A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ZOOTHERAPEUTIC … et al., 2010.pdf · A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF...

A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ZOOTHERAPEUTICREMEDIES FROM SELECTED AREAS IN ALBANIA, ITALY,

SPAIN AND NEPAL

Cassandra Leah Quave, Usha Lohani, Alonso Verde, Jose Fajardo, Diego Rivera,Concepcion Obon, Arturo Valdes and Andrea Pieroni

Zootherapy is the treatment of human ailments with remedies derived from animals and theirproducts. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on thisphenomenon has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. Interviewsregarding zootherapeutic traditions were conducted with informants from Albania, Italy, Nepal andSpain. We identified 80 species used in zootherapeutic remedies, representing 4 phyla in the animalkingdom: Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca. Remedies were ranked by consensusindices. Our studies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by human subsistencepatterns. Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in the Mediterranean and Asia,and these differences also play a substantive role in the selection and use of animal-based remedies.

Key words: zootherapy, ethnoveterinary, traditional medicine

La zooterapia es el tratamiento de las dolencias humanas con los remedios obtenidos de animales ysus productos. A pesar de su incidencia en las practicas medicas tradicionales en todo el mundo, lainvestigacion sobre este fenomeno a menudo ha estado descuidada en comparacion con lainvestigacion de las plantas medicinales. Las entrevistas respecto a las practicas de zooterapia sellevaron a cabo con informantes de Albania, Italia, Nepal y Espana. Identificamos 80 especies usadasen los remedios de zooterapia, representando 4 phyla en el reino animal: Annelida, Arthropoda,Chordata, y Mollusca. Los remedios fueron clasificados mediante ındices de consenso. Hablamos unpoco de las semejanzas interculturales y las diferencias en el uso medicinal de las faunas locales.

Cassandra Leah Quave, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas forMedical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham St., Mail Slot 511, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA (e-mail: [email protected])

Usha Lohani, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, NEPAL Post Box-7844 (e-mail: [email protected])

Alonso Verde, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])

Jose Fajardo, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])

Diego Rivera, Dep. Biologıa Vegetal, Universidad de Murcia, Fac. de Biologıa, E-30100 Murcia, SPAIN(e-mail: [email protected])

Concepcion Obon, Dep. Biologıa Aplicada, Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Escuela PolitecnicaSuperior de Orihuela, Ctra Beniel km. 3,2, 03312 Orihuela, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])

Arturo Valdes, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, Spain (e-mail: [email protected])

Andrea Pieroni, University of Gastronomic Sciences, Via Amedeo di Savoia 8, I-12060 Pollenzo/Bra,ITALY (e-mail: [email protected])

Journal of Ethnobiology 30(1): 92–125 Spring/Summer 2010

Introduction

The treatment of ailments with remedies made from animals and theirproducts is known as zootherapy (Alves and Rosa 2005). Animal-basedmedicines are generally derived from three sources: the whole or parts of theanimal body, metabolic products of the animal (secretions or excrement), andother things created by animals such as nests, cocoons, honey, and eggs (Costa-Neto 2005). Since ancient times, zootherapy has been integral to the traditionalpharmacopoeias of many cultures (Alves and Rosa 2006; Costa-Neto 1999; Lev2003; Mahawar and Jaroli 2007) and has comprised a fundamental element towell-known traditional medical systems, such as Ayurvedic medicine, Tradi-tional Chinese Medicine, and ancient Egyptian medicine. Records of themedicinal use of animals and their by-products date back to the invention ofwriting (Lev 2003, 2006). Today, animal products make up an important portionof modern pharmaceuticals; approximately 18% of prescription drugs used in theUSA have animal origins (WRI 2000). Yet, despite its continued prevalence intraditional medical practices around the globe and importance as a potentialsource of novel pharmaceutical agents, zootherapy appears in the literature muchless than studies of medicinal plant therapies.

Zootherapy is a vital component of traditional medicine (Alves and Rosa2007a, 2007b, 2007c). This is especially evident in rural communities where accessto modern healthcare is limited. Over centuries, the close interactions of ruralpopulations with the environment, often associated with an economic depen-dence on local natural resources, has fostered the accumulation of a wealth ofknowledge in this field. This knowledge of animal-based medicines, much likethat of medicinal plants, is usually passed down through the oral traditionstypical of many societies.

Loss of this traditional knowledge (TK) in the wake of rampant urbanizationin cultures across the globe instills a sense of urgency for ethnobiologists torecord and interpret this data before it is lost forever. In an effort to betterunderstand the role of zootherapy in traditional medicine today and to record TKof endangered medicinal practices, we have taken a cross-cultural approach toexamine data from our field sites located in four countries. We identify, describe,and compare zootherapeutic remedies used in the traditional pharmacopoeias ofrural communities in Albania, Italy, Spain, and Nepal (Figure 1). These fourregions were selected specifically for their disparate cultural and geographicdomains. We use data from the Mediterranean field sites in Albania, Italy, andSpain to compare zootherapeutic practices in locations that are characterized bydifferent cultures, but similar terrain and fauna. The Nepal data providezootherapeutic practices from a region with a different culture, environment, andnative fauna than that of the Mediterranean sites.

Cross-cultural studies of zootherapeutic practices are uncommon, yet theycan offer valuable insight into the dynamic relationship that we share with ourenvironment. In this paper, we aim to address the following questions: How doesculture mediate human-environment interactions as they relate to zootherapies?How do subsistence patterns and economic models influence human health and

Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 93

access to medicines? How can we use our understanding of traditional lifewaysand ethnomedical systems to promote biodiversity conservation?

Study Area

Albania

Albania has a predominantly mountainous terrain. Although a relativelysmall country, it has a high level of biodiversity, and 5.8% of the country isprotected as national parks and reserves (Hoda and Zotaj 2007). The nation’seconomy is based on agriculture and forestry. According to the AlbanianNational Institute of Statistics, 58% of Albanians live in rural areas andapproximately 20% of the population live in very poor conditions, 10% on lessthan US $2 per day (World Bank 2003). Albania is one of the poorest countries inEurope with an estimated Gross National Product of US $930 per capita.

Recent ethnobiological studies have been conducted in two remote villages–Lepushe and Theth–both located in the Shala Valley in the northern Albanian Alps(Pieroni 2008; Pieroni et al. 2005). The terrain in this area is mountainous and ischaracterized by alpine pastures and beech forests. The average temperature in thesummer is 16uC, andwinter brings heavy snowfalls and an average temperature of23uC. Members of these communities survive on an economy of self-sufficiency;households care for a few livestock (usually one or two cows, pigs, and a fewsheep) and cultivate staple crops like potatoes and corn alongwith some additionalvegetables. Thus, due to the economic environment and physical isolation fromother populations, these communities maintain strong ties with their environmentand are actively involved in the collection of plant materials and animal productsfrom both wild and cultivated sources for food and medicine.

Italy

Italy’s Basilicata province lies in the south-central region of the country andis dominated by a rugged, mountainous terrain. This 9,992 km2 region has a

FIGURE 1. Map of the study area: Spain, Italy, Albania and Nepal.

94 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1

population of about 600,000 people. The local economy is based on small-scaleagriculture and agro-pastoral activities, although in the past decade it has shiftedtoward factory labor for both men and women. One prominent geographicalfeature of Basilicata is the dormant volcano, Monte Vulture (1,330 m a.s.l.). TheMonte Vulture area is home to both autochthonous (native) Italians and ethnicArbereshe Albanian communities who have been included in extensiveethnobiological studies (Pieroni et al. 2002; Quave and Pieroni 2005).

