A Contemporary Viewpoint by Hetherington & Parke Child Psychology.

A Contemporary ViewpointA Contemporary Viewpointbyby

Hetherington Hetherington && Parke Parke

Child Child PsychologyPsychology

Chapter OneChapter One

Child Development:Child Development:

Themes, Theories, and MethodsThemes, Theories, and Methods

Child Psychology seeks to answer two basic questions

(1) Developmental changes: Describing the changes that children go through at different ages.

BASIC DESCRIPTION AND OBSERVATION; E.G., CHANGES IN CHILDREN'S PLAY FROM SOLITARY PLAY TO PARALLEL PLAY TO PLAYING GAMES WITH RULES

(2) What are the underlying processes that result in change? For example, what strategies do children use to achieve new skills and behaviors? Cooperation is a social strategy that facilitates interaction with peers. At a deeper level, developmental psychologists want to know how important genes and environments are: THE NATURE/NURTURE CONTROVERSY

SCIENCE AND HUMAN INTERESTSScientists see children through the lenses of their theories. Scientists are

often not disinterested observers of children; they are often influenced by:

a.) Political beliefs e.g., a leftist egalitarian bias that everyone is born with the same potential; or a conservative bias toward saying that science supports the rationality of traditional sex roles.

b.) Ethnic agendas: e.g., some scientific issues, such as whether there are racial differences in intelligence, have political implications. This is why books like The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray are so controversial.

SCIENCE AND HUMAN INTERESTS

c.) Career goals: doing research that is likely to be funded by government grants; doing research that is likely to lead to tenure. It's a bad idea for an assistant professor to begin focus his or her

research on politically incorrect research.

d.) Moral agendas: many developmental psychologists want to help children; these people

are meliorists: they want to make the world a better place, but this often makes them subscribe to theories that people can be easily changed by the environment.

ARE SCIENTISTS BIASED???

Scientist Child

See: L. A. Times article “Bias in Social Science” EXAMPLES OF INTENSELY CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES DEALT

WITH IN THIS COURSE: (1) RACE AND IQ (CH. 10) (2) GENETIC INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE (CH. 2 AND CH. 10) (2) SEX DIFFERENCES (CH. 13) (3) EFFECTS OF DAY CARE (CH. 11)

Theories and Data

ISSUES in the HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD (1) THE STATE VERSUS THE FAMILY AS AGENT OF

SOCIALIZATION: SOCIALIZATION BY THE STATE:

SPARTA: CHILDREN TAKEN AWAY FROM PARENTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD; SOCIALIZATION FOR CONFORMITY, SOCIAL COHESION, ALTRUISM, MILITARY PROWESS

NAZI GERMANY: NAZIFICATION OF SCHOOLS, HITLER YOUTH; SOCIALIZATION AS IN SPARTA

SOVIET UNION: COMMUNIST CONTROL OF SCHOOLS; SOCIALIZATION FOR CONFORMITY.

UNITED STATES: ASSUME PARENTAL SOCIALIZATION; HOME SCHOOLING. BUT PUBLIC EDUCATION STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES. MANDATED CURRICULA

ISSUES in the HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD

(2) CHANGES IN THE IMPORTANCE OF LOVE TOWARD CHILDREN AND BETWEEN SPOUSES PURITANISM: ORIGINAL SIN AND AUTHORITARIAN

PARENTING LOVE AS THE BASIS OF MARRIAGE BEGINNING IN

THE MIDDLE AGES; THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT CONTEMPORARY EMPHASIS ON LOVE

ISSUES in the HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD (3) CHANGES IN PARENTAL INVESTMENT IN

CHILDREN CHILDREN COST MORE TO REAR SINCE

EDUCATION HAS BECOME CRITICAL.

PURITANS AND EDUCATION DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: BEGINNING IN

19TH CENTURY, FEWER CHILDREN, MORE EDUCATION

DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE AND PROLONGED CHILDHOOD


4) CHANGES IN SOCIETAL INVESTMENT IN CHILDREN RISE OF CHILDREN'S SERVICES MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES RENAISSANCE FOUNDLING HOMES MODERN WELFARE PROGRAMS SUCH AS

AID FOR FAMILIES WITH DEPENDENT CHILDREN


(5) CHANGES IN SINGLE PARENTING, TEENAGE PARENTING, DIVORCE, RECONSTITUTED FAMILIES, ETC.

