones, the Mixedwood Plains is nonetheless home to half of Canada's population. Its cool winters (average temperature -5ºC) and warm summers (average temperature 17ºC) are prone to highly changeable weather, as the ecozone is in one of the major storm tracks of North America.

Geology and Geography Plains and gently rolling hills are found here. Several major waterways and lakes, from three of the great lakes to the St. Lawrence river and its tributaries, dominate much of the region. Deposits from ancient water bodies and glaciers make the soil here the most productive in Canada. Carbonate-rich Paleozoic bedrock characterizes the geology of the Mixedwood Plains.

Flora and Fauna PlantsUrbanization and agriculture have reduced the ancient forests drastically. A mix of coniferous and deciduous trees are found here. Some of the coniferous trees include white pine, red pine, eastern hemlock, black spruce, eastern red cedar, and eastern white cedar. Sugar maple, red maple, striped maple, silver maple, red oak, white oak, chestnut oak, chinquapin oak, white elm, slippery elm, yellow birch, paper birch, black walnut, butternut, eastern cottonwood, trembling aspen,balsam poplar, basswood, blue ash, black ash, sassafras, tulip tree, sycamore, cucumber-tree,shagbark hickory, bitternut hickory, red mulberry, and Kentucky coffee-tree are some of the deciduous trees. Other plants include the downy serviceberry.

AnimalsMammalsThe largest carnivores in the ecozone are the black bear, wolf and bobcat, while the large herbivores are the moose and white-tailed deer. The smaller carnivores that can be found includecoyote, muskrat, raccoon, skunk, red fox, and river otter. Some of the smaller herbivores here are the grey squirrel, black squirrel, red squirrel, southern flying squirrel, eastern cottontail, snowshoe hare, beaver, white-footed mouse, southern bog lemming, and groundhog (woodchuck). The only marsupial is the opossum. Various whales, including the beluga, can be seen in the waters of the St-Lawrence seaway.

BirdsCharacteristic birds of prey include red-shouldered hawk, cooper's hawk, broad-winged hawk,northern goshawk, screech owl, northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, andturkey vulture. Among the numerous songbirds are the red-winged

blackbird, grasshopper sparrow, Baltimore oriole, Carolina wren, ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing, whip-poor-will, Henslow’s sparrow, purple finch, cardinal, blue jay, brown creeper, and sedge wren. Some of the birds of the forest include ruffed grouse, wild turkey, northern flicker, northern bobwhite, wood thrush, mourning dove, downy woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, and pileated woodpecker. Waterfowl include Canada goose, green heron, great blue heron, American black duck, wood duck, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, and mallard. Some of the shorebirds are the spotted sandpiper, upland sandpiper, american bittern, common snipe, killdeer, black tern, and yellow rail.

Reptiles and AmphibiansMany species of reptiles and amphibians are found here. The frogs and toads that live in the Mixedwood Plains include the tetraploid gray treefrog, striped chorus frog, northern leopard frog,wood frog, bullfrog, green frog, pickerel frog, American toad, and spring peeper. Several salamander and newt species, such as the mudpuppy, eastern newt, blue-spotted salamander,Jefferson salamander, yellow-spotted salamander, and eastern redback salamander, live here. Eight species of turtles are common to the area, including stinkpot, common snapping turtle, wood turtle, map turtle, spotted turtle, spiny softshell, blanding's turtle, and painted turtle. The most common snake is the eastern garter snake, but other snakes include eastern ribbon snake, Butler's garter snake, northern water snake, redbelly snake, smooth green snake, ringneck snake, brown snake, eastern hognose snake, massasauga, and queen snake. The sole lizard is the five-lined skink.