In addition to the Vulture area, ethnobiological field studies have beenconducted in the Lucanian Dolomite area –an isolated mountainous region nearthe province capital city of Potenza. The population is autochthonous Italian,with the exception of some eastern European migrants employed as householdhelpers. The remote location of these communities combined with their closeproximity to forests fosters a close relationship between people and theirenvironment. The tradition of collecting wild plants for food and medicine (bothfor human and animal consumption or use) still thrives, as does the similar use ofwild and domestic animals and their products (Pieroni et al. 2004). Some of thedomestic animals common to Basilicata include poultry, swine, cattle, goats, andsheep. Those who regularly participate in pastoral labor often use horses ordonkeys for transportation while herding the livestock. Thus, the health of theiranimals is of primary importance, and a rich tradition of ethnoveterinarypractices has been documented (Pieroni et al. 2004).

Spain

Castilla-La Mancha lies in the center (C-SE) of Spain, near Madrid. This79,463 km2 region has a population of almost 2 million people (Instituto Nacionalde Estadıstica 2009). The flat plains of La Mancha are almost entirely devoid ofnatural vegetation and are instead occupied by crops, mainly grape vines andcereals like barley, wheat, oat, and rye. Groves of olive and almond trees arecommon in the warmer climes.

From an ethnobiological point of view, the most interesting areas are theperipheral mountains, where the Mediterranean forests are filled with Quercusspp. and Pinus spp. in the highest mountains. There, people live in small villagesstill close to nature and the traditional way of life. The elders living in this regionremember old healing practices, now in disuse, but which were an important partof their lives in the past (Verde et al. 2008). A review of the Spanish literatureconfirms the importance of traditional remedies in the Spanish medical heritage(Blazquez 1989, 1991; Iniesta and Jordan 1991; Sanchez-Mınguez 1995).Zootherapy was commonplace in Spain in the second half of the 20th century,particularly in mountainous areas. In the Pyrenees (Alto Aragon), 48 animalspecies were used to treat up to 197 different ailments (Palacın-Latorre 1994;Palacın-Rodrıguez 1985). In the Cantabrian mountains Orense and Asturias, 12and 13 animal species respectively, were reported as medicinal resources (Rico-Avello 1974; Taboada 1948).

Like other Mediterranean countries, Spain has a rich diversity of reptiles andamphibians and many species of birds. Big mammals, however, are rare, andwolves are almost extinct in the region. Some game like deer and wild boar arestill common, and foxes are also easy to find, even near villages and towns.


Hunting is an important source of income, and the focus is mostly on small gamelike partridges, rabbits and hares and big game in some mountainous areas likethe Toledo Mountains, Morena Range, and Cuenca Range.

Livestock, particularly sheep and goats used for their milk and meat, are alsovery important in La Mancha. Some areas are dedicated to breeding bulls forcorridas (bull-fighting). Cattle are frequently found in the mountains. Swine andrabbits are bred for meat, and poultry are raised as a source of meat and eggs.Horses and donkeys were very common in the past, but are now rare in thecountryside, although some remain in the mountain villages.

Nepal

Nepal has a distinctive topography that contributes to its rich biological andcultural diversity. Rugged terrain forms specific niches harboring uniqueassemblages of flora and fauna. Further, because of its location, the countryencompasses two zoogeographical regions: the Palearctic in the north and theOriental in the south. The country, though small, is rich in fauna of both therealms. The narrow middle strip of the country from east to the west is the mainregion of faunal mixing. Historic and current economic factors have promotedhuman interaction with biological resources in Nepal resulting in a rich body oftraditional knowledge concerning resource utilization, management and conser-vation (for example Nanhoe and Ouboter 1987; Rajbhandari 2001; Shah and Giri1992; Shrestha 2003), but Lohani et al. (2008) emphasize a strong need forcomprehensive ethnozoological studies.

In this study we document ethnozoological knowledge in Majhi communitiesfrom the central mountainous region of Nepal. Majhi communities are usuallyscattered along the river banks in the Inner Terai and lower mountainousregions. These are river people who constitute about 0.32% of the totalpopulation of the country (CBS 2001). The nearby ancient Tharu peopledepended only upon wild forest products for their livelihood while ancientMajhi were engaged in fishing and farming (Bista 2000). In the wake of moderndevelopment efforts, modern Majhi are now engaged in other economic activitiessuch as wage labor and business.

Materials and Methods

Our research methods included participant observation, semi-structuredinterviews, and focus groups. Although field research was conducted in each ofthe four study sites by different ethnobiologists, similar interview techniques anddata collection methods were employed. Prior informed consent was obtainedbefore conducting interviews, and ethical guidelines adopted by the InternationalCongress of Ethnobiology/International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE 2007) werefollowed. Interviewees were questioned in their native language about themedicinal uses of the local fauna. Study participants were asked to free-list anyknown zootherapeutic remedies. Informants were prompted by asking aboutremedies for different common health problems, such as remedies for respiratoryailments, skin infections, diarrhea, women’s health, stomach problems, pain, andwounds. When possible, informants were also interviewed using a focus group


format, and dialogue between the participants was encouraged while theresearcher(s) recorded references to zootherapeutic remedies. Details regardingthe local names of animals and the use and collection of animal products arepresented in Table 1. The consensus index uses how often a certain remedy wascited to provide a relative measure of the knowledge of remedies within eachstudy location.

For Albania, Pieroni conducted field research in the upper Shala Valley in thenorthern Albanian Alps from 2004 to 2007. Snowball sampling methods (Bernard2002) were used to recruit 38 study participants, primarily among elderlymembers of the community who had lived in the area for all or most of theirlives. Albanian fauna were identified using the Libri i kuq i faunes shqiptare [RedBook of Albanian Fauna] (Misja 2006).

Field research was conducted in the Basilicata Province of southern Italy byQuave and Pieroni from 2000 to 2008. Random sampling techniques wereemployed to recruit 112 interview subjects. Interviewees were equally stratifiedby gender and four age groups (21–35, 36–50, 51–70, 71+ years). Italian faunawere identified using the Checklist of Italian Fauna (Stoch 2009).

Fajardo, Verde, Rivera, and Obon conducted field research in Castilla-LaMancha Spain from 2000 to 2008. More than 600 study participants wereinterviewed, 170 of which were knowledgeable of local ethnobiologicalapplications of fauna. Fauna were identified using the Fauna Iberica (Ramos 2009).

Field research was conducted in the Inner Terai and Lower Mountainousregions of Nepal by Lohani from 2004 to 2006. A total of 38 informants wereinterviewed, 17 of whom were 18–29 years old, 10 were 30–49, and 11 were olderthan 50. Nepali fauna were identified using several taxonomic keys (Grimmet etal. 2003; Shah and Tiwari 2004; Shrestha 1981; Shrestha 2003).

Results

Our research in three countries in theMediterranean (Albania, Italy, and Spain)and one in Asia (Nepal) gathered information on 80 animal species used in 232traditional zootherapeutic remedies for either human or animal health (Figure 1). Adetailed description of these remedies is provided in Table 1, including popularuse, preparation and application, and. a consensus index system.

Animals from 4 phyla (Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca) werereported as sources of medicinal remedies, with the majority (62 species, 77.5%)Chordata, followed by Arthropoda (13 species, 16.3%), Mollusca (4 species, 5%)and Annelida (1 species, 1.3%). Of the animal classes, most reported species comefrom the Mammalia (27 species, 33.8%), followed by the Aves (12 species, 15%) –both in the phylum Chordata. As to orders, the Artiodactyla from the classMammalia had the most species represented (8 species, 10%), followed by theCarnivora of class Mammalia and order Squamata of class Reptilia, both of whichhad 7 species (8.8%) represented (Table 2).

