A Content Analysis Study of the Use of Celebrity Endorsers in Magazine Adve

369369International Journal of advertising, 32(3), pp. 369–389© 2013 advertising associationPublished by Warc, www.warc.comdoI: 10.2501/IJa-32-3-369-389

A content analysis study ofthe use of celebrity endorsers

in magazine advertisinggeorge e. Belch and Michael a. Belch

San Diego State University

this paper presents the results of a content analysis study that examined the use of celebrityendorsers in magazine advertising. advertisements appearing in 37 different magazines repre-senting eight major classification categories were analysed to gain insight into the prevalenceof use of celebrity endorsers in magazine advertising. only 10% of the magazine ads runduring the time period analysed contained a celebrity, which is much lower than estimatesof their use often reported in the media. the findings show that the use of celebrities variesby magazine type with their use being highest for sports and teen publications. the use ofcelebrities also varies by product/service category as does the type of celebrity utilised, such asathletes, actors/actresses, entertainers and supermodels. Celebrity use was based primarily onthe source characteristics of popularity/likeability followed by physical attractiveness. Celebrityuse based on expertise occurs primarily for athletic products.

Introduction

the use of celebrities in advertising has been a common practice for more than 60 years.Marketers recognise the value of using people who are recognised and often admired, oreven idolised, by their target audience, such as actors and actresses, athletes, entertainersand other popular public figures, as a way to draw attention to their advertising messages.It is estimated that between 14 and 20% of all television commercials in the unitedstates feature celebrities; and in some countries, such as Japan, India and taiwan, they areeven more prevalent in tv ads (Creswell 2008). It is interesting to note that estimatesof the use of celebrities in advertising are based on their appearance in television com-mercials. However, estimates of the use of celebrities may be veiled by the pervasiveness oftelevision advertising, which results in a lack of attention to their prevalence in othermedia.

While most of the attention is focused on celebrities in the context of television adver-tising, attention also needs to be given to their use in other media such as magazines.Magazines account for 15% of total advertising expenditures in the us and, according

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InternatIonal Journal of advertIsIng, 2013, 32(3)

to the association of Magazine Media, 93% of adults (18+) read magazines, the averagereader spends an average of 42 minutes on each issue, and the median number of issuesread each month is 7.7 (Magazine Media Fact Book 2011/2012). Magazines also havespecific characteristics that make them conducive to the use of celebrities, such as theirhigh degree of audience selectivity and reproduction quality. However, little attention hasbeen given to the degree to which celebrities are used in magazine ads by marketers, orthe nature of their utilisation.

the purpose of this study is to use content analysis to examine the prevalence of celeb-rities in magazine advertising and to better understand factors related to their use, includ-ing the type of product or service and magazine category. Kassarjian notes that ‘contentanalysis is a scientific, objective, systematic, quantitative, and generalisable description ofcommunications content’ (1977, p. 10). thus, content analysis is an appropriate way toassess the degree to which celebrities are used in advertising, and the nature of their use.attention is also given in this study to the various types of celebrity used by marketers(actor/actress, athlete, entertainer, supermodel) as well as basis for their use (expertise,physical attractiveness or popularity/likeability).the findings of this study provide a valu-able insight into the extent to which celebrities are used in a major advertising mediumother than television and the nature of their use by marketers.

Background

The use of celebrities

there are a number of reasons marketers use celebrities in their advertising messages andpay them large sums of money to endorse their company and/or brands. a very basic rea-son for using a celebrity in an advertisement is that s/he may have stopping power, whichis viewed as the capability of drawing attention and interest to an advertising message in avery cluttered media environment (atkin & Block 1983). according to the association ofMagazine Media, the content of the average consumer magazine is 47% advertising and53% editorial (Magazine Media Fact Book 2011/2012). Many magazines, such as fashionand lifestyle publications, can have up to 70% of their pages devoted to advertising, whichmakes the clutter problem particularly acute. thus, the use of popular celebrities can be away for an ad to stand out in a cluttered media environment and attract the attention ofviewers or readers.

another reason marketers use celebrities in their ads is to impact consumers’ decisionprocess by favourably influencing their evaluations, feelings, attitudes and purchase inten-tions towards their brands. Most of the research on the value of celebrity endorsers hasfocused on their source characteristics or attributes, including expertise, trustworthinessand attractiveness. these attributes are viewed as positive characteristics of a communi-cator that favourably influence the receiver’s acceptance of a message (ohanian 1991).a number of studies have shown that celebrities perceived as having expertise with aproduct or service can lend persuasive power to an advertising message (speck et al. 1988;ohanian 1990, 1991; fink et al. 2004; rossiter & smidts 2012). studies have also shown

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CeleBrItY endorsers In MagaZIne advertIsIng

that the expertise of a celebrity endorser interacts with his/her physical attractiveness(eisend & langner 2010).

a meta-analysis of celebrity endorser studies conducted by amos et al. (2008) exam-ined the relationship between source characteristics and advertising effectiveness from 32studies that provided sufficient information for inclusion in their analyses. their resultsshowed that the characteristics of celebrity expertise, trustworthiness and attractivenesshad the most influential effects on advertising effectiveness measures such as brand atti-tudes, attitude towards the ad and purchase intentions. their analyses also indicated thatnegative information about a celebrity had the largest impact on celebrity endorsementeffectiveness.