FishThe large number of introduced fish is largely the result of shipping and canals, which have allowed invasive species to move through the area. Lampreys are the most famous of the invasive fish in the Great Lakes. Predatory fish in the waters of the area include lake sturgeon, longnose gar, walleye, bowfin, white perch (introduced), brown trout, brook trout, lake trout, common carp (introduced), Atlantic tomcod, northern pike, muskellunge, and largemouth bass. They prey on such fish as the cisco (lake herring), lake whitefish, central mudminnow, and golden shiner. The anadramous fish, who live in the ocean but come into freshwater to breed, include kokanee (sockeye) salmon, rainbow smelt (introduced), alewife, sea lamprey (introduced), American brook lamprey, silver lamprey, and northern brook lamprey.

MolluscsThe molluscs include the brown mystery snail, valve snail, ordinary spire snail, river-bank looping snail, great lakes horn snail, oval lake-limpet, black sand-shell, eastern elliptio, and olive hickory-nut. The zebra mussel, a relatively recent invader, has caused widespread damage to natural and human systems in the Great Lakes.

InsectsSome of the insects found here are the German cockroach, American cockroach, eastern metallic green wood borer, red turpentine beetle, European earwig, boreal spittlebug, silver-spotted skipper, spring azure, american copper, monarch

butterfly, mourning cloak, eastern black swallowtail, European mantis, migratory grasshopper, and walking stick.

Humans Half of Canada's population lives here, and it contains the country's two largest cities, Toronto and Montreal. Agricultural land is steadily being covered by cities, and the population density has led to some of the highest levels of pollution in the country. Ecological degradation is extensive, due to industry and the population size. Many species have been introduced to the ecozone and some, most notably the sea lamprey and zebra mussel, are very detrimental to other species.

Pacific Maritime:

Location The Pacific Maritime ecozone lies along British Columbia's coast and its border with Alaska.

Climate The Pacific Maritime ecozone is Canada's western coastline. Here is where one finds the wettest weather, tallest trees, and deepest fjords in the country. Being so close to the Pacific Ocean, the climate is extremely altered. Summers are cooler, winters more mild. Summer temperatures average 13ºC, while winters average -1.5ºC; there is less difference between winter and summer temperatures here than elsewhere in the country. The mountains block most of the precipitation that clouds would bring to the interior, so precipitation can exceed 4000 mm a year in the north, although some areas get far less than that. The Gulf Islands in the south by contrast receive only 600 mm a year.

Geology and Geography The Coast Mountains rise steeply from the fjords and channels on the coast, and glaciers are found at higher elevations. These mountains are still young, and even where they are not very tall, as on the Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island, they are still extremely rugged. As part of the "Ring of Fire" that surrounds the Pacific Ocean, magma is close to the surface here. Instead of dangerous volcanoes, hot springs are the rule.

Flora and Fauna PlantsThe rainfall and mild temperatures lead to record-breaking trees, both in size and age. Temperate rain forests are common at lower altitudes, but high altitudes lead to stunted trees, and eventually no trees at all above the treeline. Some of the tree species found here are western red cedar, yellow cedar, western hemlock, mountain hemlock, western yew, coast Douglas fir, amabilis fir, grand fir, coast redwood, Sitka spruce, red alder, lodgepole pine, western white pine , shore pine, Engelmann spruce, Garry oak, andpacific dogwood. Other plants in the ecozone include salal, Oregon grape, arbutus, sword fern, skunk cabbage, salmonberry, devil’s club, western bleeding heart, red huckleberry, old man’s beard, red elderberry, calypso orchid, and Viola langsdorfii

Animals: MammalsSome of the characteristic large herbivores include black-tailed deer, mule deer, elk, moose,caribou and mountain goat. The large carnivores of the Pacific Maritime are black bear, grizzly bear, wolf, and mountain lion, Smaller herbivores such as beaver, snowshoe hare, American pika,applodontia, hoary marmot, Vancouver marmot, townsend chipmunk, and chickaree can be found here. The small carnivores include wolverine, mink, river otter, spotted skunk, raccoon, red fox, andmarten. Aquatic mammals here include northern sea lion, northern fur seal, Alaska fur seal,harbour

seal, elephant seal, California sea lion, giant beaked whale, sperm whale, grey whale, orca, Pacific pilot whale, and blue whale.