Correlation of Remedies to Fauna

A total of 232 zootherapeutic remedies were reported. More remedies werereported from species belonging to certain orders. There were 52 remedies


TABLE1.

Popularusesofan

imalsas

zootherap

euticremed

iesin

Alban

ia,Italy,Nep

alan

dSpain.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Phylum:AnnelidaClass:ClitellataOrder:Hirudinea

Hirudo

medicinalis

(Linnaeus,

1758)

EuropeanMed

ical

Leech

sanguijuelas[S]

healcontusion

Awhole

livean

imal

isplaceddirectlyover

the

woundto

suck

uptheblood.(M

)xxx

amignattola

[I]

amuletag

ainst

skin

disease

Awhole

livean

imal

isap

plied

totheskin

asan

amuletag

ainst

anondescriptskin

illness.

Itisconsidered

agoodomen

ifthean

imal

survives

thetreatm

ent.(M

R)

x

ushunjz

[A]

healmuscularpains

Alivean

imal

isap

plied

externally

toreliev

emuscularpains(‘‘they

suck

thebad

blood’’).

(M)

x

Phylum:ArthropodaClass:Arach

nidaOrder:Araneae

unknown

Spider

[A]

haemostatic

Aspider

web

isap

plied

tothelaceration.(M

)x

Tegenaria

domestica

(Clerck,17

57)

House

Spider

aranas[S]

vulnerary;healcontusion

Aspider

web

isap

plied

towoundsan

dbruises.

InCam

podeCalatrava(C

iudad

Real)itis

mixed

withdried

groundredpep

per

and

usedas

adressingaroundtheinjuries.(M

)

xx

Phylum:ArthropodaClass:Arach

nidaOrder:Scorpiones

Buthusoccitanus

(Amoreux,17

89)

CommonEuropean

Scorpion

alacran,aracran,

escorpion[S]

anti-otitic

Onewhole

scorpionisfriedin

oliveoil.Drops

ofthefiltered

oilareinstilledinto

theear.(M

)xx

Twoorthreewhole

scorpionsarefriedin

olive

oilwithrue(Ruta

angu

stifoliaPers.).Dropsof

thefiltered

oilareputin

theaffected

ear(s).

(M)

x

anti-cystitic

orag

ainst

ureterobstruction

inmules

Twoorthreewhole

scorpionsarefriedin

olive

oilwithlaurel(LaurusnobilisL.)leav

es.The

filtered

oilisgiven

tothemule

todrink.(M

F,

EV)

x

vulneraryforburns

Anoleolite

isprepared

bysoak

ing5or6whole

livean

imalsin

ajarofhotoliveoil.Theoilis

leftto

settle

forseveral

day

s,filtered

,an

dap

plied

toburns.(M

)

x

anti-cystitic

Whole

livean

imalsaresoak

edin

ajarofalcohol

andleftto

settle

forseveral

day

s.Thefiltered

alcoholisrubbed

onto

thelower

abdomen

.(M

)

x


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Euscorpiussp

p.

(Thorell,18

76)

Scorpion

[I/A]

anti-otitic

Awhole

anim

alissoak

edin

oliveoilto

create

anoleolite

infusion.Thisoilisthen

instilled

intheinfected

orpainfulear.(M

)

#

Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Coleoptera

Annobium

puncta-

tum

(DeGeer,

1774)

CommonFurniture

Beetle

polverini[I]

healdiaper-rashorheat

rash

ininfants

Woodpowder

(saw

dust)createdbythis

wood-boringbeetleisap

plied

totherash.(M

)x

healinfantile

seborrheic

dermatitis

(cradle-cap

)Woodpowder

(saw

dust)createdbythis

wood-boringbeetleisrubbed

ontheinfant’s

scalp.(M

)

x

dru

ikalbete[I/A]

haemostatic

Woodpowder

createdbythewood-boring

beetleisap

plied

.(M

)#

anti-m

astitic

Woodpowder

createdbythiswood-boring

beetleisap

plied

totheaffected

breast.(M

)#

Scarabaeidae

(sev

-eral

gen

era)

ScarabBeetles

escarabajos[S]

healmouth

soresorulcers

Anoleolite

isprepared

byfrying7or9whole

livebeetles

inoliveoil.Thefiltered

oilis

applied

tothesores.(M

)

x

Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Hem

iptera

Cicad

idae

(sev

eral

gen

era)

Cicad

achicharras[S]

vulneraryforburns

Anoleolite

isprepared

bysoak

ing5or6live

anim

alsin

ajarofoliveoil.Theoilisleftto

settle

forseveral

day

s,filtered

,an

dap

plied

toburns.(M

)

x

Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Hymen

optera

Apiscerana(Fab

ri-

cius,

1793);A.

dorsata(Fab

ricius,

1793);A.dorsata

laboriosa(Smith,

1871);A.florea

(Fab

ricius,

1793)

Asiatic

Honey

Bee;

GiantHoney

Bee;

Him

alay

anHoney

Bee;DwarfHoney

Bee

mahuri

[N]

anti-pharyngitic;

anti-rhinitic;an

ti-gastritic

Honey

iseaten.(M

F)

x

A.mellifera

(Linnae-

us,

1758

)an

dother

spp.

EuropeanHoney

Bee

abejas[S]

anti-pharyngitic;an

ti-rhinitic;

anti-laryngitic

Honey

(mele)

iseatenaloneormixed

with

hottea.

(MF)

xxx

Honey

ismixed

withlemonjuice(Citruslimon

(L.)Osbeck)an

deaten.(M

F)

xxx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Honey

isad

ded

asasw

eetener

inherbal

tea

mixturescontainingingredients

from

someplants

such

asSp

anishsage(Salvia

lavandu

lifoliaVah

l.)an

dItalianbuckthorn

(RhamnusalaternusL.).(M

F)

xxx

healsore

eyes;an

ti-

conjunctivitic

Dropsofhoney

areplaceddirectlyin

the

eyes.(M

)xx

vulneraryforburns

Honey

istopically

applied

totheburn

wound.(M

)xx

[I]

emollientforch

apped

nipples

Honey

(miele)is

applied

tothenipple

betweenbreast-feed

ingsessions.

(M)

x

[A]

anti-otitic

Beeswax

(dyll)is

liquefiedan

darranged

on

thetopofasm

allpiece

ofcloth

that

isinserted

(stillwarm)into

theear.(M

)

x

healmouth

inflam

mations

Honey

istopically

applied

tothemucosa.(M

)x

anti-parotitic(m

umps)

Honey

isap

plied

externally

under

theear.(M

)x

post-partum

reconstituen

tHoney

isdissolved

inhotwater

andmilkan

ddrunk.(M

F)

x

Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Lep

idoptera

Bom

byxmori

(Linnaeus,17

58)

Silkworm

anti-w

art

Asilk

ribbonis

boundaroundthewart.(M

R)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Anguilliform

esAngu

illa

bengalensis

bengalensis(G

ray,

1831

)

IndianMottledEel

raja

bam

[N]

promote

expulsionof

placenta

Aneel’stailis

usedto

touch

theheadofa

woman

duringch

ildbirth

tofacilitate

expulsionoftheplacenta

afterch

ildbirth

andpreven

tcomplications.