Single parenting and divorce were extremely rare in Western societies until the mid-20th century. Mechanisms:

Ostracism Finding the father Low levels of public welfare programs


(6) CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY: Computers, the internet, and the media revolution. Children are exposed to very sophisticated media messages

related to aggression, sexuality, gender, ethnicity, etc. Depending on adult or societal control, children

are able to follow their own interests by surfing the net, watching TV, going to movies, etc. E. g., aggressive children choose to watch violent media) (The ACTIVE CHILD)

Children are also passive recipients of at least some cultural

messages coming from these sources. (The PASSIVE CHILD)

Themes of Development

Major theories take a position on these themes; e.g., Nature vs. Nurture

Main theoretical views guide research

Themes of Development: Biological versus Environmental Influences: Nature vs. Nurture

1.) Biological versus Environmental Influences John Watson, early 20th century: Environment is

everything. Arnold Gesell in the 1930s: Development determined by

an 'inner timetable which is produced by genes. Gesell is a Maturationist

Maturation = Genetically determined process of growth at unfolds naturally over development. Think of cognitive ability as growing just like children grow in height.

SINCE 1980, MORE EMPHASIS ON NATURE, BUT A GREAT DEAL OF CONTROVERSY.

Six Themes of Development: 1. Biological versus Environmental Influences: Nature vs. Nurture

Most psychologists now tend to be interactionists: E.g., there are interactions between the child's genetic tendencies toward aggression and the child's being exposed to violence on TV. Violent TV has a greater effect on children who are genetically inclined toward aggression.

Themes of Development: 2. Active, passive, and transactional models

A. ACTIVE: CHILD ACTIVELY APPROACHES, EXPLORES, OR INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT A CURIOUS CHILD EXPLORES A NEW TOY A CHILD GENETICALLY PRONE TO

AGGRESSION PICKS FIGHTS AND LIKES VIOLENT TV

Child → Environment


B. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL: CHILD INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCES CHILD; LIKE A CONVERSATION. PREMATURE CHILD IS EXTREMELY IRRITABLE;

THIS MAKES CAREGIVING DIFFICULT AND RESULTS IN FRUSTRATED PARENT; PARENT MORE LIKELY TO ABUSE CHILD

A CHILD GENETICALLY PRONE TO AGGRESSION PROVOKES STRONG DISCIPLINE FROM PARENT, MAKING HIM MORE AGGRESSIVE

C → E → C → E


C. PASSIVE: CHILD PASSIVELY INFLUENCED BY ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES; REINFORCEMENT IN CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM NORMAL CHILD IS ABUSED BY CRAZY PARENTE → C

NO ONE MODEL IS CORRECT. DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES ARE BETTER DESCRIBED BY DIFFERENT MODELS. THIS IS THE CASE WITH ALL OF THESE ISSUES. HOWEVER, MOST PSYCHOLOGISTS DE-EMPHASIZE

THE PASSIVE MODEL.

Themes of Development: 3. Continuity versus Discontinuity

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Continuous process: each new event builds on earlier experiences in orderly way or gradual improvement.

Change is Quantitative and Smooth

Discontinuous process: development occurs in discrete steps or stages; each stage is qualitatively new set of behaviors

Change is Qualitative and Step-Like


QUANTITATIVE CHANGE: A MEASURABLE CHANGE OF AMOUNT (E.G., CHANGES IN HEIGHT, OR CHANGES IN LEARNING) ASSOCIATED WITH NON-STAGE THEORIES; (When you learn something new you don't become a different person; you have simply added to your knowledge in a quantitative way.)

QUALITATIVE CHANGE: A CHANGE OF TYPE (E.G., THE CHANGE FROM A CATERPILLAR TO A BUTTERFLY) ASSOCIATED WITH STAGE THEORIES; QUALITATIVE CHANGES ARE FUNDAMENTAL, REORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES. (When you


SMOOTH CHANGE (ASSOCIATED WITH NON-STAGE THEORIES


Step-Like Change(Associated with Stage Theories)

Formal Operational

Concrete Operational

Preoperational Stage

Sensorimotor Stage


Textbook: Whether development is continuous or discontinuous "depends on the power of the lens we use in examining changes across development." If we look over a long period of time (several

years), the differences seem large, qualitative and discontinuous.

If we look over a short period of time (a few months), the differences are small, quanatitative and continuous.

See Figure 1-1c (p. 7): Child slowly learns the best and developmentally most advanced strategy.