BirdsSome of the characteristic birds of prey are northern pigmy owl, northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, turkey vulture, bald eagle, and red-tailed hawk. Shorebirds and seabirds that are found here include American black oystercatcher, tufted puffin, glaucous-winged gull, pelagic cormorant, spotted sandpiper, common snipe, pigeon guillemot, rhinoceros auklet, and killdeer. The waterfowl of the region include great blue heron, wood duck, northern pintail,blue-winged teal, mallard, Canada goose, trumpeter swan, and sandhill crane. Some of the songbirds that are found here are chestnut-backed chickadee, Steller’s jay, northwestern crow,red-winged blackbird, cedar waxwing, purple finch, brown creeper, American dipper, and brewer's blackbird. The birds of the forest include California quail, mountain quail, spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, blue grouse, Lewis' woodpecker, band-tailed pigeon, and downy woodpecker.

Amphibians and ReptilesThe moist conditions of the Pacific Maritime allow many amphibians to thrive. A few of the frog and toad species are the western toad, red-legged frog, pacific treefrog, wood frog, and tailed frog. Some of the characteristic salamanders and newts are the roughskin newt, long-toed salamander,northwestern salamander, pacific giant salamander, western redback salamander, andEschscholtz's salamander. The turtles of the ecozone include leatherback turtle and green turtle. Some snakes and lizards that are found here are the garter snake, western terrestrial garter snake,sharptail snake, northwestern garter snake, and northern aligator lizard.

FishPacific salmon, pacific herring, pacific halibut, steelhead, cutthroat trout, dolly varden, rainbow smelt, peamouth, and coastrange sculpin are some of the fish that live here. Some of the species that enter freshwater to spawn are western brook lamprey, pacific lamprey, river lamprey, green sturgeon, white sturgeon, pink salmon, chum salmon, coho salmon, and sockeye salmon.

MolluscsThe oval lake-limpet, western-river pearl mussel, western floater and arctic-alpine fingernail clamare some of the molluscs that live here.

Insects: A few of the insects that are found here are red turpentine beetle, Nicrophorus sayi, European earwig, spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, and migratory grasshopper.

Humans: Human activities have an enormous effect on the Pacific Maritime ecozone. Two and a half million people live in this ecozone, and the population continues to grow by leaps and bounds. The resulting urban growth has severely strained ecosystems in the areas around the major urban centres. Forestry also threatens many systems and overfishing does much the same in the coastal waters.

Atlantic Maritime:

Location Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island are completely within the Atlantic Maritime ecozone, along with the Gaspe peninsula.

Climate Covering Quebec's Gaspé peninsula and the entirety of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, this ecozone's climate is strongly influence by the Atlantic Ocean, which produces cooler summers and warmer winters. Winter temperatures average -5ºC and summers average 14ºC, with coastal areas having slightly warmer winters and cooler summers than inland. The Atlantic also provides moisture to the region, producing mean precipitation of 900mm a year inland and over 1500mm a year on the coast; this high precipitation also means that the region has more storms than anywhere else in the country.

Geology and Geography Geologically, this region is a mix of sedimentary and igneous bedrock. Inhospitable igneous highlands form much of the interior of the many peninsulas that form this ecozone. Acid soils found here support vast forests, but are poor for agriculture, and the cold wet climate prevents many people from living in this part of the ecozone. The coastal lowlands, overlying sedimentary bedrock, are far more accessible, have better soils for agriculture, and a milder climate. Not surprisingly, the lowlands are where most of the ecozone's human population lives.