(MR)

xx

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Clupeiform

esSardinapilchardus

(Walbau

m,17

52)

EuropeanPilch

ard

sardinas[S]

healfootblistersan

dsores

Headsan

dguts

ofsaltysard

ines

arerubbed

ontheaffected

feet.(M

)x

digestiveaidforlivestock

Amixture

ofheadsofsalted

sard

ines

with

fodder

saltis

given

tolivestock

toeatwhen

sufferingfrom

indigestion.(M

F,EV)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Cypriniform

esSchizothorax

plagiostom

as(H

eckel,18

38);

S.richardsonii

(Gray,18

32)

Snowtrout

sunasala

[N];buche

asala

[N]

vulneraryforburns

anti-leu

coderma

Bilejuicean

dfish

oilareap

plied

toburns.(M

)Milt(sem

inal

fluid)ofthefish

issm

earedon

theskin.(M

)

xx

xx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Synbranch

iform

esMonopteruscuchia

(Ham

ilton,18

22)

MudEel

bam

maccha[N

]promote

expulsionof

placenta

Aneel’stailis

usedto

touch

theheadofa

woman

duringch

ildbirth

tofacilitate

expulsionoftheplacenta

afterch

ildbirth

andpreven

tcomplications.

(MR)

xx

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Amphibia

Order:Anura

Bufo

bufo

(Linnae-

us,

1758

)CommonToad

sapo,zampono[S]

taboo

Thereis

abeliefthat

touch

ingtheskin

ofa

toad

candam

agetheskin.(M

R)

x

Paa

liebigii(G

un-

ther,18

60)

Spiny-A

rmed

Frog

manpaha[N

]reconstituen

tnutraceu

tical

Cooked

andeatento

treatpersonwitha

prolonged

illness.

(MF)

x

Ranaperezi

(Seo

ane,

1885)

Perez’s

Frog

rana[S]

woundcleansing;

disinfectan

tThebelly

ofawhole

livean

imal

isslitopen

andap

plied

directlyto

thewound.(M

)x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Amphibia

Order:Cau

data

Salam

andra

salamandra

(Linnaeus,

1758)

FireSalam

ander

salamandra

[S]

taboo

Thereis

abeliefthat

touch

ingtheskin

ofthe

salaman

der

candam

agetheskin.(M

R)

x

Salam

andrasp

.Two-H

eaded

Salam

ander

asalagreca

[I]

augury

(goodomen

)Theheadiscu

toffan

dstoredin

alcohol.(M

R)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Aves

Order:Ciconiiform

esArdea

purpurea

(Linnaeus,

1766).

Purple

Heron

garza[S]

haemostatic

Thech

estdownfeathersareusedto

stop

bleed

ingin

lacerationsorwounds.

(M)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Aves

Order:Columbiform

esColumba

livia

(Gmelin,17

89);

C.oenas

(Linnaeus,

1758);C.palumbu

s(Linnaeus,

1758)

Rock

Pigeo

n;Stock

Pigeo

n;W

ood

Pigeo

nPigeo

n

paloma;paloma

zurita;paloma

bravia;paloma

torcaz[S]

anti-onych

ocryptosic

(ingrownnail);an

ti-acn

eFeces

aremixed

withbread

crumbsan

dap

plied

.(M

)x

Columbiasp

p.

(Gmelin,17

89)

upiccione[I]

post-partum

healing;

reconstituen

tSoupmad

ewithpigeo

nmeatis

prepared

(often

asagift)forwomen

recoveringfrom

childbirth

toeat.Itis

also

eatenas

agen

eral

reconstituen

tduringillness.

(MF)

xx

galactagogue

Pigeo

nmeatsoupis

eaten.(M

F)

xxx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

parewa[N

]au

gury

(goodomen

)Villagerssetthepigeonfree

tofree

them

selves

from

untowardhap

pen

ings,fortheirpeace

andgen

eral

well-being.Itisbelieved

that

the

flyingpigeontakes

away

allkindsofdiseases

andbad

luck.(M

R)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Aves

Order:Coraciiform

esCoraciasbengh

alensis

(Linnaeus,17

58)

IndianRoller

theuwa[N

]an

ti-otitic

Thecooked

fleshis

eaten.(M

F)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Aves

Order:Cucu

liform

esCuculuscanorus

(Linnaeus,17

58)

CommonCuckoo

ucucche[I]

augury

(goodomen

)Hearingthebirdsingingis

considered

agood

omen

forlife.(M

R)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Aves

Order:Galliform

esGallusgallus

Chicken

galinas[S]

vulneraryforburns

Eggwhiteis

applied

directlyto

theburn.(M

)x

(Linnaeus,17

58)

anti-onych

ocryptosic

(ingrownnail)

Theaffected

finger

ortoeisplacedin

aglass

witharaw

eggto

soak

forafew

minutes.(M

)xx

amuletag

ainst

infantile

paralysis

Theeg

gslaid

onGoodFriday

arekep

tas

amulets

toprotect

infants

from

thisdisease.

(MR)

x

anti-anem

icRaw

eggs(w

iththeirsh

ell)arebeatenwith

lemonjuicean

dsu

gar

andleftto

macerate

forafew

day

sto

takean

aspectofpuree

(includingmold).This

pureeis

eatenby

childrenan

dad

ults.

(MF)

x

kukhura

[N]

vulneraryforburns

Chicken

fatistopically

applied

totheburn.(M

)xx

healbroken

bones

Smallchicken

saregroundinto

apaste

that

isusedas

aplasteringmaterialto

setthebone.

(M)

xx

blessingforhealing

Faith

healers

presentlivehen

sto

thehealing

diety

when

treatingwomen

andthey

present

arooster

tothedeity

when

healingmen

.(M

R)

xx

[A]

treatkidney

stones

Themem

braneofthemuscularstomach(m

ullis

pule)ofahen

isremoved

anddried

,then

groundan

dmad

einto

adecoction.

x

poisonan

tidote

Awhole

eggiseatenraw

asan

antidote.(M

F)

Thisisalso

usedto

treatcattle

andsheep.

(EV)

xxx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

healstomachache

Eggsarecooked

(boiled

)an

deaten.(M

F)

xhealgen

eral

pains/

analgesic

Aritual

ceremonyisperform

edin

whicharaw

eggisputonapiece

ofraw

woolwhichis

adhered

tothebodywiththehelpofoil.The

eggmoves

onthewoolan

dwheretheyolk

stops,theyolk

‘‘takes

thepainaw

ay’’an

dcomes

outofthemem

brane.

Thewhole

treatm

entlast

atleastonehour.(M

R)

xx

agaddina[I]

anti-abscess;

anti-furuncle

Eggyolk

ismixed

withtheyeast

from

fresh

pasta

doughan

dap

plied

.(M

)x

healbroken

orbruised

bones

Eggwhiteis

beatenwell,an

dthen

usedto

coat

hem

p(Cannabis

sativa

L.)fiber

tomak

eahardcast

forsettingbones.(M

)

+

healgen

eral

sickness

Chicken

meatsoupis

eatenas

areconstituen

t.(M

F)

xx

[I],[I/A]

healcontusion

Theeg

galbumen

(bardhevejte

[I/A])is

scrambledan

dsoak

edupwitheither

cotton,

wheatbran,oracloth

andap

plied

tothe

bruisewithsalt.(M

)

#[I/ A];

xx[I]

post-partum

healing

Chicken

meatsoup(m

ishta

pulje[I/A])is

prepared

andfedto

motherssh

ortly

after

childbirth

asareconstituen

tan

dpost-partum

dep

urative.

(MF)

xx[I];

xx[I/

A]

[A],[I]

anti-diarrheic

Eggsarecooked

(boiled

)(ufe

[I])an

deaten.

(MF)

x[A

];xx[I]

Pavocristatus

(Linnaeus,17

58)

IndianPeafowl

mayoor[N

]mag

ical

amulet

Healers

use

single

ormultiple

feathers

arranged

infansin

mag

ico-religious

healingceremonies.

