A Computer Science View of THE LOAD
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A Computer Science View of THE LOAD
David E. Culler
CS294-F09
Feb 2, 2009
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Where does the energy go?
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10-8-2008 3
… Buildings
Electricity
Water
Supply Air
People
Waste Water
Return Air
Heat
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04/21/23 4
Supply DemandFigure Courtesy Professor Arun Majumdar, UCB,
LBNL
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BUILDINGS CONSUME SIGNIFICANT ENERGY
Source: U.S. Department of Energy 2007 Building Energy Data Book. Sept 2007
The Numbers Tell the Story
$370 BillionTotal U.S. Annual Energy Costs
200%Increase in U.S. Electricity Consumption Since 1990
40%Total U.S. Energy Consumption for Buildings
72%Total U.S. Electricity Consumption for Buildings
55%Total U.S. Natural Gas Consumption for Buildings
The Numbers Tell the Story
$370 BillionTotal U.S. Annual Energy Costs
200%Increase in U.S. Electricity Consumption Since 1990
40%Total U.S. Energy Consumption for Buildings
72%Total U.S. Electricity Consumption for Buildings
55%Total U.S. Natural Gas Consumption for Buildings
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04/21/23 6
Buildings Matter! Buildings construction/renovation contributed 9.5% to US GDP and employs
approximately 8 million people. Buildings’ utility bills totaled $370 Billion in 2005. Buildings use 72 % of the electricity and 55 % of the nation’s natural gas.
Buildings construction/renovation contributed 9.5% to US GDP and employs approximately 8 million people. Buildings’ utility bills totaled $370 Billion in 2005.
Buildings use 72 % of the electricity and 55 % of the nation’s natural gas.
Source: Buildings Energy Data Book 2007
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04/21/23 7
EPA Nat Action Plan for Energy Efficiency
• 30% of energy consumed in buildings is wasted
• 66% electrical, 34% gas and other
• 15.5 kWh per square foot
* 2003 EIA Commercial Building Consumption Survey
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Where does the energy go in buildings?
• HVAC – Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning
• Lighting
• Major Equipment
• Plug Loads
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HVAC• Heating – maintain indoor temperature within
comfort threshold – ASHRAE 55-1992: 68-75° winter, 73-79° summer (why?)
• Ventilation – replacing air in a space to control temperature or remove
CO2, contaminants, moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust and airborne bacteria
– ASHRAE 62-1999: 20 CFM per person in work environment
• Air Conditioning– provides cooling, ventilation, and humidity control
• Provides comfort to people– Humidity, Pressure, Acoustics, Visually pleasing, …
– Productivity, durability, health, ...
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Thermodynamics …• 0th Law: If two thermodynamic systems are each in
thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• 1st Law: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change forms.
– In any process in an isolated system, the total energy remains the same.
• 2nd Law: The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system always increases over time, approaching a maximum value.
• 3rd Law: the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is zero at absolute zero"
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Heat Transfer
• Conduction– Energy transferred when free atoms collide
– 2nd law: from higher to lower
– Via a medium (solids, liquids, gas)
• Convection– Displacement of molecule groups at a different
temperature
– Transfer of enthalpy
• Radiation– Heat transfer caused by emission and
absorption of electromagnetic waves
• Latent heat
• Thermal Resistance (R-Value)
• U = 1/R
• Heat Flux: Q = U x A x ΔT04/21/23 12
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Heat Gains
• Solar Heat Gain
• Occupants
• Equipment
• …
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Psychrometrics• psychrometric ratio
– ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the product of mass transfer coefficient and humid heat at a wetted surface
• Specific enthalpy – symbolized by h, also called heat
content per unit mass, is the sum of the internal (heat) energy of the moist air in question, including the heat of the air and water vapor within
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HVAC Equipment
• Fans / Blowers
• Furnace / Heating Unit
• Filters
• Compressor
• Condensing Units
• Evaporator (cooling coil)
• Control System
• Air Distribution System– Ducts, dampers, …
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Building HVAC: Ventilation
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Zone
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Building HVAC: AHU
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Air Handling
Unit
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Zone
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Air Handling Unit (AHU)
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Building HVAC: Chilled Water
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Air Handling
Unit
Chilled Water Pump
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Zone
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Building HVAC: Chiller
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Air Handling
Unit
Chilled Water Pump
Refrigerant
ChillerCompressor
Expansion Valve
Condenser
Evaporator
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Zone
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Building HVAC: Cooling
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Air Handling
Unit
Chilled Water Pump
Refrigerant
Chiller
Water
Condenser Pump
CompressorExpansion Valve
Condenser
Evaporator
Cooling Tower
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Zone
Air
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Major Equipment