another popular stream of research related to the use of celebrities is based on their fitor match with the product, service or brand they are endorsing. the celebrity ‘match up’hypothesis has been used as the conceptual framework for numerous studies examiningthe effectiveness of celebrity endorsers (Kahle & Homer 1985; Kamins 1990; Kamins &gupta 1994; lynch & schuler 1994). the basic premise of this hypothesis is that theeffectiveness of advertisements utilising celebrities depends on the fit, or ‘match’, betweenthe characteristics of the celebrity and the product/service being endorsed. a number ofstudies have shown that the use of a celebrity whose image or characteristics are highlycongruent with the product or brand leads to higher levels of both advertiser and celeb-rity credibility than when the level of congruence is low (Kamins & gupta 1994; till &shimp 1998; till & Busler 2000).

a study by de los salmones et al. (2013) examined the effectiveness of a celebrityendorser in advertising for a humanitarian organisation. they found that the celebrity’seffectiveness and credibility as an endorser depends on several factors, including perceivedfit with the social cause, attribution of altruistic motivation, celebrity image and attitudestowards celebrity activism.

the degree of fit between a celebrity and a product or brand can be based on a varietyof factors, including his/her level of expertise, personality, image or even physical char-acteristics. for example, professional athletes can lend credibility and persuasive powerto an advertising message based on perceptions of their perceived expertise with athleticproducts. Celebrities such as actors/actresses or entertainers, as well as athletes, may matchup well with products or brands based on their popularity or attractiveness. a study byfink et al. (2004) found that athlete attractiveness and expertise were both positivelyrelated to endorsement fit, although the effects of expertise on fit were stronger thanthose of attractiveness. the use of celebrities such as actors/actresses and supermodels inadvertising for products such as clothing, jewellery, cosmetics and personal care products isoften based on their physical attractiveness. erfgen (2011) conducted a systematic reviewof 36 studies from the celebrity endorsement literature to determine success factors forbrand image effects. He identified 24 drivers of brand image including celebrity, message,advertising channel and recipient characteristics. With regard to celebrity characteristics,credibility (including its subdimensions of expertise and trustworthiness), physical attrac-tiveness relevant to the product domain, and image-based congruence emerged as factorsthat positively influence brand image.

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Most of the research on the use of celebrity endorsers has examined their effects onvarious measures of persuasion such as beliefs, attitudes and purchase intentions, includ-ing how their effectiveness might vary in relation to source characteristics, as well as thetype of product they are endorsing and the characteristics of the message recipient (atkin& Block 1983; Biswas et al. 2006). However, several studies have also examined thepractitioner perspective regarding the use of celebrity endorsers to gain insight into thefactors taken into consideration by marketing and advertising professionals when choos-ing a celebrity endorser. a study by Miciak and shanklin (1994) surveyed practitioners inadvertising agencies as well as on the client side, and found that important factors citedin choosing celebrity endorsers included attributes such as their image, trustworthiness,familiarity to the audience and the fit with the product. erdogan et al. (2001) surveyedad agency directors and managers in the united Kingdom who were involved in celebritycampaigns, in regard to characteristics that were considered important when selectingan endorser and how these factors differed in relation to product type. the factors ratedmost important by the agency practitioners were celebrity–target audience match, celeb-rity–product/brand match and the overall image of the celebrity. other factors cited asimportant included celebrity trustworthiness, controversy/risk, prior endorsements, andthe familiarity and likeability of the celebrity.

Research questions

Prevalence of use of celebrities

as noted above, there have been no published empirical studies that have examined theextent to which celebrities are used in magazine advertising in the united states, despitethe fact that large amounts of money are paid to athletes, actors/actresses, entertainersand other types of celebrity whose endorsements may appear primarily in the print media.Industry estimates of the use of celebrities are based on their prevalence in television com-mercials, and range from 14 to 20% (Cresswell 2008), although the study conducted byChoi et al. (2005) suggests that their use may be lower. to fully understand the degree towhich celebrities are used in advertising, it is important to examine the degree to whichthey are used in magazine ads as well as television commercials, and how their use variesacross different types of publication. the first research question focuses on these issues:

RSQ1: How prevalent is the use of celebrities in magazine advertising, and does theiruse vary across different types of magazine?

Use of celebrities by product/service category

Most of the theorising regarding the use of celebrities in advertising suggests that theireffectiveness is likely to be product dependent, while research has supported the basictenets of the match-up hypothesis, which suggests that celebrities are more effectivewhen there is a fit between them and the product they are endorsing. McCracken’s

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(1989) meaning transfer model also suggests that marketers must decide on the imageor symbolic meanings important to the target audience for a particular product/service,company or brand. they then must determine which celebrity best represents or capturesthe meaning or image they want to project. the value of using celebrities is likely tovary by product type, as celebrity endorsers work best when image is important and/orit is difficult to differentiate a brand on a functional or performance basis. Products suchas fashion apparel, cosmetics, personal care items and jewellery are categories that lendthemselves to the use of celebrity endorsers, while functional products such as consumerelectronics, pharmaceuticals, or business-related products and services should be less likelyto rely on the use of a celebrity endorser.

another area where the use of celebrities should be high is in product categories associ-ated with athletic performance. there are a number of reasons why marketers of athleticproducts are likely to use individuals who have achieved notoriety and/or popularity basedon their level of athletic performance. Consumers are likely to see athletes as experts whocan reassure them about the quality of an athletic product or brand, particularly when it isperceived as being related to the athlete’s performance level. another reason is that manysports fans admire, and often idolise, athletes, and view the use of a brand they endorse asa way of identifying with them. avid sports fans often engage in a psychological processknown as BIrging, or ‘basking in reflective glory’, whereby they associate themselveswith successful others such that another’s success becomes their own (Cialdini et al. 1976;lee 1985; snyder et al. 1986). Based on this discussion, the second research questionemerges:

RSQ2: How prevalent is the use of celebrities in magazine advertising for different typesof products/services, and how does their use vary by product/service category?