(MR)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Aves

Order:Passeriform

esHirundo

rustica

(Linnaeus,17

58)

BarnSwallow

golondrina[S]

anti-pharyngitic

Twoorthreesw

allowsarefriedan

dthe

resu

ltingoilis

filtered

andkep

tin

aglass

jar.Theoilis

applied

externally

tothethroat.

(M)

x

Myophonuscaerleus

(Scopoli,17

86)

Blue-W

histling

Thrush

kalchaude[N

]an

ti-asthma;

anti-gout

Either

cooked

fleshorbloodis

eaten.(M

F)

xx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Sturnussp

p.

(Linnaeus,17

58)

Starlings

saraun[N

]an

ti-otitic;

anti-asthma

Cooked

fleshis

eaten.(M

F)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Artiodactyla

Axisaxis

(Erxleben

,17

77)

Chital

chital,mriga[N

]fertilityaid

Infertilewomen

eatthebloodan

dbileto

becomepregnan

t.(M

F)

xx

evil-eyeam

ulet

Anam

ulet(buti)is

mad

eofbonean

dusedto

protect

childrenfrom

evil-eye.

(MR)

xx

anti-dysenteric

Bloodis

drunk.(M

F)

xx

Bos

taurus(Linnaeus,

1758

)Cattle

[I],[A

]vulneraryforburns

Fresh

cow

feces(a

rumata

davacche)

are

applied

tothewound.(M

)x[I]; x[A]

[A]

vulnerary

Fresh

cheese

(diath)is

applied

towoundsto

promote

healing.(M

)xxx

lipem

ollient

Milkcream

(masa)is

applied

toch

apped

lips.

(M)

x

anti-parotitic(m

umps)

Cow’s

milkis

drunkveryhot.(M

F)

xan

ti-diarrheic;

strengthen

thestomach

Fresh

cheese

(diath)is

eatencoolorcooked

withflouran

deatenhot.(M

F)

xxx

healintestinal

pain;poison

antidote

Cow’s

milkis

drunkto

treatintestinal

pains

andpoisonings(esp

eciallyin

children,an

dalso

inan

imals).(M

F,EV)

xx

healseveredigestive

problemsin

livestock

Ren

net

(from

thecalfab

omasus)

isdried

and

added

into

thean

imal

feed

.(M

F,EV)

x

vacche[I]

anti-pertussic

Smellingcow

fecesin

themorning.(M

)x

healskin

inflam

mations

(forinfants)

Fermen

tedmilkcream

(ubutirre)

isap

plied

asan

emollient.(M

)x

anti-furuncle

Cooked

cream

(pannacotte)

isap

plied

.(M

)x

treatfacial

wrinkles;

facial

emollient

Fresh

cow’s

milk(u

lattefresche)

isusedto

washtheface.(M

)x

gai[N

]an

ti-diarrheic;

anti-vomiting

Bileis

drunk.(M

F)

xprotectiveam

ulet

Thegallbladder

andbileareusedto

mak

ech

arms.

(MR)

x

Capra

aegagrushircus

(Linnaeus,17

58)

Goat

capre

[I];cabrito

[S];

boka[N

]an

ti-tussive;

reconstituen

tforch

ildren

Hotgoat

milk(u

lattedacapre)is

drunkwith

honey

.(M

F)

x

anti-asthmatic

Goat

fatis

heatedinto

aliquid

andone

spoonfulis

drunk.(M

F)

x


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

anti-w

art

When

anan

imal

iskilled,afew

dropsoffresh

bloodareap

plied

tothewart(s).(M

)xx

vulneraryforburns

Fat

isap

plied

toburns.

(M)

xx

Cervu

selaphu

s(Linnaeus,

1758)

Red

Deer

venao,ciervo[S]

amuletag

ainst

heart

failure

Adeeris

killedan

ditsheart

removed

.Upon

drying,acartilag

inousportionoftheheart

that

issh

aped

likeacross

isremoved

and

worn

onanecklace

asaprotectiveam

ulet.

(MR)

x

healsn

akebites

Thesh

arptipsofdeerhornsareusedto

puncture

theskin

surroundingasn

akebite

tohelpexpel

theven

om.(M

)

x

Moschuschrysogaster

(Hodgson,18

39)

Him

alay

anMusk

Deerkasturi

mriga[N

]protectiveam

ulet

Charmsaremad

efrom

themusk

andworn

by

childrenfortheirwell-being.(M

R)

x

Ovisam

mon

hodg

soni

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Tibetan

Argali

bhenda[N

]an

ti-otitic

Dropsofurineareinstilledin

theaffected

ear.

(M)

x

Ovisaries(Linnaeus,

1758)

DomesticSheep

pechere[I];

cordero[S]

anti-diarrheic;

galactagogue

Pasta

iscooked

andsomeofthecookingwater

ismixed

withdried

sheepricotta(a

ricotta

toste)

tomak

easauce

forthenoodles.

This

isthen

mixed

withboiled

bread

andeaten.

(MF)

xx

anti-diarrheic

Ricottach

eese

(gjez)

iseatenas

alightan

ti-

diarrhoeal.(M

F)

x

laxative

Whey

(sir[I/A];usjre

crude[I]),theliquid

precipitateremainingfrom

thecheese

mak

ing

process,isdrunkas

amildlaxative.(M

F)

xx[I/ A];

xx[I]

reconstituen

t;preven

tative

forman

yillnesses

Fresh

sheepmilkis

boiled

withsaltto

produce

aden

seyogurt-likeproduct

(jardun)that

iseaten.(M

F)

xxx

laxative

Sheepmilk(u

lattedapechere)

isdrunk.(M

F)

xdiaphoretic

Asp

ecialsinglet(krahol)an

dsocksmad

efrom

raw

woolareworn

only

when

affected

byhighfever.(M

)

xxx

anti-w

art

When

anan

imal

iskilled,afew

dropsoffresh

bloodaretopically

applied

tothewart(s).

(M)

xx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Susscrofa

domestica

(Linnaeus,

1758)

DomesticPig

[I/A]

anti-chilblains

Thesw

ine’sgallbladder

(fejlliderkut)is

removed

andleftoutsideovernight.Thenext

day

,itisap

plied

totheaffected

toes.(M

)

#

maiale

[I]

emollientforch

apped

nipplesorudders

Aged

dorsal

pork

fat(sugnafracide)

isap

plied

tosore

chap

ped

nipples(forbreast-feed

ing

women

)orto

chap

ped

skin

ingen

eral.(M

)Itis

also

applied

totheuddersofmilk

producinglivestock

(esp

eciallycattle).(EV)

x

anti-bronch

itic

Lay

erofag

eddorsal

pork

fat(sugnafracide)

isap

plied

tothech

est.This

isthen

covered

withawarm

towel.(M

)

x

laxative

Pork

lard

(l’unte)is

prepared

inasoup.(M

F)

xan

ti-furuncle;

vulnerary

(forlacerations);

anti-abscess;

suppurative

Athin

layer

ofag

eddorsal

pork

fat(sugna

fracide)

isplacedonaffected

area

ofskin,

andthen

covered

withfreshRubu

sulm

ifolius

Sch

ott.leav

es.(M

)

xx

vulneraryforburn

wounds

andan

imal

wounds

Pork

lard

(lardodimaiale)is

boiled

,cooled,

andap

plied

toburns.

(M)Lardis

also

rubbed

onto

livestock

woundsan

dlacerationsto

coat

andprotect

woundsan

dpromote

healing.(EV)

x

cochino,gorrino,

guarro,

marrano[S]

emollientforch

apped

han

ds

Pork

lard

isusedas

theexcipientin

man

ydifferenttrad

itional

med

ical

recipes

andis

thebaseofman

yointm

ents.Itis

applied

tothehan

ds.

