11

A Contrastive Analysis of 'Preference' in English and'Elative'(ism-attafl) in ArabicAssist. Prof. Dr. Hussein Musa Kadhim Al-NasrawiDepartment of English- College of Basic of EducationUniversity of Babylon

AbstractThe present study aims to analyse, compare and contrast meanings of 'preference' in Modern Standard English(henceforth=MSE) and 'elative' in Modern Standard Arabic(henceforth=MSA)in order to find out the main symmetries and asymmetries of the constructions of 'preference' in English and 'elative' Arabic. The study ends with a summary of the main concluding remarks that highlight the main areas of difficulties in understanding this area of language.The researcher hypothesizesthe following:(i) Arabic is more complicated than English in this field of investigation,i.e.,'elative'.(ii) Since English is Germanic and Arabic is Semitic, the differences between the two languages are more than similarities.This investigation comprises an introduction and three sections in addition to conclusions. Section one identifies the meanings of ' preference'in English. Section two states the senses of 'elative = the noun ofpreference in Arabic. Section three is devoted to contrastive analysis of 'preference' inModern Standard English and 'elative' Modern Standard Arabic. Finally, conclusions which show the results concerning this area of grammar at which the researchers arrive. For example, English is similar to Arabic in the meaning of preference and 'elative' ,the same function of the words (than = English and = Arabic) and allowance to omission than from the context of English and from the context of Arabic. Concerning differences, English and Arabic are different in: the number of the constructions, i.e., twenty cases of preference in English while Arabic has only four, only Arabic has duality in the 'noun of preference', and (than) in English is a conjunction whereas () in Arabic is a preposition. In addition, some recommendations have been made.1. IntroductionThe researcher tries to explain and analyse the confusion in this area of grammar faced by learners in both languages.This investigation aims to compare and contrast the meanings of preference in MSE and an 'elative' in MSA to find out the aspects of similarity and difference in both languages.To achieve this aim, the study touches the semantic functions of the 'preference' and 'elative' in both languages. Accordingly, the researchers use the Contrastive Analysis Approach which describes the structural differences and similarities of two or more languages to be compared in terms of their phonological systems, syntactic systems, writing systems, and cultural behaviour (Johnson and Johnson, 1999: 85).The researcher uses the two terms 'preference' and 'preference tools' for English and 'elative' or 'noun of preference' for Arabic in this discussion.It is hoped that this study will be a good guide for those who are interested in the field of scientific research, linguists, textbook designers and teachers of English and Arabic at the same time.

2.Preference in MSEThe word prefer means to like better or to choose better(Webster, 1972: 790). The rejected alternative is introduced by a (to-phrase) or by a clause introduced by (rather than) which may be followed by an infinitive (with or without to) or an (ing- participle) (Hornby, 1974:655). Following are the English constructions that mean (express/show preference listed alphabetically:2.1 BetterAs a noun, better means something that is better(preferred), i.e., preference: 1- Which one is the better of the two books?(Hornby, 1974: 78)2.2 Comparative adjectives (adj. + er/ more + adj.) + thanThis construction, which is used in the second part of a comparison, is used to show the meaning of preference: 2- My room is better/ cleaner than the one next door. 3- A scheduled flight is more expensive than a charter flight.(Alexander, 1997: 6, 28)2.3 Do betterAccording to (Longman, 2003:130) this expression can be used to perform better or reach a higher standard, i. e., preference, e.g.: 4- We did better than all the other schools. (Longman, 2003: 130)2.4 Go one better (than sb.)The sense of this phrase is to do something more successfully than someone else:5- The following year Lewis went one better by winning the gold medal. (Hornby, 1995:102 and Longman, 2003: 130)2.5 Give / show (a) preference to sb./sth.Both mean to treat sb/ sth in a way that gives them an advantage over other people or things. For example: 6- In allocating housing, preference is given to families with young children.(Longman, 2003: 1288)2.6 Had betterThis idiom modal implies the meaning of preference(Khallusi, 1982:165) as in the following example: 7- It had better been done.2.7 In preference to sb./sth.According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary Language (2003:1288) this phrase means rather than, for example:8- Use clear English in preference to technical language.2.8 No better way/example/ place etc.One of its meanings, no better is used re to say that something is the best. For example: 9- There is no better way of exploring the religion.(Longman, 2003: 1288)2.9Prefer something/ to do/ doingThis verb can be used to prefer something to something else:10- I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.Prefer (to do/ doing) is used to say what we prefer in general:11- I prefer driving to travelling by train.12- I prefer to drive rather than travel by train. (Murphy, 1994: 116)