Figure 1.1: Continuity and Discontinuity in Child Development


The continuity/discontinuity issue is not as important as formerly, with most theorists believing that development is "basically continuous."

Stage theories like Piaget's theory have been on the decline, but notice that the text mentions "transition points" as of particular interest. Transition points are a sort of watered down stage view.

However, that there could be true discontinuities and qualitative change if, say, genes turn on at a certain age and result in a major cognitive or emotional advance over a fairly short period of time.

This may be the case with puberty and some of the other major cognitive advances in childhood. For example, children get much more rational around age 6.

Themes of Development: 4. Individual Characteristics versus Environmental, Contextual and Cultural Influences

Individual and personality characteristics direct behaviors: Aggressiveness; Introversion/shyness; affection

Traits versus context: Which is more important? Context: Aggression more likely at football

game than church Trait: Some children are more inclined to

aggression because of genetic influences than others.

Themes of Development: 4. Individual Characteristics versus Contextual and Cultural Influences

Many psychologists are interactionists: individual characteristics like personality interact with situations. For example, aggressive children

seek out situations to express their aggression (football games, karate classes, joining a gang). But removing children from aggressive contexts may lower their aggression.

Themes of Development: 4. Individual Characteristics versus Contextual and Cultural Influences

Individuals respond different to environmental or situational challenges Biological risk; serious illness Psychological risk; crazy parent Environmental risk: poverty; tough neighborhood

Different responses Some children suffer permanent damage Some have “sleeper effects” Some are resilient Some are better for it: “if it don’t kill ya…”

Themes of Development: 5: CULTURAL UNIVERSALS

VERSUS CULTURAL RELATIVISM Terminology:

NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE UNIVERSAL COMMONALITIES OF CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT (E.G., WALKING,) (PIAGET STUDIED UNIVERSALS) TALKING, STAGES; OFTEN VIEWED AS RESULTING FROM BIOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS (E.G., ARNOLD GESELL);

IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

SOURCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CAN BE NATURE AND/OR NURTURE.

ALL POLITICIZED CONTROVERSY IN PSYCHOLOGY INVOLVES INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Themes of Development 5: CULTURAL UNIVERSALS

VERSUS CULTURAL RELATIVISM CULTURAL RELATIVISM, EXTREME VIEW: CHILD

DEVELOPMENT HAS DIFFERENT LAWS AND PATTERNS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES. VOGOTSKY IS MAIN THEORIST OF EXTREME

CULTURAL RELATIVISM CULTURAL RELATIVISM, MODERATE VIEW: CULTURES

AFFECT THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT; CHILDREN WALK SOONER IN CULTURES THAT

ENCOURAGE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT CULTURAL UNIVERSALISM: THERE ARE UNIVERSAL,

NORMATIVE FEATURES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT ALL CHILDREN GO THROUGH PIAGET’S STAGES; ALL CHILDREN SMILE AT AROUND 4 WEEKS OF AGE; ALL INFANTS BETWEEN 6 MONTHS AND 2 YEARS ARE

FRIGHTENED WHEN SEPARATED FROM THEIR MOTHER.

Themes of Development: 6. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation INTRINSIC: DOING THINGS FOR THEIR

OWN SAKE E.G., STUDYING BECAUSE YOU'RE

INTERESTED EXTRINSIC: DOING THINGS IN ORDER TO

GAIN REWARDS OR AVOID PUNISHMENTS E.G., STUDYING TO AVOID PUNISHMENT

Theoretical Perspectives on Development

Two functions of theories Help integrate information into coherent,

interesting, plausible accounts of how children develop.

Social learning theory

Generate testable hypotheses or predictions about child behavior

Example: Evolutionary theory predicts males more prone to dominance and risk taking.


Five general theoretical perspectives

1. Structural-Organismic Approach focuses on structured set of stages an organism goes through over the course of psychological growth

Used in Freud, Erikson, and Piaget’s theories

Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory

Age 0 - 1 Oral Stage

Age 1 - 3 Anal Stage

Age 3 - 6 Phallic Stage

Age 6 - 12 Latency Stage

Age 12+ Genital Stage

Ego

Id

Super Ego

Freud:Personality is

formed within the first 6 years

Erikson’s Psychosocial TheoryErikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Ages 1 - 3

Ages 3 - 6

Ages 6 - 12

Ages 12 - 20

Ages 20 - 30

Ages 30 - 65

Ages 65+

Ages 0 - 1

Identity vs. Role confusion

Industry vs. Inferiority

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Trust vs. Mistrust

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Integrity vs. Despair

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory

1.) Organization: Just as the structure of a mature tree is predictable from given its genetic tendencies and the environments trees grow in, children’s cognitive abilities change in an organized, regular, and predictable way over development.