Type and basis of use of celebrities

also of interest in this study are the characteristics of celebrities used in magazine adver-tising and the basis for their use. as discussed above, the fit between a celebrity and aproduct can be based on various source characteristics such as credibility (expertise andtrustworthiness) or attractiveness, which in turn can be grounded in the popularity orlikeability of a celebrity, or his/her physical attractiveness.the use of celebrities in productcategories where functionality or performance is a salient purchase motive is likely to bebased on their perceived expertise. However, for categories where emotional motives suchas brand image or identification are important, celebrities are likely to be used more fortheir attractiveness. research on physical attractiveness has shown that physically attrac-tive communicators generally have a positive impact and generate more favourable evalu-ations of both advertisements and products than less attractive models (Baker & Churchill1977; Chaiken 1979; Joseph 1982; Jones et al. 1998). Products such as cosmetics, fashionapparel and certain types of personal care products are likely to benefit from the use ofan attractive celebrity, as physical appearance is very important in the marketing of theseitems.

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the attractiveness of a celebrity does not have to be based on physical appearance asit can include other virtuous characteristics that message recipients perceive as desirablein an endorser. other components of the source attractiveness model include similarity,familiarity and liking. similarity is defined as a supposed resemblance between the sourceand the receiver of the message, familiarity refers to knowledge through exposure, andlikeability as affection for the source as a result of physical appearance, behaviour or otherpersonal traits (triandis 1971). the meta-analysis of celebrity endorser effects conductedby amos et al. (2008) found that familiarity and likeability were influential factors inexplaining the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers.

as noted above, surveys of advertising and marketing practitioners have shown thatfamiliarity and liking are two source characteristics that are often taken into considerationin choosing a celebrity. While some advertising and marketing practitioners rely upontheir own intuition and insight in judging these characteristics, many turn to research thatmeasures a celebrity’s familiarity and appeal among their target audience. for example,many companies and their advertising agencies rely on Q-scores that are commerciallyavailable from Marketing evaluations, Inc. for more than 1,800 sports and performerpersonalities.the two key components of the Q-score are the familiarity score, which indi-cates the percentage of people who have heard of the person, and the one of my favouritesscore, which is a measure of the appeal or popularity/likeability of the celebrity.

the primary types of celebrity endorser used in advertising tend to be athletes,actors/actresses, entertainers and supermodels who achieve celebrity status (e.g. giseleBundchen, Kate Moss and Heidi Klum). However, there are other types of individualwho can attain celebrity status and can be used to promote a product, such as news per-sonalities, sportscasters, politicians, authors and business executives. the basis for usingcelebrities as endorsers includes various source characteristics such as their expertise andattractiveness, which in turn can be based on popularity and/or physical appearance. thisdiscussion leads to the final set of research questions:

RSQ3: How prevalent is the use of different types of celebrity in magazine advertisingand what are the bases for their use as endorsers? also what types of celebrityare used as endorsers for different product/service categories and do the basesfor their use vary?

Method

Magazines

to conduct this study, advertisements appearing in the highest-circulation magazines acrosseight different categories were analysed.the categories are based on the classifications usedby srds, and include general news, sports, entertainment, men’s, women’s shelter, women’sfashion, teen and business. the magazines were selected based on circulation figures fromthe audit Bureau of Circulations – the primary circulation verification service for consumermagazines as well as major business publications. all of the magazines used in this study

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were published in april 2007. fifteen of the magazines were weekly publications, 21 weremonthlies and two were published bi-monthly. for weekly magazines, one of the fourweekly issues for the month of april was randomly selected. only ads that were at leasta quarter of a page in size were analysed as it is very rare to see a celebrity used in an adsmaller than this. also some magazines contained a number of pages towards the back ofthe publication,with as many as 10 to 12 small shopper information ads as well as numerousclassified ads.these types of ad were not included in this study.

Products/services

each ad was categorised into one of the 20 product/service categories shown in table 1.Based on data from the Publishers Information Bureau, these product/service categoriesaccounted for more than 80% of the total dollar amount spent on magazine advertising inthe united states in 2007. the 20 product/service categories also accounted for 85% ofthe advertisements that appeared in the 37 magazines analysed for study. the remaining15% of the ads were spread across a variety of products and services.

Source characteristics

each person appearing in the print ads was classified based on several source characteristics,including gender and celebrity status (celebrity or non-celebrity), type of celebrity and basisof use. for the purposes of this study, a celebrity endorser was defined as ‘any individualwho enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer goodby appearing with it in an advertisement’ (McCracken 1989). However, it should be notedthat a celebrity endorsement could also be for a business product/service or a company,since business publications were one of the magazine categories analysed. to help in theidentification of celebrities appearing in the magazine ads, a list of celebrities tracked in theWinter 2007 Performer Q survey conducted by Marketing evaluations, Inc. was obtained.this list provided the names of various actors/actresses, entertainers, athletes, and other