(M)

xxx

anti-m

astiticforcows

Pork

lard

isap

plied

totheuddersofcows.

(M,EV)

x

anti-dep

ressan

tPork

lard

ismixed

withhoney

andsp

read

on

bread

tobeeatenbypeo

ple

sufferingfrom

dep

ression.(M

F)

x

healab

dominal

pains

Pork

lard

ismixed

withchopped

celery

(Apium

graveolensL.)an

dplacedonthebelly.(M

)xx

vulnerary

Bile(either

aloneormixed

withalcohol)is

applied

towounds.

(M)


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

[A]

healwolfbitein

livestock;

anti-erysipelas

inpigs

Pork

lard

isheatedan

dap

plied

externally.Itis

usedas

veterinarypreparationto

healwolf

bites

(incattle,sheep,goats),an

dfortreating

skin

inflam

mationsdueto

erysipelas

(Erysipelothrixrhusiopathiae)in

pigs.(M

,EV)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Carnivora

Canisaureus

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Golden

Jackal

syal[N

]an

ti-gout;an

ti-arthritic

Jackal

meatis

mixed

withmilletorlocally

producedcereal

andyeast

toproduce

alcohol,whichis

trap

ped

througha

distillationprocess.Thealcoholicbev

erag

esyalkoraksi

isverypopularan

dhas

ahigh

med

icinal

value.

Goutan

darthritisare

treatedbyeither

massagingtheaffected

area

withthis

alcoholordrinkingit.(M

)

xxx

bad

omen

Hearingthejackal

howlis

abad

omen

forthe

community.(M

R)

xxx

Canislupu

sfamiliaris

(Linnaeus,1758)

Dog

qeni[I/A]

anti-furuncle

Dogsaliva(lek

onqeni)is

applied

asan

antiseptican

din

thetreatm

entoffuruncles.

(M)

#

cuane[I]

vulneraryforburns

Dogfeces(a

rumata

ducuane)

areap

plied

.(M

)x

evil-eyeam

ulet

Leather

mad

efrom

theskin

ofblack

dog

(ucrigiule

ducuaneneure)isworn

asan

amuletag

ainst

theEvil-eye(m

alocchio).(M

R)

x

[I],[A

]healdogbite

Ahairfrom

thedogthat

bityouis

applied

tothebite.

(MR)

x[I];x

[A]

perro

[S]

reconstituen

tfor

malnourish

edch

ildren

Dogfecesareexposedto

open

airovernight

andthen

boiled

.Thiswater

isfiltered

and

given

tomalnourished

childrento

drink.

(MF)

x

anti-rhinitic

Dogfecesareprepared

inateawithdry

figs

(Ficuscarica

L.),ears

ofcorn

(Zea

maysL.),

snak

eskin

andhoney

.(M

F)

x

rabiesin

dogs

Hairfrom

arabid

dogis

friedin

oliveoilan

dtheoilis

usedto

washthewoundonthe

samedog.(M

,EV)

xx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Meles

meles

(Linnaeus,

1758)

EuropeanBad

ger

tajon,tejon,tason[S]

evil-eyeam

ulet

Bad

ger

hairs

areusedwithother

materials

tocreate

ascap

ularthat

isworn

for

protection.(M

R)

x

Melursusursinus

(Shaw

,17

91)

Sloth

Bear

rukhbhalu

[N]

anti-hydrocele

(scrotal

swelling)

Bileis

drunk.(M

)xx

protectiveam

ulet

Charmsaremad

efrom

bones.(M

R)

xx

Pantheratigristigris

(Linnaeus,1758)

Ben

gal

Tiger

bagh

[N]

protectiveam

ulet

Whiskers,piecesofbones,teeth,an

dclaw

sare

mad

einto

charmsthat

areworn

towardoff

evilsp

iritsan

dfrightentheen

emy.(M

R)

xxx

mag

ical

protection

Boneis

burntin

thecow

shed

toproduce

smoke.

Itis

believed

that

thesm

okedrives

away

disease

causingelem

ents

andev

ilsp

irits.

(MR)

xx

Prionailurus

bengalensis(K

err,

1792)

Leo

pardCat

kalo

biralo

[N]

healgen

eral

sickness

Bileis

drunkto

treatman

yillnesses.

(M)

x

Vulpes

vulpes

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Red

Fox

zorro,zorra[S]

anti-rhinitic;

anti-pneu

monia

Dried

foxliver

isad

ministeredas

aninfusion

oras

apowder

added

tosoups.

(MF)

xx

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Erinaceo

morpha

Erinaceuseuropaeus

(Linnaeus,

1758)

EuropeanHed

geh

og

riccio

[I]

calm

cryingbab

ies

Bileofafreshly

killedhed

geh

og(biledericce)

isfedto

bab

iesthat

won’tstopcrying.(M

F)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Perissodactyla

Equ

usasinus

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Donkey

asino,ciuccie

[I]

healwindillness(skin

inflam

mation)

Abraided

ropemad

eofhairfrom

adonkey

’stail(lasc)is

usedas

aritual

object

inthe

mag

ical

healingofwindillness(m

alvjnt).

Thebundle

ofhairis

dipped

into

redwine

andusedto

paintthewineonto

thearea

of

theskin

whereinflam

mationsoccur.(M

R)

x

reconstituen

tforch

ildren

Donkey

milk(u

latteduciuccie)isdrunk.(M

F)

xxx

[A]

anti-tussive

Fresh

donkey

milkis

drunkto

healcoughsin

theelderly.(M

F)

xx

burro,borrico[S]

promote

placenta

expulsion

Adonkey

’sfecesis

boiled

andtheliquid

isdrunkbywomen

aftergivingbirth.(M

)x

vulneraryforburns

Old

donkey

bones

areburnt(w

ithout

becomingcompletely

charred)an

dground

into

apowder

that

isap

plied

toburns.

(M)

x


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Equ

uscaballus

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Horse

gjakukaljt[I/A]

anti-anem

icFresh

horsebloodis

drunk.(M

F)

#

Rhinoceros

unicornis

(Linnaeus,

1758)

IndianRhinoceros

gainda[N

]healsick

livestock

Urineisgiven

toailinglivestock

todrink.(EV)

xx

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Primates

Hom

osapienssapiens

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Human

[I/A]

evil-eyeam

ulet

Human

hairiscollectedto

use

inan

amuletthat

protectsonefrom

Evil-eye(m

alocchio).(M

R)#

uomo[I]

augury

(goodomen

)Theperson’shairiscu

t(a

cioccadecapeddi)on

thefirstFriday

inMarch

asaprotection

against

headache.(M

R)

x

healpurulentskin

abscess;

suppurative

Cerumen

(ucerume),earwax

,is

applied

topurulentskin

abscessescausedbybeing

pricked

byplantthorns.

(M)

x

healinfantile

seborrheic

dermatitis

(cradle-cap

)Breastmilkis

expressed

andrubbed

onto

aninfant’sscalp.Then

thehairis

brush

edto

removetheflak

yscales.(M

)

x

anti-m

astitis

Nursingmotherswithmastitismust

breast-feed

theirinfants

usingthe‘‘reverse’’or‘‘football’’

position(latteallareverse).(M

R)

xx

vulnerary

Human

sweatthat

has

soak

edinto

theinner

rim

ofahat

isap

plied

tothewound.(M

)x

haemostatic;disinfectan

tHuman

urine(u

pisce)is

usedto

rinse

fresh

bleed

inglacerations.

(M)

xx

anti-conjunctivitic

Fresh

breastmilk(u

lattedafemineorlatte

demama)is

expressed

into

theinfected

eyes

ofbab

ies(alsosometim

esforad

ults).Some

statethemilkmust

befrom

amother

who

nurses

ason.Otherssaythemilkmust

be

from

amother

nursingher

firstborn

child.