2.) Adaptation: Cognitive development depends on interacting with the world and adjusting to the demands and reality of the world. For example, our concepts reflect the categories of things in the world and change as the world changes.

Piagetian Theory, 3 and 4: Assimilation and Accommodation:

Adapt to newinformation

AccommodationAssimilation

Reinterpret new experiences so they fit into old ideas – existing ideas don’t change, stay same

Revamp old ideas so they can adapt to new – change current ways of thinking/ideas so as to add new knowledge

Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory 5.) DEVELOPMENT IS THE RESULT OF

QUALITATIVE CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF CHILDREN'S THINKING

6.) EGOCENTRISM: CHILDREN TEND TO HAVE DIFFICULTY SEEING THINGS FROM OTHERS' POINTS OF VIEW. E.g., 4-year-old can’t understand other child’s point of

view about a toy they both want, or thinks that a visual display will look the same from a different viewpoint.

WITH AGE, CHILDREN GRADUALLY DECENTER, but even we adults are somewhat egocentric.

Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory 7.) CONSTRUCTIVISM: CHILDREN ACTIVELY

INTERPRET THE WORLD, THEY ARE NOT MERELY PASSIVE RECIPIENTS OF REINFORCEMENTS; THEY CONSTRUCT THEIR OWN REALITY; THEY INTERPRET WORLD AS FUNCTION OF THEIR STAGE. A stage is like having a pair of colored glasses: It

makes you see the world differently; 8.) YOUNG CHILDREN ARE LESS FLEXIBLE IN

THEIR THINKING; e.g., moral rules are absolute: “Stealing is bad,” Sex roles are absolute: “Girls wear dresses”; there are

no exceptions.

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor

Pre-operational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational

0 - 2 7 - 12 12+2 - 7

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Birth to 2 years

Sensori-motor Uses senses and motor skills, items known by use

Object permanence learned

2-6 yrs Pre-operational

Symbolic thinking, language used; egocentric thinking

Imagination/ experience grow, child de-centers

7-11 yrs Concrete operational

Logic applied, has objective/rational interpretations

Conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications

12 yrs to adulthood

Formal operational

Thinks abstractly, hypothetical ideas (broader issues)

Ethics, politics, social/moral issues explored

Focus on organization and adaptation

Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on

the six developmental issues

1.) NATURE-NURTURE: INTERACTION BETWEEN CHILD AND ENVIRONMENT; ABILITIES SUCH AS ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION ARE INNATE; BUT DEVELOPMENT OCCURS BECAUSE THE CHILD CONSTANTLY MUST ACCOMMODATE TO NEW ENVIRONMENTS

2.) ACTIVE CHILD: CHILD IS INNATELY CURIOUS AND EXPLORATORY

3.) DEVELOPMENT IS DISCONTINUOUS: COMPLETE RE-ORGANIZATION AT EACH STAGE (QUALITATIVE CHANGE); CHANGE IS STEP-LIKE RATHER THAN SMOOTH.

Standing of Piagetian (Cognitive Developmental) Theory on

the six developmental issues

4.) SITUATIONAL VERSUS INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS: INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS, ESPECIALLY THE STAGE THE CHILD IS IN, ARE EMPHASIZED RISK VERSUS RESILIENCE: STAGE THEORISTS DON'T

EMPHASIZE THIS MUCH, BUT THEIR THEORY IS CONSISTENT WITH THE IDEA THAT INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS MODERATE RISK: E.G., OLDER CHILDREN WOULD REACT TO A DIVORCE DIFFERENTLY THAN YOUNGER BECAUSE THEY WOULD BE IN DIFFERENT COGNITIVE STAGES.

5.) CULTURAL UNIVERSALS (NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT) ARE EMPHASIZED: ALL CHILDREN GO THROUGH THE STAGES

6.) MOTIVATION IS INTRINSIC; CHILD ENJOYS FIGURING OUT THE WORLD

2. Learning Theories: Behaviorism

Five Theoretical Perspectives

2. Learning Approach:

Behaviorism focuses on learning of behavior; not unobservable factors or motivations (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner)

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s dogs; Watson classically conditions fear of rats in a baby.