2.10 Preferable (to sth./ to doing sth./ to do sth.)Such an adjective can be used to mean better or more suitable: 13- It would be preferable to employ two people, not one. (to do sth.) 14- Anything was preferable to tense atmosphere at home. (to sth.) 15- He finds country life infinitely preferable toliving in the city.(to doingsth.)16- In warm weather, clothes made of natural fabrics are infinitely preferable. (= much better) (Longman, 2003: 1288)2.11 PreferentialIt gives an advantage to a particular person or group: 17- Dont expect to get a preferential treatment.(Longman, 2003: 1288 and Manser, 2011: 94)2.12 PreferenceThis noun usually refers to what someone prefers on a particular occasion. For instance: 18- We could eat Chinese, Indian, or Italian. Do you have any preference?(Turton and Heaton, 1996:266)2.13 PrefermentAccording to Webster (1972:790) such a name has the same meaning as the word 'preference', i.e., preferring or being preferred: 19- He has got a preferment in his work.2.14Rather thanAccording to Quirk et. al. (1985: 1118) clauses of preference are mainly introduced by subordinators like rather than. For example:20- Rather than go there by air, Id take the slowest train.Subordinate clause of rather than may very occasionally take its own subject as in the example below:21- Rather thanyou say anything, I would speak to the manager myself.A rare and formal finite clause of preference occurs with putative (should): 22- Rather than she stand feel lonely, her friends arranged to take her withthem on the trip.In formal English, it is possible to use rather than..would+ infinitive as in:23- Rather than let him go to prison, I would pay him fine myself.(Thomson & Martinet, 1986)2.15 Superlative adjectives (the + adj. + est/ the + most + Adj.)This form of an adjective expresses the highest degree (Hornby, 1974: 868): 24- John is the best player on the team. 25- John is most polite of the boys.(Quirk et. al., 1985: 468)In the above two examples, John is preferred among the boys with regard to playing and politeness, i.e., preference.

2.16 So much the betterSuch expression is used to say that something would be even better or bring even more advantages, e.g.:26- If they can do them both at the same time, then so much the better.(Longman, 2003:130)2.17 The sooner the better/ the bigger the better etc.Each of the above mentioned expressions can be used to emphasize that you would prefer something to happen as soon as possible, want something to be as big as possible, for instance: 27- School finishes at the end of the weak, and the sooner the better as far as Im concerned. 28- The younger you start learning a language;the better youll speak it. (Longman, 2003: 130)2.18 To better When a verb, better is to be higher in quality, amount etc. than someone or something else: 29- His total of five gold medals is unlikely to be bettered.(Longman, 2003: 131)2.19 Would be betterSuch expression may be used to say that one course of action is suitable or appropriate, i.e., 'better than' another one: 30- It would be better going by bus.(Hornby, 2010: 131)2.20 Would ratherThis modal idiom conveys the meaning of 'preference' by the speaker in the present (Khalil, 1999: 227): 31- I would rather go by car.2.21Would soonerAccording to Quirk et. al. (1985: 142) this construction which is similar in meaning to 'would rather' can express 'preference' (=..would prefer) and may therefore be followed by a comparative construction beginning with (than):32- Id sooner live in the country than in the city.It is worth mentioning that the preference construction extends the notion of priority in time to the notion of priority in choice. It is therefore not surprising that temporal expressions other thansooner are used to convey 'preference': notably subordinator before,but also such comparative adverbs as quickly, faster, more readily plus than both clauses take modal auxiliaries:33- He'd sit alone in the dark before he'd watch television. ['He prefers tositalone in the dark]34- She'll use the telephone before she'll put pen to paper. 35- They would volunteer their own work more readily than they would contribute money. 36- I'd buy a typewriter faster than I'd buy a television set. (Quirk et. al., 1985: 1112)2.22 Negation in preferenceThere are two kinds of negations related to preference shown by (had better and would rather):(i) There is a negation in which not follows the whole expression:37- Id rather not stay here alone. 38- Youd betternot lock the door.(ii) In which not follows the first word, especially in negative questions where an earlier statement or assumption is being challenged: 39- A: Wouldntyou rather live in the country? B: No, I would not. Id rather live here.(Quirk et. al., 1985: 143)3. /elative(ism-attafl =noun of preference) in MSAArabic adjectives have two degrees of comparison: (i) the absolute degree, (beautiful) and (ii) the comparative degree (usually termed the elative form ) which is used for comparing two or more persons or things. The comparative degree has usually the form e.g.(more beautiful, the most beautiful); e.g (This place is more beautiful than that.), . (This is the most beautiful place in town.).The comparative (elative) form is derived from the trilateral root:- (strong, stronger/ strongest); - (big- bigger/biggest). The feminine form is ; e.g. , , . The elative form has dual and plural number both in masculine and feminine , . In the comparative structure however, the singular masculine form is used:1- . (This man is smaller(younger) than his friend.)2- . (This woman is smaller(younger) than herfriend.)3- .(These men are stronger than the others.)4- .(These girls are more beautiful than theirfriends.)It is worth mentioning that the explicit basis of comparison is expressed by means of preposition often equivalent to the English 'than' when two persons or things are involved, and to 'of' when more than two are involves: (sweeter than).The genitive construction is also used when more than two or three entities are concerned: (the sweeter of the two); .(China is the largest city in Asia.) (Yowell, 1989:186) (Aziz, 1989: 186)