Lesscommonly,freshmilkfrom

amule

or

goat

isused.(M

)

xxx

Thefirsturineoftheday

isusedto

washthe

affected

eyes.(M

)x

emollientforch

apped

nipples

Breastmilkis

expressed

andrubbed

onto

the

nipple.(M

)x


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

hombre

[S]

emollientforch

apped

han

ds

Urineis

usedto

washthehan

ds.

(M)

xx

anti-otitic

Human

breastmilkis

expressed

andinstilled

intheaffected

ear(s).(M

)xxx

treatscorpionsting

Afew

dropsofmen

strual

bloodareap

plied

tothescorpionbitearea.(M

)x

anti-w

art

Afew

dropsofmen

strual

bloodareap

plied

tothewart(s).(M

)xx

[A]

treatsn

akebite

Fresh

fecesareap

plied

tothesn

akebite.

(M)

xMacacaassamensis

(McC

lellan

d,

1840);M.mulatta

(Zim

merman

n,

1780)

Assam

Macaq

ue;

RhesusMacaq

ue

bandar[N

]nutraceu

ticalforTB

patients

Thedried

liver

andgallbladder

areeatenby

thepersonsu

fferingfrom

tubercu

losisfor

afew

day

sfornourish

men

t.Peo

ple

also

eatthemeatfornourish

men

t.(M

F)

x

Presbytisentellus

(Dufresne,

1797)

Han

uman

Lan

gur

langur[N

]nutraceu

ticalforTB

patients

Personssu

fferingfrom

tubercu

losiseatthe

meat(raw

orcooked

)fornourishmen

t.This

meatispreferred

tothat

ofMacacasp

p.(M

F)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Proboscidea

Elaphas

maxim

us

(Linnaeus,

1758)

Asian

Elephan

thathi[N

]an

ti-gastritic

Bileis

drunk.(M

F)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Mam

malia

Order:Roden

tia

Musmusculus

House

Mouse

usorce[I]

anti-enuresis(bed

wetting)

Amouse

iscooked

orboiled

andeaten.(M

F)

xx

(Linnaeus,

1758)

raton[S]

anti-otitic

Sev

eral

livenew

born

miceareplacedin

ajar

ofoliveoilthat

isleftopen

toairfor

several

months.

This

oilis

then

filtered

and

kep

tin

aglass

jar.A

few

dropsoftheoil

areinstilledin

theaffected

ear(s).(M

)

x

Hystrix

indica

(Kerr,

1792);H.brachyura

(Linnaeus,

1758)

IndianCrested

Porcupine;

Him

alay

anPorcupine

dumsi

[N]

anti-asthma;

treatdifficu

lty

passingurine

anti-abscess

Thealim

entary

canal

withitscontents

isboiled

andeatenas

asoup.(M

F)

Thesp

ines

areusedas

needlesto

puncture

purulentab

scessesto

allow

drainingof

pus.

(M)

x x


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Osteich

thyes

Order:Cypriniform

esTor

tor(H

amilton,

1822)

River

Carp

sahar[N

]vulneraryforburns

Fishoilan

dbileareap

plied

toburns.

(M)

xx

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Rep

tiliaOrder:Squam

ata

Elaphequ

atuorlineata

(Wag

ler,18

33)

Four-Striped

Snak

easerpecervone[I]

anti-rheu

matic

Snak

efat(a

sunze)isextractedwhilethesnak

eisalivean

dap

plied

asan

ointm

ent.(M

)xx

Lacerta

lepida

(Dau

din,18

02)

Ocellated

Lizard

ardacho,jardacho,

lagarto[S]

anti-contusion;

anti-inflam

matory

inlivestock

Alivelizard

ishungfrom

theceilingofthe

stab

leofthewounded

anim

al(livestock).

(MR,EV)

x

vulnerary;disinfectan

tLizardfatis

applied

towounds.

(M)

xhealinguinal

hernia

Thebloodofthean

imal

isusedto

ruborscour

thegroin

region(locationofthehernia).At

theen

dofthisprocess,thewhole

dead

anim

alislaid

onthegroin

regionforafew

minutes.(M

)

x

Malpolon

monspessulanus

(Herman

n,18

04)

Montpellier

Snak

eculebra,bicha[S]

anti-rhinitic

Thesnak

eskin

isad

ministeredin

different

herbal

teas

mixed

withplants

such

asarnica

(ChiliadenusglutinosusFourr.),dried

gigs

(Ficuscarica

L.),pen

nyroyal

(Menthapu

legium

L.),corn

cobs(Zea

maysL.)an

dmarshmallow

(Althaea

officinalisL.).(M

F)

xxx

anti-tussive

Thedry

snak

eskin

isgroundinto

apowder

andmixed

withbread

crumbsto

mak

ea

porridgethat

iseaten.(M

F)

xx

diureticforkidney

stones

Thesnak

eskin

istaken

asan

herbal

teamixed

withAlgeriantea(ParonychiaargenteaLam

.)an

delderberry

(Sam

bucusnigra

L.).The

treatm

entcontinues

untilthepain

disap

pears.(M

F)

x

blooddep

urative;

anti-scabies

Snak

emeatisfriedin

oliveoilan

deaten.(M

F)

x

disinfectan

tforwounds

Snak

emeatis

friedwitholiveoil.Thecooled

filtered

oilis

applied

tothewound.(M

)x

treatcoldsan

dsicknessin

mules

Dry

snak

eskin

isgroundan

dmixed

withstraw

that

isgiven

asfodder

tomules.(M

F,EV)

xxx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Podarcishispanicus

(Steindachner,

1870).

IberianW

allLizard

relantija,lagartija[S]

anti-pertussic

Alivean

imal

isplacedinsidethehollow

stem

ofthegiantreed

(Arundo

donax

L.)an

dthe

reed

ishungonthesick

person’sneckas

anecklace.(M

R)

xx

anti-w

art

Thewhole

livean

imal

isrubbed

directlyon

thewart.(M

)x

anti-conjunctivitic

(allergy

associated

)A

livean

imal

isplacedinsidethehollow

stem

ofthegiantreed

(Arundo

donax)an

dthe

reed

ishungonthesick

person’s

neckas

anecklace.(M

R)

xx

Rhinechisscalaris

Lad

der

Snak

eculebra,bicha[S]

anti-scabies

Snak

emeatisfriedin

oliveoilan

deaten.(M

F)

x(Sch

inz,

1822

)vulnerary;wound

disinfectan

tSnak

emeatis

friedin

oliveoil.Thecooled

filtered

oilis

applied

tothewound.(M

)x

treatcoldsan

dsicknessin

mules

Dry

snak

eskin

isgroundan

dmixed

with

straw

that

isgiven

asfodder

tomules.

(MF,EV)

xxx

anti-tussive

Thedry

snak

eskin

isgroundinto

apowder

andmixed

withbread

crumbsto

mak

ea

porridgethat

iseaten.(M

F)

xx

anti-rhinitic

Thesnak

eskin

isad

ministeredin

different

herbal

teas

mixed

withplants

asarnica

(Chiliadenusglutinosus),dried

figs(Ficuscarica),

pen

nyroyal

(Menthapu

legium),corn

cobs(Zea

mays)an

dmarshmallow

(Althaea

officinalis).

(MF)

xxx

Trimeresurussp

p.

Asian

PitVipers

hareu[N

]an

ti-pharyngitic

Alivesnak

eiscooked

anditsfleshistopically

applied

tothesore

throat.Sn

akefatisalso

topically

applied

tothethroat

forquickrelief.