Operant Conditioning: Skinner’s pigeons

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Pairing of metronome with appearance of food makes each a Conditioned Stimulus

CR (salivation)CS

Play metronome (CS) and dog salivates (CR) without food being presented

Appearance of food becomes CS; dog salivation is the CR

Before conditioning: when food was placed in dish (UCS), the dog salivated (UCR)UCR (salivation)UCS

CSCS CR (salivation)

Watson’s Classical Conditioning

UCS (loud noise)

CR (fear)

CS (furry rat)

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

If grades or parents’ urging are not a ‘reward’ (reinforcement), student will do other activities

If grades or parents’ urging are a ‘reward’ (reinforcement), student will study well

Quiz grade of A earned

Quiz grade of F

earned

Learning Theories: Cognitive Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

Cognitive Social Learning Theory: children learn through operant and classical conditioning and from observation and imitation of role models

1. CHILDREN ARE ABLE TO LEARN THINGS WITHOUT REINFORCEMENT.

Children observing aggressive models were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviors even if they were not rewarded for doing so.

You learn it just by seeing it, not because you are rewarded.

Fig. 1-2

ATTENTION Experience, Personality characteristics,

Relationship with model, Situational variables

RETENTIONRehearsal, Organization, Recall, Other cognitive skills

REPRODUCTIONCognitive representation, Concept matching, Use of feedback

MOTIVATIONExternal & Vicarious incentives, Self-evaluation,

Internalized standards, Social comparison

Matched Behavior

Modeled Behavior


2. SOCIAL LEARNING AND COGNITION: Children do not imitate blindly or automatically; cognitive factors are advanced as explaining why children imitate some things and not others.

Bandura changed learning theory by combining it with aspects of cognitive psychology. This can be seen in the four processes Bandura proposes as relevant to social learning: Attention, Retention, Production, and Motivation. All of these undergo age changes; they all develop.

Therefore, age affects social learning.


1. Attention: Children gradually improve in their ability to pay attention. This affects social learning because they pay better

attention to models. One couldn't lecture to kindergartners and expect them to pay attention.

2. Retention: Children gradually improve their ability to remember things they have seen or experienced. This affects social learning because children are better

able to remember what models did.


3. Production: Children's abilities gradually improve. This means that they are able to produce more of what they

see and try to imitate. Obviously, young children can't imitate behaviors that they are physically unable to reproduce any more than I can dunk a basketball just by watching someone else do it.

4. Motivation: Motivation changes as children get older. For example, older children are probably more concerned

about how others see them and more motivated to be socially acceptable. This might affect what types of models they would pay special attention to. A teenager might pay special attention to the behavior of other kids who are seen as cool.

Fig. 1-2

ATTENTION Experience, Personality characteristics,

Relationship with model, Situational variables

RETENTIONRehearsal, Organization, Recall, Other cognitive skills

MOTIVATIONExternal & Vicarious incentives, Self-evaluation,

Internalized standards, Social comparison

Matched Behavior

REPRODUCTIONCognitive representation, Concept matching, Use of feedback

Modeled Behavior

Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the Six Developmental Issues

1.) NATURE vs. NURTURE: CSLT PROPOSES ALL INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ARE DUE TO DIFFERENT LEARNING CONTINGENCIES; i.e., NURTURE

2.) CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM VIEWED CHILD AS PASSIVE; HOWEVER, CSLT SEES THE CHILD AS 'MODERATELY ACTIVE' BECAUSE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF CERTAIN CHILD CHARACTERISTICS IN AFFECTING HOW CHILDREN PROCESS THE ENVIRONMENT (ATTENTION, RETENTION, PRODUCTION, MOTIVATION)

3.) DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS CONTINUOUS: THERE IS QUANTITATIVE CHANGE: OLDER CHILDREN HAVE LEARNED MORE THAN YOUNGER CHILDREN; DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS SMOOTH, NOT ABRUPT

Standing of Cognitive Social Learning Theory on the six Developmental Issues

4. ) EMPHASIS ON SITUATIONS (MODELING OPPORTUNITIES, REINFORCEMENTS, PUNISHMENTS) RATHER THAN INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS. EMPHASIZE FAMILY AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL

FACTORS AS MODERATING RISK

5.) EMPHASIS ON IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT, NOT CULTURAL UNIVERSALS. NO CONCERN WITH NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT

6.) MOTIVATION IS EXTRINSIC; CHILD LEARNS IN ORDER TO GET REWARDS OR

AVOID PUNISHMENT


Information-Processing Approaches focus on flow of information through the cognitive system.