No comparative form is possible for adjectives derived from verbs with passive sense, or for adjectives denoting colour or det(f)ect, since these latter adjectives have the form in the absolute: , . In such cases an alternative, periphrastic construction is used, where the comparison is realized by means of such words as , , used with a noun derived from the adjective: .(Yowell, 1989: 187)Elative ( = ism-attafl) in Arabic is nothing but an adjective derived from the verb to refer to two things shared in an adjective and one of them is more than the other with regard to that adjective. That is to say, only one part of speech (adjective) shows 'elative'. For example:5- .(Khalil has more knowledge than Sa'eed and better than him too.)There is only one formula for the verbs of (= attafl = elative), i.e.,(afal) and its feminine (fula) like [akbar (masculine) = bigger kubra (feminine) = bigger] and [afal (masculine) = better fula (feminine)]. (Al-Ghalayini, 2004: 135)3.1 Conditions of formulation of ( =ism-attafl) = elativeElative in Arabic can be derived from verbs of exclamation as per the following conditions:(i) The verb must be of three letters like ) = faala = to be good and = alima = to know).(ii) It should be positive (not negative).(iii) It should be full inflected verb, i.e. it has three tenses(= present, past, and imperative).(iv) It should be in active (not in passive).(v) It should not indicate verbs of death and mortality like ( = mta = to die, and = fan = to die). (vi) It should not be incomplete verb like (=ra = to become, and = kna = to be) which they have only two tenses, i.e. past and present.(vii) It should not refer to shortcoming ( = araj = cripple), jewelries ( = akal = eyelid), or colours ( = amar = red).(Azzamakhshari, 1999: 288)3.2Cases of ( = ism-attafl) = elative(i) ( ) () (= tajarudahu min al-attarfwaalifa =Refraining from the definite article the and genitive):When elative has neither definite article nor genitive case, it should be single and masculine in all its cases and the preposition (= min = from) ought to follow it (Al-Ghalayini, 2004: 137 and Al-Hamlawi, 2005: 61-5) as in the following examples:6- .( Mohammed is better than Khalid.)7-(: 34) .(I am more than you in wealth and stronger in respect of men.)(Quran, Al-Kahaf: 34) (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1414 A.H.: 391)(ii) (= iqtirnahu bi al-attarf = Joining to the definite article the)When preceded by the definite article, elative cannot be followed by ( = min = from) and should agree with its precedent in singularity, duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity (Qabawa, 1988: 169 and Arrajihi, 2000: 90-4): 8- . (Zeid is the best.)9- . (The two Zaids are the best.)10- . (The ones who called Fatima are the best.)(iii) (= ifatuhuilannakira = Adding elative to the indefinite nouns)If the elative is added to the indefinite noun, it should be singular, masculine, and refrained from ( = min = from) (Jacob, 1988: 62): 11- .( Ali is the best leader.) 12- . ( The two persons called Hassan are the most courageous ones.)(iv) (ifatuhuil al-marifa = Adding to the definite nouns):According to Al-Asmar, ( n.d.: 85-6 and Al-Ghalayni, 2004: 137-8), when added to the definite nouns, elative refra ins from (= min = from) and it has two forms:a) It should follow its subject in singularity and muscularity.13- . ( Ali is the best of people.) 14- .(: 96) (And you will most certainly find them the greediest of men for life.)(Quran,The Cow:96)(Shakir, 2003: 13)b) It agrees with what precedes it, i.e., its subject, in singularity, duality, plurality, muscularity, and femininity. 15- . ( The two persons are the best of the people.) 16-(123 . (: (And thus we have set up in every town great ones of its wicked people.) (Quran, Al-Anam: 123)(Al-Hilali and Khan, 1414 A.H.: 191)4. Contrastive Analysis of 'Preference' in MS E and 'Elative' in MSA4.1 Similarities (i)Referring to the definition, both English and Arabic has the same meaning of preference and elative respectively, i.e., in English: more than, better than, etc., in Arabic: , etc.(ii)The word than in English and ( = min = from) in Arabic have the same function in introducing comparative degree of adjectives in preference.