Table 1: Product/service categories

1. Telecommunication products/services

2. Automobiles (including light trucks and SUVs)

3. Financial services

4. Personal care products/cosmetics

5. Travel/tourism (hotels, resorts, airlines)

6. Retail stores

7. Consumer electronics

8. Home appliances

9. Fashion/apparel (clothing, shoes)

10. Jewellery/accessories (watches, purses)

11. Athletic products/equipment

12. Pharmaceuticals – prescription/OTC

13. Fast food/restaurants

14. Alcoholic beverages

15. Non-alcoholic beverages

16. Media (music, videos, movies, books)

17. Furniture/home furnishings

18. Business products/services

19. Food

20. Cigarettes/tobacco products

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sports personalities, news personalities and business executives who were being tracked inthe survey conducted during this time period. Celebrities appearing in an advertisementwere further coded into categories based on type and basis of use in the ad. the specificcategories for type of celebrity include athlete or coach, actor/actress, entertainer, businessexecutive, supermodel, sportscaster/commentator, news personality, author/writer, and other.(fashion supermodels are considered celebrities in this study as they often achieve celebritystatus because of their popularity and presence in the media.) the bases of celebrity useinclude expertise, attractiveness based on popularity or likeability, and physical attractiveness.

Coding of the source characteristics

a three-judge panel coded the characteristics of each person appearing in the magazine ads.two of the judges were professors who teach advertising and integrated marketing com-munications courses on a regular basis,while the third judge was a graduate student workingon a special studies research project on the use of celebrities in advertising.the coding of thesource characteristics was very straightforward for gender and type of celebrity, while codingfor the basis of use of the celebrity was more subjective.for the purposes of this study expert-ise was defined as the extent to which the use of a celebrity was primarily centred on him/her being perceived as a source of valid assertions about the product or service based on theknowledge,experience or skills s/he might possess as an endorser (erdogan 1999).the othertwo bases of celebrity use that were coded for this study included physical attractiveness andlikeability/popularity. Celebrity use that was judged to be primarily based on the physicalattractiveness of the individual, such as the use of a fashion model or attractive actor/actressor entertainer,was coded as such.the use of the celebrity endorser was coded as being basedon popularity/likeability when his/her use was judged to be based more on admiration or rec-ognition. this could stem from the personality or lifestyle characteristics that would makethe celebrity popular among the target audience rather than physical characteristics. thejudges were given operational definitions of these categories and trained in their applicationuntil each had a good understanding of the coding scheme.

of the 2,358 ads appearing in the 37 magazines analysed in this study, a little morethan two-thirds (68%) contained one or more persons in them. one or more males werepresent in 515 of the ads, while females were present in 1,081 of the ads. the coding forcelebrities appearing in the ads required the judges to classify them by type and the basisfor using them in the ad. all three judges agreed on the classification of the celebritiesinto one of the nine category types for 80% of celebrities appearing in the ads, and two ofthe judges agreed on another 15%. for use of the celebrity, there was unanimous agree-ment for 76% of the celebrities appearing in the ads while two of three judges agreed onanother 22%. the coding convention adopted for the study was that if at least two of thethree judges agreed in their assignment of the person to a category, that categorisationwas assigned to the individual. thus, the modal scoring convention resulted in the clas-sification of 95% to 98% of the celebrities for the two categories used in this study. theremaining classification of celebrities for the two categories was done after discussionamong the three judges.

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Inter-judge reliability

to determine the reliability of the type and use coding of the celebrities appearing in theads analysed for this study, rust and Cooil’s (1994) proportional reduction in loss (Prl)reliability measure for qualitative data was used.this approach addresses the problem thatthe percentage of agreement between judges does not take into account the likelihood ofchance agreement between raters occurring, particularly when the number of coding cat-egories is low. the Prl approach is based on the proportion of inter-judge agreements,and considers the number of judges as well as the number of coding categories. for thecoding of the celebrity characteristics, the Prl measures were 0.98 for type of celebrityand 0.97 for basis of use. overall, the high Prl reliability measures suggest that theprocedures used in this study were successful in reliably categorising the celebrities whoappeared in the magazine ads based on type and use.

Results

Prevalence of celebrities in magazine advertisements

the first research question concerns the degree to which celebrities are used in magazineadvertising and whether their use varies across different types of magazine. the overallresults regarding the prevalence of various source characteristics in magazine advertis-ing are shown in table 2, which presents the total number of ads that appeared in eachmagazine, the percentage with models in them, and the number that used celebrities.theresults are summarised for each of the eight magazine categories to provide insight as towhether the use of models, as well as celebrities, varies by type of publication.

only 225, or 10%, of the 2,358 ads appearing in the 37 magazines analysed contained acelebrity, while 14% of the ads that contained a model used a celebrity.the use of celebri-ties was highest for the teen and sports magazine categories (19% and 16%, respectively)and lowest for general news along with women’s shelter and business publications. noneof the 93 ads appearing in the general news publications used a celebrity, and only 5% ofthe ads in the business magazines used one. Celebrity use was also very low for women’sshelter (4%) and men’s magazines (6%). Individual magazines containing the highest per-centage of celebrities in their ad pages were the sports publications ESPN The Magazine,Sports Illustrated and Golf Digest, as well as teen magazines including J-14, Seventeen andCosmo Girl. the percentage of ads containing celebrities was also high for several fashionpublications targeting women, such as Cosmopolitan, Glamour and Elle.