Flora and Fauna Plants Little old growth forest remains in this ecozone after centuries of farming and agriculture. Nevertheless, it is very densely forested with second- and third-growth forests. The forests include such conifers as red spruce, black spruce, white spruce, balsam fir, red pine, jack pine, eastern white pine, tamarack, eastern white cedar, andeastern hemlock. The deciduous trees here include yellow birch, white birch, paper birch, sugar maple, red maple, striped maple, balsam poplar, pin cherry, speckled alder, beech, black ash,white ash, butternut, ironwood, basswood, white elm, and red oak. Just a few of the other plants in the Atlantic Maritime are the steeplebush, blueberry, sphagnum moss, kalmia heath, smooth serviceberry (smooth juneberry), violets, wild lupins, starflower, trailing arbutus, lady slipper, pitcher plant, ostrich fern, and purple loosestrife, which was introduced and has become quite a problem in the area's waterways.

Animals

MammalsThe only large carnivores found here are the black bear, lynx, and bobcat. The most common large herbivores are the whitetail deer and moose. Small carnivores in the area include red fox, muskrat,raccoon, striped skunk, marten, fisher, coyote, mink and river otter. Many small herbivores, including the eastern chipmunk, beaver, porcupine, snowshoe hare, northern flying squirrel,woodchuck, and southern bog lemming. The numerous species of aquatic mammals found in the waters off the coast are extremely popular among tourists, and include harbour seal, gray seal,hooded seal, harp seal, orca, northern bottlenosed whale, and blue whale.

BirdsCharacteristic birds of prey include osprey, Cooper's hawk, broad-winged hawk, common nighthawk, northern goshawk, northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, and long-eared owl. A few of the many songbirds are the red-winged blackbird, ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing,whip-poor-will, purple finch, brown creeper, black-billed cuckoo, blue jay, eastern bluebird, rose-crested grosbeak, and cardinal. Other birds of the forest include the ruffed grouse, spruce grouse,northern flicker, downy woodpecker, and pileated woodpecker. Waterfowl include the great blue heron, Canada goose, American bittern, common snipe, ring-necked duck, wood duck, American black duck, northern pintail, and blue-winged teal. Seabirds and shorebirds of the Atlantic Maritime ecozone include the great cormorant, double-crested cormorant, Atlantic puffin, common murre,thick-billed murre, black guillemot, razorbill, herring gull, spotted sandpiper, common snipe, andkilldeer.

Reptiles and AmphibiansFrogs and toads of the region are the American toad, northern leopard frog, mink frog, green frog,pickerel frog, wood frog, and the tiny but extremely vocal spring peeper. Five species of salamanders and newt are found here: yellow-spotted salamander, blue-spotted salamander,dusky salamander, eastern redback salamander, and eastern newt. There are more species of marine turtles (loggerhead turtle, leatherback turtle, and Atlantic ridley) than freshwater turtles (common snapping turtle and wood turtle) here. All four species of snakes are harmless to humans. They include the maritime garter snake, smooth green snake, redbelly snake, andringneck snake.

FishSome of the predatory fish of the ecozone are brook trout and Atlantic tomcod. They prey upon the rainbow smelt, golden shiner, common shiner, creek chub, and mummichog, among others. A few of the marine species that return to freshwater to spawn include sea lamprey, Atlantic sturgeon, alewife, Atlantic salmon, and American eel. Species that are found in the marine waters off the coast are covered in the Atlantic Marine and Northwest Atlantic Marine ecozones.

CrustaceansThe waters of the region are well known for their many lobster, crab and shrimp fisheries.

MolluscsA few of the species found here are the brown mystery snail, valve snail, ordinary spire snail,eastern physa, and eastern elliptio. In addition, the waters off the coast are known for their clams and scallops.

InsectsSome of the insects in the Atlantic Maritime, both famous and obscure, are the German cockroach,American cockroach, eastern metallic green wood borer, European earwig, boreal spittlebug,spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, eastern black swallowtail, andmigratory grasshopper.

HumansFishing was the base of the economy in this ecozone for centuries, until overfishing caused the crash of several major fish stocks. Agriculture is only possible where good soil is available (potato farms on PEI are the most famous), but is still an important part of the economy. Forestry has also been important economically, and most of the forests here have been logged at least once. Half of the 2.5 million people who live here live in rural areas, far above the national average.