(iii)The English word (than) and the Arabic word () can be omitted in the preference and elative respectively:English- John is the most polite of the boys.Arabic - . (English translation = Ali is the best leader.)(iv) Comparative case is found in both languages:English- My room is better/ cleaner than the one next door.Arabic - .(comparative) (English translation = I am more than you in wealth and stronger in respect of men.)(v) English and Arabic are common in using the preference tools and elative in the middle of the sentence:English- I prefer driving to travelling by train.Arabic - . (English translation = Khalil has more knowledge than Said and better than him too.(vi) Preference tools can be used initially in English and Arabic(elative):English- Rather than go there by air, Id take the slowest train. - Would you prefer tea or coffee? Coffee, please. - Would you like some tea or would you prefer coffee?ArabicProphet Mohammed (peace be upon him and his family) says: - .(English translation = The most honoured among people is the one who benefits them. (The researcher's translation)(vii) Preference tools inEnglish and elative in Arabic can be seen at the end of the sentence: English- In warm weather, clothes made of natural fabrics are infinitely preferable. (= much better) Arabic - . (English translation = Zaid is the best.)4.2Differences(i) All preference nouns in Arabic are derived from their verbs like: , . On the other hand, English preference tools are derived from different parts of speech, i.e., some of them are verbs such as: to prefer, would prefer, would love, would like; some others are nouns like: better, preference; or adjectives as preferable and preferential; the subordinator rather than, and some others are expressions like give preference to, in preference to, to better, so much the better etc.(ii) The word than used to introduce the second part of comparative adjectives in English is a conjunction, while the word used in the same purpose in Arabic, i.e., is a preposition.(iii) Arabic has some conditions in formulating the noun of preference, whereas no conditions in English.(see 3.2)(iv) Arabic involves certain cases of the noun of preference concerning singularity, duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity between the preference word and its subject but there are no such cases in English.(see3.2,(ii))(v) Most of tools of preference in English consist of two words or more like: rather than, would rather, would sooner, would prefer, give preference to, in preference to, etc. In Arabic, there is only one word to show the noun of preference such as: ,,.(vi)English (not Arabic)has some tools of preference which are followed by bare infinitive (would rather, rather than, had better), and some others are followed by to+ infinitive (would like/ prefer/ love):- Id rather stay in a house than in a hotel.- Id love to be able to travel round the world.(vii) There are twenty cases of 'preference' in English compared to only four cases of the 'elative' in Arabic.(viii)Some preference tools in English only are followed by three constructions: Prefer(something/ to do/ doing)and Preferable ( to sth/ to doing sth/ to do sth). For example:- It would be preferable to employ two people, not one.(to do sth)- Anything was preferable to tense atmosphere at home.(to sth)- He finds country life infinitely preferable to living in the city.(to doing sth)- I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.- I prefer driving to travelling by train.- I prefer to drive rather than travel by train.(ix) Only Arabic has duality in the 'noun of preference':- . (English translation = The two Zaids are the best.)(x) English, not Arabic, has three parts of speech referring to preference (i.e., verb, adjective, and noun). Arabic has only one part of speech (i.e., adjective):English prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday. (verb) Anything was preferable to tense atmosphere at home. (adjective) Which one is the better of the two books? (noun)Arabic- . (English translation = Zaid is the best.)(xi) English has two cases of comparison concerning 'preference' i.e., comparative and superlative, whereas only comparative case is shown in Arabic elative:English- My room is better/ cleaner than the one next door.(comparative)- John is the best player on the team.(superlative)