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Building HVAC: Zone Control
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Air Handling
Unit
Chilled Water Pump
Refrigerant
Chiller
Water
Condenser Pump
CompressorExpansion Valve
Condenser
Evaporator
Cooling Tower
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Damper
Zone
Reheater
Air
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Heating
• AHU Cool + Zone Reheating
• AHU + Boiler
• Distribute Hot and Cool H2O and mix at zone
• Circulate hot H20 + Radiator separate from VAC
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Building HVAC: Major Equipment
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Supply Air Fan Exhaust Air Fan
Air Handling
Unit
Chilled Water Pump
Refrigerant
Chiller
Water
Condenser Pump
CompressorExpansion Valve
Condenser
Evaporator
Cooling Tower
Return Air Vent
Air Vent
Damper
Zone
Reheater
Air Conditioner
Major Eqmt
Air
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System Types and Terms
• Packaged Rooftop Unit
• Split System
• Heat Pump
• Geothermal
• Air to Air
• Hydronic (water)
• (Packaged Thermal) PTAC / PTHP
• Constant Volume
• Variable Volume
• Indoor Air Quality
• Direct Expansion
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Heat Pump
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10-8-2008 28
Soda HVAC components
• Chillers 2 x 130 kw
• Colling Towers: 2 x 33.2 kw
• Computer Room units: 12 x 45 kVA
• AHU SF: 3.2 kw
• AHU RF: 2.3 kw
• Economizers: 4 x 2.6 kw + 2.1 + 1.4
• Supply fans: 4 x 2.3 kw + 1.4
• Pumps: 2 x 9.3 kw + 2 x 14 kw
• Compressors: 2 x 5 kw
- It’s all duty cycle
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10-8-2008 29
Soda Chilled Water
• Blow cold air throughout building
• Maintain circulation• Adjust cooling with
vents and VFDs• Heat it where
needed• AC determined by
needs of the worst heat load
– Comm closet
2x chillers
Cooling Towers
287 288 290
340
420
530
Pumps
Fans
Machine Room ACCs
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10-8-2008 30
Soda Electrical
12 KV dist.2x Substation
1200
A 2
77/4
80 3
pha
se
2500
A 1
20/2
08 3
pha
se
2x ChillerMCM1
HP1A400
HP1A400
HP2A600
HP3A400
HP4A400
HP5A400
HP6A100
HP7A400
MCM2
Lighting
Pumps
Fans
Machine Rooms
Offices
Classrooms
LP2E225
LP2D225
LP2C225
LP1A400
LP2A800
HP3A400
HP4A400
HP5A400
HP6A100
HP7A400
LP1B400
LP2B225
LP2G225
LP2F225
LP2E225
LP2D225
LP2C225
LP3B225
LP2E225
LP2D225
LP2C225
LP4B225
LP2E225LP2C
225LP5B
225
LP2D225
LP2C225
LP2B225
LP2D225
LP2C225
LP2B225
LP2K225
LP2J225
LP2I225
LP2H225
LP2G225
LP2F225
LP2K225
LP2J225
LP2I225
LP2H225
LP2G225
LP2F225
LP2J225
LP2I225
LP2H225
LP2G225
LP2F225
~42 circuits each
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HVAC Control
• Building is designed for max cool/heat load
• Operates at partial load
• Varies with weather, activity, building configuration
• HVAC control affects this “partial load service”
• Within operational constraints– Zonal temps
– Adequate airflow
– Air pressure
– Flow and pressure throughout the system
– Energy efficiency
– Maintenance efficiency
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Controlled Parameters and Points
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Ventilation
• Pressure
• Flow Rate
• …
• Mechanical Room – Primary equipment– Chiller, boiler, pumps, heat exchanged
• Secondary equipment – AHU “weather maker”
• Room controls– Zone thermostats, humidistats, …
– Fan coil units, variable air volume units, terminal reheat, unit vents, exhausters
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Why Controls
• 1) Maintain thermal comfort conditions
• 2) Maintain optimum indoor air quality
• 3) Reduce energy use
• 4) Safe plant operation
• 5) To reduce manpower costs
• 6) Identify maintenance problems
• 7) Efficient plant operation to match the load
• 8) Monitoring system performance
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Open Loop (feed forward) Control
• a type of controller which computes its input into a system using only the current state and its model of the system
– No feedback
• Typically exerts control points according to a schedule
• Works well when there is an accurate model of how the plant responds
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Controller Actuator ProcessGoal Outcome
ModelTimeCtrl State
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Closed Loop (Feedback) Control
• Types of Feedback Control– Two-position, on/off, bang-bang
– Modulated, continuous
• Means of Control– Direct acting – e.g., radiator release value
– Electric / Electronic – e.g., bi-metalic strip with relay
– Pneumatic
– Direct Digital Control
– Mixed
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Controller Actuator ProcessSet point Value+-
SensorObservationReadingMeasurement
Comparison
Error signalFeedback
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Simple Closed-Loop Control
• Set point
• Tolerance / Band
• Sensing
• Action
• Calibration
• Model and Assumptions
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Two Position Control example
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Load controller
24 v AC @ ~10 mA
Furnace
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Sensors
• Temperature– Resistance Temperature
Device (RTD)
– Thermistor
– Thermocouple
• Relative Humidity– Resistance humidity sensors
– Capacitance humidity sensors
– Quartz crystal humidity
– Temperature compensation, condensation
• Pressure– Variable resistance
– Capacitance
• Flow Sensors– Orifice
– Venturi
– Flow nozzels
– Vortex shedding
– Positive displacement
– Turbine based
– Magnetic
– Ultrasonic
• Air flow– Hot wire anemometer
– Pitot – static tube
• Dew point– Hygrometers
• Liquid level– Hydrostatic, ultrasonic,
capacitance
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June 2008WEI - L05 sense 39
An Analog World
• Transducers– Allow us to convert physical phenomena to a voltage
potential in a well-defined way.