Celebrity use by product category

the second research question pertains to the relationship between the use of celebrities inmagazine advertising and product types.to analyse this relationship, only the 12 product/service categories for which there were at least 50 ads across the 37 magazines were used.the number of ads for the remaining eight categories was believed to be too small to

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Table 2: Use of models and celebrities by magazine

CategoryNumberof ads

Numberwith

modelPercentagewith model

Numberwith

celebrity

Percent-age withcelebrity

Percentagewith model

using celebrity

General newsTime 25 15 60 0 0 0Newsweek 14 8 57 0 0 0TV Guide 11 6 55 0 0 0US News & World Report 43 28 65 0 0 0Total: General news 93 51 55 0 0 0

SportsSports Illustrated 34 20 59 9 26 45ESPN The Magazine 44 33 75 14 32 42Golf Digest 111 63 57 20 18 32Sporting News 12 6 50 1 8 17Runners World 92 47 51 3 3 6Total: Sports 293 169 58 47 16 28

EntertainmentPeople 62 47 76 8 13 17US Weekly 40 25 63 4 10 16In Touch Weekly 23 17 74 2 9 12Star 26 12 46 1 4 8National Enquirer 20 8 40 0 0 0Total: Entertainment 171 109 64 15 9 14

Men’s

Playboy 30 23 77 1 3 4

Maxim 62 50 81 8 13 16

Men’s Health 67 44 66 2 3 5

Field & Stream 43 28 65 3 7 11

Stuff 39 28 72 1 3 4

Total: Men’s 241 173 72 15 6 9

Women’s shelter

Good Housekeeping 122 64 52 5 4 8

Woman’s Day 65 43 66 1 2 2

Family Circle 131 80 61 5 4 6

Redbook 100 71 71 4 4 6

Total: Shelter 418 258 62 15 4 6

Fashion – women

Cosmopolitan 110 65 59 16 15 25

Glamour 135 93 69 19 14 20

Vogue 192 161 84 17 9 11

Allure 114 85 75 11 10 13

Elle 131 107 82 14 11 13

Total: Fashion – women 682 511 75 77 11 15

(continued)

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draw any meaningful conclusions regarding the use of celebrities in ads for these types ofproducts and services. table 3 shows the number and percentage of ads in each product/service category that used celebrities.the categories with the highest percentage of celeb-rities in their ads are media (music/videos/movies) and athletic products (21% and 20%,respectively). these results reflect that fact that celebrities such as entertainers/artists areoften used in ads promoting their music, while actors/actresses are used to advertise the

CategoryNumberof ads

Numberwith

modelPercentagewith model

Numberwith

celebrity

Percent-age withcelebrity

Percentagewith model

using celebrity

Teen

Seventeen 70 59 84 16 23 27

Cosmo Girl 58 47 81 12 21 26

Teen Vogue 89 71 80 8 9 11

J-14 22 14 64 9 41 64

Total: Teen 239 196 82 45 19 23

Business

Money 60 29 48 2 3 7

Forbes 47 18 38 4 9 22

BusinessWeek 36 21 58 2 6 10

Fortune 40 32 80 3 8 9

Fast Company 38 23 61 0 0 0

Total: Business 221 123 56 11 5 9

Total: All magazines 2,358 1,590 67 225 10 14

Table 2: Use of models and celebrities by magazine (continued)

Table 3: Use of celebrities by product category

Product category Number of adsNumber withmale celebrity

Number withfemale celebrity

Percentage withcelebrity

Cosmetics/personal care 565 1 70 13

Fashion/apparel 344 8 40 14

Food products 268 13 5 7

Jewellery/accessories 135 5 11 12

Media (music, DVDs, movies) 129 18 9 21

Pharmaceuticals 127 5 1 5

Automobiles 108 2 0 2

Athletic products 94 16 3 20

Financial services 75 0 0 0

Travel/tourism 58 1 0 2

Business products/services 52 3 0 6

Consumer electronics 50 2 0 4

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movies in which they star. Celebrity athletes are also frequently used to promote athleticproducts such as shoes, apparel and sports equipment. It is interesting to note that the useof celebrities is extremely low in certain product categories, including financial services,automobiles, consumer electronics, business products/services and food products. thismay reflect the fact that advertising for most of these product/service categories is oftenmore information based, and focuses more on specific product/service attributes ratherthan subjective factors such as image or style. However, automotive advertisers often focuson image and style in their advertising strategies, so it is interesting that the use of celebri-ties is so low for this category.

Characteristics of celebrities used in magazine ads

the final research question involves the characteristics of the celebrities used in print ads.table 4 shows the breakdown of the types of celebrity appearing in the ads, as well as theway they were used. as can be seen in this table, the types of celebrity used most oftenacross the 37 magazines analysed were actors/actresses (34%), followed by athletes (27%).the other two types of celebrity used most often were entertainers and supermodels. alsoshown in table 4 are the results regarding the way celebrities were used in the ads. theprimary basis for using a celebrity in the magazine ads analysed was for his/her popularityappeal.the majority (52%) of the celebrities were used for their popularity/likeability,while30% were judged to be used for their physical attractiveness, and 16% based on expertise.

to gain further insight into the way celebrities were used in the ads, we examined theuse of celebrities in relation to the magazine category as well as the type of product/servicebeing advertised. table 5 shows the type and basis of use for celebrities across the variousmagazine categories (general news magazines were not included in this analysis since nocelebrities were used in any of the ads appearing in these publications). as can be seen inthis table, there is variation in type of celebrity used in relation to the magazine category.for example, most of the ads appearing in teen magazines that contained a celebrity usedan actor/actress or entertainer, while fashion publications relied on actors/actresses and