Arabic- . (comparative) (English translation = I am more than you in wealth and stronger in respect of men.)(xii) Some expressions denoting 'preference' are only found in English:English - Use clear English in preference to technical language.- If they can do them both at the same time, then so much the better. - The following year Lewis went one better by winning the gold medal.(xiii) There are two words used in English preference (i.e., (i) than = comparative; (ii) of genitive = superlative), while only one word in Arabic elative (i.e., = comparative).5.Conclusions and Recommendations5.1 ConclusionsThe results of this study have shown that English and Arabic share some similarities and differences in terms of 'preference' and 'elative' respectively. In relation to similarities, the two languages are similar in the following:1. The meaning of preference and 'elative'.2. The same function of the words (than = English and = Arabic).3. Allowance to omission than from the context of English and from the context of Arabic.4. Existence of comparative and superlative cases.5. Using of preference tools and the 'noun of preference' in the middle of the sentence.6. Using of preference tools and the 'noun of preference' at the beginning of the sentence. 7. Preference tools in English and the 'noun of preference' in Arabic can beseen at the end of the sentence.

As for the differences, the two languages are dissimilar in the following:1. All the words of elative in Arabic belong to one part of speech (i.e., noun), while' preference 'tools in English belong to different parts of speech(i.e., verb, noun, adjective, and expressions)2. (Than) in English is a conjunction whereas () in Arabic is a preposition.3. Arabic has conditions in formulating the noun of preference word but no conditions in English.4. Certain situations of the 'elative' relating to singularity, duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity between the preference noun and its subject is found in Arabic only.5- Most preference tools in English are of two words. Arabic elative, in contrast, is only one word.6. English (not Arabic) has some tools of preference which are followed by bare infinitive, and some others are followed by to+ infinitive.7. English has twenty cases of preference while Arabic has only four. 8. Only Arabic has duality in the 'noun of preference'.9. Only English has two preference tools which can be followed by three constructions (to, to do, doing /sth).10. English has three parts of speech referring to 'preference' compared to only one in Arabic.11. Both comparative and superlative are involved in the meaning of 'preference' in English , compared to only comparative case in Arabic elative.12. 'Preference' in English, regardless of the parts of speech discussed in the study, can be shown by means of some expressions. In contrast, Arabic involves no expressions denoting the 'noun of preference'.13. English has two words (than and of) used in 'preference', compared with only one ( ) that is used in Arabic elative.

5.2Recommendations 1- Tools of preference in English and the' noun of preference' in Arabic should be dealt with inside the context(contextually) not as separate(individual) words.2- Teachers, when discussing preference, should look at preference with regard to parts of speech in both languages to be (make it) easier for the students to understand and differentiate between them.3- Teachers should invoke students in the classrooms by giving them small (short) quizzes after discussing the subject matter, preference, to check whether or not they understand it.4- Students should bear in mind that the common features (similarities) between the two languages to pave the way exchanging cultures and bridge the gap to understand each other easily.

The Arabic Consonant and Vowel Sounds in the Present StudySoundsExamplesEnglish meaning

mrprince

bbbdoor

ttamrdates

ththalabfox

j (researcher changed di to j)jaddnew

addiron

ddrhouse

dhdhayltail

rrajulman

zzrjar

ssafaratravelled

shsham'acandle

altprayer

marpatient

ayrbird

ayneye

ghghubrdust

ffawkihfruit

kkalbdog

q qalampencil

llaylnight

mmifthfey

nnrfire

hhmishmargin

wwardaflower

yyarsee

ulminjustice

awaladboy

udubbear

imifthkey

bbdoor

Srapicture

flelephant

This phonological system was adopted from ''Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"

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