R ohm ?
V
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June 2008WEI - L05 sense 40
Simplest Analog Device
• Often think of it as an actuator, rather than a sensor– But that’s because of the circuit we put it in
• It is binary (two states) but why is it not digital?
switch
Rain Sensor
Magnetic Reed Contact Switch
Tilt Sensor
Water Level Float Sensor
PhotoInterrupter
Flow Sensor
TemperatureSwitch
Pressure Switch
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June 2008WEI - L05 sense 41
To Sample a switch, make it digital
• Many sensor are switches
• Two “states” but not digital– Open => no current
– Closed => no voltage drop
• Cap charges to Vacc when open
• Cap discharges to GND when closed
VD
VtL
VtH
Vacc
GND
switch
D
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June 2008WEI - L05 sense 42
Analog to Digital
• What we want
• How we have to get there
SoftwareSensor ADC
PhysicalPhenomena
Voltage ADC Counts Engineering Units
PhysicalPhenomena
Engineering Units
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Modulated Sensor Example
• What will you measure across an RTD?
• Many sensors modulate current– 4-20 mA standard
– Why 4 mA => 0 ?
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R
V
ADC
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June 2008WEI - L05 sense 44
Ratiometric sensor
• Va = Vacc* Rsens / (Rcomp+ Rsens)
• use Vref = Vacc
• D = M * Rsens / (Rcomp+ Rsens)
Vacc
GND
Resistive Sensor
VA
Rcomp
Rsensor
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Example Modulated Control
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Controller Issues
• Partial-load via on/off control means everything is starting and stopping
– Costly in energy, efficiency, maintenance
• Modulation by wasting is not attractive either
• New technology options– Variable air vent
– Variable frequency drives
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480 V Motors
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 50 100 150 200
Horse Power
Po
wer
Fac
tor
Full Load Power Factor
Starting Power factor
1 hp = 746 watts
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Matching Sensor & Control
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Computational plumbing
• Building needs hotter water for heat on cold days
• OAT secondary sensor changes setpoint for on/off pan heater
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The Controlled Processes
• Example – flow rate in heating/cooling coils in heat exchangers
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Matching controller & actuator
• Also need to worry about sensor & actuator effect
– Air flow, pressure, …
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Controller Responses
• 1) Two-position – Complete stroke
• 2) Floating– Fast airside control loops
– E.g., Two position dampers
• 3) Proportional– Y = -kp Q
• 4) Proportional plus Integral (PI or P+I)
• Y = -ki Qdt
• control action is taken proportional to the integral of deviation Q
• 5) Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID or P+I+D)
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Direct Digital Control !!!
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10-8-2008 53
Building Management Systems
• 1300 sense / ctrl points in Soda Hall
• Vast database of action / effect
• No science to turning all the knobs
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10-8-2008 54
Building Management Systems
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Economizers
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Economizers
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04/21/23 57
Resources
• ASHRAE –The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers www.ashrae.org
• www.energycodes.gov
• http://www.demandless.org/building/
• http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/documents/sector-meeting/4bi_officebuilding.pdf
• http://sustainability.berkeley.edu/
• www.buildingscience.com
• http://www.southface.org
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Questions
• How much load can be sculpted?
• How much of the peak can be shaved? Versus baseline?
• What is the opportunity for sophisticated model-driven control?
• Where to sense what?
• What are the physical resources to abstract? Higher level abstractions?
• What would “building applications” be?
• How can it interact proactively with the grid?
• How much can be done with improvements versus new design of the envelope?
04/21/23 58