Table 4: Characteristics of celebrities used in ads

Type of celebrity Number Percentage Use of celebrity Number Percentage

Actor/actress 76 34

Athlete 61 27

Fashion model 41 18

Entertainer 35 16

Business executive 5 2

News personality 3 1

Other 4 2

Total 225 100

Popularity/likeability 116 52

Physical attractiveness 68 30

Expertise 37 16

Other 4 2

Total 225 100

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fashion models. However, all but two of the celebrities used in ads appearing in sportsmagazines were athletes. a chi square analysis examined the relationship between maga-zine category and type of celebrity used. this analysis was limited to the three categoriesof magazines that had a sufficient number of celebrities. the results indicated there is asignificant relationship between magazine category and type of celebrity used (c2 = 168.4),4 df, p < 0.001).

table 5 also shows that there is variation in the basis for use of celebrities appearing inads across the various types of magazines. ads in fashion magazines that use celebritiesrelied primarily on their physical attractiveness (52%) followed by popularity (42%), whileads in teen magazines used celebrities based predominantly on popularity (71%) and toa lesser degree physical attractiveness (29%). ads in sports publications were most likelyto use celebrities based on their popularity/likability (51%) followed closely by expertise(47%). ads appearing in men’s magazines that utilised celebrities relied primarily on theirpopularity, while the basis for using celebrities in entertainment magazines was dividedequally between popularity/likeability and physical attractiveness. the analysis showedthat there is a relationship between magazine category and basis for using a celebrity(c2 = 59.05, 4 df, p < 0.001).

table 6 shows type and basis of use for celebrities across various product/service cat-egories. only those product/service categories for which at least 10% of the ads analysedused a celebrity were included in this analysis. as with magazine categories, there is vari-ation in the types of celebrity and basis of use across the various product areas. Cosmetics/personal care products rely primarily on actors/actresses and supermodels, which is logical

Table 5: Type and use of celebrities by magazine category

Category/type Athlete Actor/actress Entertainer Fashion model Other Total

Fashion 2 38 8 26 3 77

Sports 45 1 0 0 1 47

Teen 2 16 20 7 0 45

Men’s 4 5 3 0 3 15

Entertainment 2 6 3 4 0 15

Women’s shelter 1 8 1 4 1 16

Business 5 2 0 0 4 11

Category/use Expert Attractive popularity Attractive physical Other Total

Fashion 5 32 40 0 77

Sports 22 24 0 1 47

Teen 0 32 13 0 45

Men’s 2 9 2 2 15

Entertainment 0 7 8 0 15

Women’s shelter 2 7 5 1 15

Business 6 5 0 0 11

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given that these products are usually promoting ways to enhance one’s physical appearanceand attractiveness. fashion/apparel products utilised entertainers the most when using acelebrity, followed by actors/actresses; while ads promoting media (music, videos, movies)used actors/actresses, athletes and entertainers. as would be expected, ads for athleticproducts used athletes when employing a celebrity as part of the message. It is interestingto note that ads for jewellery/accessories show variation in the type of celebrities utilised,as athletes, actors/actresses and fashion models were used about equally in ads for thisproduct category.

also shown in table 6 is the basis of use for celebrities in the ads for the variousproduct categories. as can be seen in this table, cosmetics and personal care productsprimarily used celebrities based on two factors – popularity/likeability (51%) and physicalattractiveness (49%). fashion/apparel ads that utilise celebrities do so based mostly ontheir popularity (85%), while ads promoting media rely primarily on the popularity of thecelebrity (66%). the use of celebrities in ads based on their expertise was most prevalentin ads promoting athletic products, as more than two-thirds of the ads in this categorythat contained celebrities used them on this basis. (Chi square tests of the relationshipsbetween celebrity type and use by product category could not be conducted because of thelow number of celebrities for many of the product categories.)

Discussion

a major goal of this study was to determine the degree to which celebrities are used inmagazine advertising in the us, as most of the estimates of their use are based on theirprevalence in television commercials. the results show that 10% of the magazine ads runduring the time period analysed in this study contained a celebrity. this percentage is inline with the cross-cultural content analysis done by Choi et al. (2005), which found that

Table 6: Type and use of celebrities by product category

Category/type of celebrity Athlete Actor/actress Entertainer Fashion model Other Total

Cosmetics/personal care 1 40 1 27 2 71

Fashion/apparel 5 16 22 4 1 48

Media (music/DVDs/movies) 8 9 6 0 4 27

Athletic products 16 0 0 0 3 19

Jewellery/accessories 5 5 1 4 1 16

Category/use of celebrity Expert Attractive popularity Attractive physical Other Total

Cosmetics/personal care 0 36 35 0 71

Fashion/apparel 0 41 7 0 48

Media (music/DVDs/movies) 2 18 2 5 27

Athletic products 13 3 0 3 19

Jewellery/accessories 1 9 4 2 16

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only about 9% of television commercials aired during prime time on the major networksin the us used a celebrity. However, the percentage is lower than the estimates of 14 to20% that are often reported from industry studies conducted by research firms such asMillward Brown (Creswell 2008). unfortunately the methodology used for these esti-mates is not provided, making it difficult to understand how they are derived.