Computer as Metaphor: You type data in, the software processes it but there is a hardware supporting the software, and out comes a formatted term paper.

Problem, software (cognitive program) analyses it using parts of brain (hardware), out comes the answer.

Information is taken into brain

Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored in the brain

until use

OUTPUTINPUTInformation is used as basis of behaviors and

interactions

Information-Processing Theory

math

historyreligion

science

literature

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: 3. Dynamic Systems Theory

Dynamic Systems Perspective focuses on changes over time that result from interacting elements in a complex, integrated system

Individuals and their achievements canonly be understood within thisframework

DST sees child development as a system of interacting parts. This is most like the transactional model mentioned above: everything affects everything else and it's all very complicated.

The child is constantly changing the environment and the environment is constantly changing the child.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Dynamic Systems Theory

Example: The family: if parents have a bad relationship, it may have effects on the child. Child psychologists often want to bring the whole

family in if one child is having a problem; dad's drinking problem affects family finances and mom's mood, resulting in harsher punishment and fewer opportunities like after-school tutoring.

So all these things affect the child: everything affects everything else.

The child inherits not only the parents' genes but also the parents' environment and from the moment of conception they are constantly interacting.

Dynamic Systems Theory Characteristics of Systems Theory (from Table 1-2). The ones I

emphasize are: 1.) Complexity: Each part of the system is unique but related to the other parts of the system. Example: Family members

2.) Wholeness and Organization: The whose system is more than the sum of its parts. Its collective behavior can be described in terms that do not necessarily apply to the system's parts and their interrelationships. To study a family, you must do more than study an the characteristics of each member separately and the relationships between them, but the organization of all family relationships and the whole family as an interacting unit. See example above. 3.) Equifinality: Although the dynamics of certain kinds of systems may be quite different, over time they tend to develop similarities. Family systems across different societies share many common characteristics (like parental affection), but the particular customs of a culture may dictate quite different expressions of these charateristics (giving a child a car as a graduation present in the U.S. versus giving a child a bow and arrow in New Guinea.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development:

4. Contextual Perspectives

Contextual theories emphasize the child’s environment, but they tend to emphasize much broader aspects of the environment than social learning theory (which emphasizes modeling and reinforcement)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – development is product of social and cultural experiences

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory – experiences and relationships in layers of environmental systems impact child development

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Contextual Perspectives: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Development is product of social and

cultural experiences Emphasizes importance of cultural

variation in development – cultural tools include language, technology

Vygotsky was the premier psychologist of the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik Revolution. He was a Marxist, and his theory reflected that.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Contextual Perspectives: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

1) Did NOT focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of social interaction, especially with adults (parents, teachers).

2.) Focus on DYADIC INTERACTIONS (e.g., child being taught by a parent how to perform some culturally specific action), rather than child by himself.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Contextual Perspectives: Vygotsky’s

Sociocultural Theory 3.) Social world mediates children's cognitive development.

Cognitive development occurs as child's thinking is molded by society in the form of parents, teachers, and peers. This leads to peer tutoring as a strategy in classrooms.

4.) The result is that people's thinking differs dramatically between cultures because different cultures stress different things. Leads to extreme cultural relatavism.

For example, Box 1.1 on p. 17 shows that Uzbekis responded to reasoning problems using concrete examples from their own experience. But after learning to read and write, they responded to the problems in a more abstract manner.

Before literacy, they had trouble with syllogism where the truth of the premises is irrelevant to the logical properties of the argument.

All people who live in red houses are purple. John lives in a red house. John is purple.

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Chronosystem

Macrosystem

Microsystem

Mass media, education,Friends of familyExtended familyLegal services, work,Community/neighborsSocial welfare services

Intimate & immediate effects: Family, School,Peers, PlaygroundHealth care servicesReligious institutions

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological model of development

Child

Historical times,etc.

National customsCultural valuesSocial conditionsEconomic patternsPolitical philosophy

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: 5. Ethological and Evolutionary Perspectives: Ethology: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen

CLASSICAL ETHOLOGICAL THEORY: Ethology studies the behavior of animals and humans from an evolutionary perspective

BEHAVIOR AS AN ADAPTATION (HAS SURVIVAL VALUE) ADAPTATION = A BEHAVIOR, a physical trait (like the

bones of a bird wing) or cognitive program DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION IN ORDER TO PERFORM A PARTICULAR FUNCTION.