there are several reasons why the percentage of magazine ads including a celebritymight be lower than for television commercials. estimates of the use of celebrities intelevision advertising are often based on their use in commercials appearing during primetime, which is dominated by advertising for national brands.these brands are usually con-sumer products and services that have much larger advertising budgets and can afford topay endorsement fees for popular celebrities. Many of the ads appearing in the magazinesused in this study were for companies and/or brands that may be unable to afford to usecelebrity endorsers in their advertising messages or may feel that it is not cost effectiveto do so. the use of celebrities in magazine ads may also be lower because they do not fitwell with the execution of a print ad. Magazine ads are static in nature as they rely on theuse of a photo or image of the product being advertised and perhaps some ad copy.thereis also a finite amount of space available and advertisers may be concerned over using it toshow a celebrity rather than product. television commercials are much more dynamic innature and provide greater creative opportunities for using a celebrity endorser by show-ing him/her using, discussing and/or engaging with a product or service. It is also likelythat many products/services categories do not lend themselves to the effective use of acelebrity endorser, such as financial services, business products and consumer electronics.Marketers of these types of product/service may prefer straight-sell types of ad executionthat focus on features and benefits, and view the use of a celebrity endorser as unnecessaryor even distracting.

another goal of this study was to determine whether the use of celebrity endorsers var-ies across different types of magazine. the results clearly show that the use of celebritiesvaries by magazine category, as their use was highest for ads appearing in sports publica-tions as well as those targeting teens, and lowest for general news, women’s shelter andbusiness publications. It should be expected that celebrities would be used more in sportspublications, where the use of athletes as endorsers is a common practice, or in magazinestargeting teens, as previous studies have shown that teenagers are more receptive to adscontaining celebrity endorsers. However, it is somewhat surprising that no celebritieswere used in ads run in general news magazines such as Time and Newsweek, consideringthat these publications generally contain ads for national brands. the low use of celebrityendorsers in women’s shelter magazines was also unexpected, however, this may be due tothe nature of the products/services advertised in these publications, which often includehousehold and food items.

additional insight into the use of celebrities in magazine advertising comes from find-ings regarding their use in relation to product/service categories, as well as the type ofcelebrities used as endorsers for different product categories. the use of celebrity endors-ers was highest for ads promoting media products/services (music, dvds, movies) andathletic products, as 20% of the ads in these categories utilised a celebrity. these results

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are consistent with the high use of celebrities in sports publications as well as magazinestargeting teens (which often contain ads for movies and music). other product categorieswhere the percentage of ads containing a celebrity endorser exceeded 10% include fash-ion/apparel, cosmetics/personal care, and jewellery/ accessories. the use of celebrities wasvery low in advertising for financial services, business products/services, pharmaceuticals,consumer electronics and food products, which explains the low percentage of ads con-taining celebrities in magazines that contain ads for these products and services.

also of interest in this study are the findings regarding the type of celebrities usedby marketers in magazine advertising, and the basis for their using them. the four maintypes of celebrity used in the magazine ads analysed were actors/actresses, athletes,entertainers and supermodels. Moreover, their use was dependent on product category,which in turn leads to differences in their prevalence across different types of publication.actors/actresses and supermodels were the most commonly used types of celebrity forcosmetics/personal care items, while entertainers, along with actors/actresses, were usedmost often for fashion/apparel. the use of these types of celebrity endorser for the twoproduct categories is the reason for their being the primary form of celebrities appearingin fashion, teen, entertainment and women’s shelter magazines. It is likely that marketersuse celebrities more in ads that appear in these types of publication, as fashion, teen andentertainment magazines tend to reach a younger audience that may be more influencedby celebrity endorsers. a study by Chan and Prendergast (2008) of young people aged15–24 living in Hong Kong found that peer communication and susceptibility to peerinfluence were positively related to engagement in social comparison. they also foundthat those who had a strong motivation to view advertisements were more likely to adoptcelebrities as role models and to imitate them. In turn, both social comparison and imita-tion of celebrity models were positive predictors of materialism.

as expected, athletes are the types of celebrity used most often as endorsers for athleticproducts, accounting for their dominance in sports magazines. However, it is interestingto note that athletes were also used as endorsers for other product categories, includingfashion/apparel, media and jewellery/accessories. their use in magazine ads for thesetypes of product reflects the fact that the popularity of high-profile athletes often tran-scends sport, and they are viewed as effective endorsers for a variety of products. forexample, watch companies such as rolex, omega and tag Heur use high-profile athletessuch as tiger Woods, Maria sharapova, roger federer and other sports icons as brandambassadors.

additional insight into the use of celebrity endorsers comes from the findings regard-ing the basis for their use. the results show that the primary reason for using celebrityendorsers in magazine advertising was based on the source attractiveness characteristic ofpopularity/likeability. Physical attractiveness was the second most prevalent basis for theiruse, followed by expertise. the use of celebrities based on their popularity is most com-mon for fashion/apparel and cosmetics/personal care products along with ads for media(music/movies). the use of celebrities based on their physical attractiveness occurredprimarily for cosmetics/personal care items, while their use based on expertise occurredprimarily for athletic products.

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the findings from this study are consistent with theorising and research regarding themost effective ways to use celebrity endorsers. for example, one of the most prevalentparadigms for researching the use of celebrity endorsers is the product match-up hypoth-esis, which maintains that the congruence of the fit between the celebrity and the productbeing endorsed is a key determinant of their effectiveness.this study clearly suggests thatmarketers take the match between the celebrity and the product into account when usingendorsers in magazine advertisements. for example, athletes were used to endorse athleticproducts, supermodels and actresses were used to endorse cosmetics and personal careitems, and actors/actresses and entertainers were the most prevalent celebrity endorsersfor fashion apparel.

additional support for the match-up concept comes from the basis of use of celebri-ties in the magazine ads analysed. for example, the use of athletes was based primarily onthe source characteristic of expertise, which suggests that marketers of athletic productsview them as a good fit and use their expertise to communicate the quality of the athleticproducts they are promoting. the use of celebrity endorsers for cosmetics/personal careproducts was based on the source characteristic of attractiveness, including both popular-ity/likeability and physical attractiveness, while their use in fashion apparel ads was basedprimarily on popularity/likeability and, to a lesser degree, on attractiveness. Cosmeticsand personal care items, as well as fashion apparel, are product categories where imageis important and the use of a celebrity endorser can be an effective way to enhance theimage of a brand.