= an evolutionary problem solver. EXAMPLE: ATTACHMENT IS A BEHAVIORAL

SYSTEM DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION TO KEEP THE BABY CLOSE TO ITS MOTHER

Animals have thousands of adaptations.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Ethology

MUCH OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR IS INSTINCTIVE INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR = : 1.) BEHAVIOR OCCURS IN ALL MEMBERS OF SPECIES (= SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIOR) 2.) NO LEARNING REQUIRED; OFTEN BEHAVIOR

CAN DEVELOP WITHOUT ANIMAL EVER EXPERIENCING OTHER MEMBERS OF THE SPECIES 3.) STEREOTYPED BEHAVIOR


Ethology emphasize how animal’s behavior is adapted to the context (evolutionary contextualism). BEHAVIOR IS ELICITED IN PARTICULAR

CONTEXTS: E.G., AN ANIMAL MAY BE AGGRESSIVE ONLY DURING MATING SEASON, OR ONLY WITH OTHER MALES

LIKE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY, ETHOLOGY EMPHASIZES UNIVERSALS OF DEVELOPMENT (NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT: ALL CHILDREN DEVELOP THE BASIC EMOTIONS

IN THE SAME SEQUENCE IN ALL CULTURES: JOY, SADNESS, DISTRESS, ANGER, FEAR, ETC.


METHODOLOGY: NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION; STRONGLY OPPOSED TO LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS UNTIL BASIC NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION COMPLETED. This was a major departure from both

Cognitive Social Learning Theory (lab based experiments) and Cognitive Developmental Theory (interviews)


IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS OF ETHOLOGY: 1.) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION 2.) THINK OF CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR AS

INCLUDING A SET OF BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL OVER EVOLUTIONARY TIME

3.) STUDY BEHAVIORS THAT ALSO OCCUR IN ANIMALS (DOMINANCE, AGGRESSION, ATTACHMENT, early parent-offspring relationships)

4.) FOCUS ON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR: EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS, THREAT GESTURES, POSTURE, ETC.

5.) CRITICAL PERIOD OR SENSITIVE PERIOD.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods

DEFINITION: A PERIOD IN DEVELOPMENT WHEN ORGANISM IS MOST OPEN TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES (I. E., HAS GREATEST PLASTICITY) HIGH

PLASTICITY LOW ______________________________ AGE

EXAMPLES OF CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE PERIODS: IMPRINTING IN DUCKS; ATTACHMENT IN HUMANS; EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON IQ(?) PRENATAL EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS (E.G., ALCOHOL) ON BABIES

Sensitive Periods for Teratogens

Ethology: Sensitive or Critical Periods: Orphaned Baby Hippo adopts Turtle as Mom

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Evolutionary Psychology

Similar to ethology but emphasis on the adaptiveness of cognition. The brain is composed of a variety of specialized

mechanisms designed to solve particular problems in our evolutionary past. These are adaptations – evolutionary problem solvers.

For example, there are mechanisms to pick appropriate mates (e.g., males attracted to youth and beauty as signs of fertility and health) and to deal with objects in three-dimensional space.

Babies come into the world with a basic understanding of 3-dimensional space and objects. For example, they understand that objects like a toy truck can't go through a barrier. See Figure 8.1 on p. 328.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Evolutionary Psychology

Each mechanism is specifically designed to solve an Each mechanism is specifically designed to solve an adaptive problem: The mind as a Swiss Army knife with adaptive problem: The mind as a Swiss Army knife with different mechanism for fear, sexual attraction, attachment different mechanism for fear, sexual attraction, attachment to mother, estimating probabilities, seeing 3-dimensional to mother, estimating probabilities, seeing 3-dimensional

objects, etc.objects, etc.

Box 1.1: Children of the Great Depression (p. 15) Mothers’ power increased as fathers lost

jobs; mothers got jobs or took in boarders Increase in divorce, separation, and desertion Children “drafted” into work More punitive discipline, especially fathers Children, especially boys moved out sooner;

negative affect, moody Tended to take safe, secure jobs rather than

risky jobs later in life

The EndThe End

A Contemporary Viewpoint by Hetherington & Parke Child Psychology.

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Transcript of A Contemporary Viewpoint by Hetherington & Parke Child Psychology.