It should be noted that the effectiveness of a celebrity endorser for products such ascosmetics/personal care items, fashion apparel and jewellery/accessories does not have tobe based on his/her physical attractiveness. Many of the celebrities were used based ontheir popularity/likeability in ads for these types of product as well as others. However,celebrities were often used for their physical attractiveness as well. Cosmetics and personalcare products also often use celebrities such as actors/actresses or supermodels to capitaliseon their physical attractiveness, which makes them a good fit for these brands. the reli-ance of marketers on attractive celebrities is consistent with the generalised advertisingprinciple that the physical attractiveness of a communicator is important for productsthat consumers purchase to make themselves more attractive. Based on a review of thecelebrity endorsement literature, erdogan (1999) concluded that there is no doubt thatattractive celebrity endorsers enhance attitudes towards advertising and brands, althoughtheir impact on purchase intentions is less clear. However, it does appear that advertisingpractitioners view physical attractiveness as a valuable information cue when choosing acelebrity endorser (Patzer 1985).

the results of this study provide insight into the prevalence of use of celebrities in adsappearing in magazines, which is still one of the major forms of advertising media, andthe ways in which they are used. the findings should be of interest to both academicresearchers as well as practitioners as there has long been strong interest in the effective-ness of celebrity endorsers among both groups. However, it should also be noted that theuse of celebrities in advertising is not as prevalent as many might think, which begs thequestion of why they are not used more. one of the reasons the use of celebrity endorsers

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might be so low is that achieving a favourable return on investment from their use maybe the exception rather than the rule. Most companies cannot determine and/or choosenot to reveal the increases in sales and/or market share resulting from the use of celebrityendorsers, and there have been only a few studies that have examined the economic valueof their use. several of these studies have shown a favourable impact of celebrity endorserson stock prices (agrawal & Kamakura 1995; Mathur et al. 1997). a more recent studyby elberse and verleun (2012) examined 341 endorsement deals for 178 athletes over an18-year period from 1990 to 2008, and found a positive impact on stock prices and sales,although the effect on the latter decreased over time.

While these studies provide support for the use of celebrity endorsers as part of anadvertising strategy, others still question the logic of using celebrities given the additionalcosts and risks associated with their use (Yingling 2007). for example, a study conductedby the research firm ace Metrix analysed nationally televised commercials during the first11 months of 2010 and found that celebrity ads performed either below average or merelyequalled the average for non-celebrity spots across a number of measures, including atten-tion, relevance, desire for the product, information communication, likeability and positivebrand change (daboll 2011). an analyst at the research firm Millward Brown, whichconducts extensive research on the use of celebrities, has noted that ‘the simple additionof a celebrity to an ad does not, in and of itself, increase the odds of success and there areas many mediocre ads with celebrities as without’ (fitch 2006, p. 1).

this study does not address the questions as to why companies decide to use or not use acelebrity endorser in their magazine advertising, or how marketers and their agencies makedecisions regarding the use of a specific celebrity. However, it does provide insight into theprevalence of their use across various types of magazine, as well as product categories, andthe types of celebrity that are utilised in relation to each. It does appear that advertising andmarketing practitioners have implicitly incorporated the research finding and theorisingregarding the use of celebrities in making decisions regarding their use in magazine adver-tising. However, additional research is warranted that might provide more insight into whythe use of celebrities in magazine advertising is so low, as well as how they are used. surveysof practitioners have focused on factors that are considered in the use of celebrity endorserssuch as source attributes, and how their characteristics match with the product/service orbrand. attention might also be given to practitioners’ perspectives regarding whether thereare limits to the effective use of celebrities in magazines, given the static nature of printadvertising, and whether celebrities are better utilised in television commercials.

the findings from this study suggest several additional areas for future research regardingthe use of celebrity endorsers. researchers might also examine the use of celebrities, both inprint and television, by focusing on the specific ways they are utilised as endorsers. Whilethe current study considered the bases for celebrity use, more attention might be given towhether they are used actively or passively. active use would include showing the celebrityusing and/or engaging with the product or service and communicating personal beliefs orfeelings about it, while passive use would be based on merely associating the celebrity withthe company or brand by showing him/her in the ad. Consideration might also be given tohow consumers respond to the different ways celebrities are used in advertising.

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About the authors

george e. Belch is a Professor of Marketing and Chair of the Marketing departmentat san diego state university. He obtained his Phd in Marketing from the university

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of California, los angeles. His research focuses on marketing communications and con-sumer processing of and response to advertising messages. His articles have appeared inthe Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research and Journal of Advertising.

Michael a.Belch is Professor of Marketing at san diego state university.He obtainedhis Phd in Marketing from the university of Pittsburgh. His research focuses on vari-ous aspects of integrated marketing communications. His articles have appeared in theJournal of Advertising, Journal of Business Research and Journal of Promotion Management.george and Michael are co-authors of Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated MarketingCommunications Perspective which has been one of the leading text books in advertisingfor more than two decades.

address correspondence to: george e. Belch, Professor of Marketing, College ofBusiness administration, san diego state university, 5500 Campanile drive, san diego,Ca 92182.

email: [email protected]

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