(M)

x

Viperalatastei

(Bosca,

1878

)Lataste’s

Viper

vibora

[S]

anti-toothache

Adeadviper

isplacedinsideapiece

ofcloth

that

islaid

ontheface

over

thepainfularea.

After

treatm

ent,theviper

isdried

andstored

forfuture

use.(M

)

x


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Rep

tiliaOrder:Testudines

Emys

orbicularis

(Linnaeus,

1758

)EuropeanPond

Turtle

galapago,Tortuga[S]

anti-rheu

matic;an

ti-

inflam

matory

Asoupisprepared

byboilingsometurtles

withram

headan

dleg(O

visaries)with

rosemary(RosmarinusofficinalisL.),Sp

anish

wildmarjoram

(ThymusmastichinaL.),

span

ishlaven

der

(Lavandu

lastoechas

L.),an

dTeucrium

gnaphalodesL’H

er.(M

F)

x

Indotestudo

elongata

(Blyth,18

54)

Elongated

Tortoise

kacchuwa,thotari

[N]am

ulet

Thebonean

dshellareusedto

mak

emag

ico-religiousam

ulets

byfaithhealers.

(MR)

xx

reconstituen

t;nutraceu

tical

Themeatiseatenas

asourceofprotein.(M

F)

xx

anti-tussive;

anti-rhinitic;

treatm

entforresp

iratory

tractinfections

Thesh

ellis

rubbed

against

aboulder

with

water

tocreate

athickpaste

that

isad

ministeredorallyto

childrenas

apreven

tivemeasu

reag

ainst

cough,cold

andother

resp

iratory

tractinfection.(M

)

xx

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Sau

ropsidaOrder:Testudines

Mauremys

leprosa

(Sch

weigger,

1812

).

Med

iterraneanPond

Turtle

galapago,tortuga[S]

anti-rheu

matic;an

ti-

inflam

matory

Asoupisprepared

byboilingsometurtles

withram

headan

dleg(O

visaries)with

rosemary(Rosmarinusofficinalis),Sp

anishwild

marjoram

(Thymusmastichina),Sp

anish

laven

der

(Lavandu

lastoechas),an

dTeucrium

gnaphalodes.(M

F)

x

unknownsp

ecies

Turtle

anti-tussive

Turtle

meatis

cooked

andeatento

treatcoughs

intheelderly.(M

F)

x

Phylum:Chord

ataClass:Teleo

stomiOrder:Cypriniform

esNeolissochilus

hexagonolepis

(McC

lellan

d,

1839

)

Copper

Mah

seer

katle[N

]an

ti-m

astitic

Fishbloodis

given

toalactatingmother

toreliev

ebreastpain.(M

)xx

Phylum:MolluscaClass:GastropodaOrder:Eupulm

onata

Arion

hortensis

(Ferrusac)

Garden

Slug

uvavalice

aranude,

marrucule,

lummachesenza

guscio

[I]

anti-w

art

Theslim

yslugmucousisrubbed

onto

thewart.

Thisprocedure

must

becarriedoutwhilethe

fullmoonisdecreasing.After

thetreatm

ent,

theslugishungonan

elmleaf

blackberry

(Rubusulm

ifoliusSchott.)thorn.When

theslug

dries

up,thewarts

willdisap

pear.(M

R)

xxx


TABLE1.

Continued

.

Scien

tificNam

eEnglish

Common

Nam

eVernacularNam

e[C

ountry]

PopularUse

Preparationan

dApplication*

C.I.{

anti-ulcer

(stomachulcer);

anti-gastritic

Aliveslugis

swallowed

whole.(M

F)

xxx

vulnerary;an

ti-dermatitic;

anti-inflam

matory

Mucousfrom

aliveslugis

rubbed

onto

skin.

(M)

xx

anti-callus

Mucousfrom

aliveslugis

rubbed

onto

skin.

(M)

x

anti-acn

e;facial

emollient

Mucousfrom

aliveslugis

rubbed

onto

skin

forfacial

cleansing.(M

)x

Arion

sp.

Black

Slug

chiplekira[N

]healbroken

bones

Afew

slugsaremixed

with‘‘sisnu’’–the

rootofstingingnettle(U

rticadioica

L.)an

dawhole

youngch

ickan

dgroundto

mak

efinepaste.Thepaste

isthen

applied

atthe

site

offracture

asplasteringmaterial.(M

)

xx

Phylum:MolluscaClass:GastropodaOrder:Pulm

onata

Helix

aspersa(O

.F.

Muller,17

74)

Garden

Snail

caracol,zampona,

caracolsapenco,

caracoldela

huerta[S]

anti-w

art;an

ti-callus

Mucousfrom

alivesn

ailis

applied

.(M

)xx

Lim

axsp

.GreySlug

chiplekira[N

]healbroken

bones

Afew

slugsaremixed

with‘‘sisnu’’–the

rootofstingingnettle(U

rticadioica)an

dyoungch

icken

andgroundto

mak

efine

paste.Thepaste

isthen

applied

atthesite

offracture

asplasteringmaterial.(M

)

xx

Countryabbreviations:A:Alban

ia;I:Italy;I/A:Arberesh(ethnic

Alban

ian)communitiesin

Italy;N:Nep

al;S:Spain.

* Typeof

medical

application:M:med

icine;

MF:med

icinal

food;MR:mag

ico-religious;

C:Cosm

etic;EV:Ethnoveterinaryremed

y.

{C.I.:Consensu

sIndex.The

consensusindexreflectsthespontaneousqu

otationfrequencies

fordifferentremedies:#:disap

peareduse

inthelast

decad

es;x:use

quotedbyless

than

10%

ofthe

inform

ants;xx:use

quotedbymore

than

10%

andless

than

40%

oftheinform

ants;xxx:use

quotedbymore

than

40%

oftheinform

ants.


TABLE2.

Distributionoffaunaan

dcorrespondingremed

iesbycountry.Numbersin

columnsforeach

specific

countryindicatethenumber

ofdifferentsp

ecies

orremed

iescitedfortheresp

ectivecountry.Totalsin

bold

indicatethetotalnumber

ofdifferentsp

eciesorremed

iescitedin

allcountries.Ifthesamesp

eciesor

remed

ywas

citedin

more

than

onecountry,thisiscountedonly

once

inthetotalcolumn.Forexam

ple,in

theord

erHirudinea,threecountriesreported

theuse

oftheEuropeanMed

icinal

Leech

.Since

thenumber

1assigned

toeach

countryrepresents

thesamesp

ecies,only

1goes

into

thetotalcolumnin

bold.Howev

er,

this

speciesis

usedin

differentway

sin

thedifferentcountries,

soeach

remed

ywillbecountedonce

andthetotalnumber

ofremed

iesis

3.

Phylum

Class

Ord

er

Anim

alSpecies(N

580

)Rem

edies(N

523

2)

Alban

iaItaly

Nep

alSpain

Total

Alban

iaItaly

Nep

alSpain

Total

No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

%No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

%

Annelida

Clitellata

Hirudinea

11

11

1.3

11

13

1.3

Arthropoda

Arach

nida

Aranae

11

22.5

12

31.3

Scorpiones

11

22.5

15

62.6

Insecta

Coleoptera

11

22.5

41

52.2

Hem

iptera

11

1.3

11

0.4

Hymen

optera

14

15

6.3

42

34

13

5.6

Lep

idoptera

11

1.3

11

0.4

Chord

ata

Actinopterygii

Anguilliform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Clupeiform

es1

11.3

22

0.9

Cypriniform

es2

22.5

22

0.9

Synbranch

iform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Amphibia

Anura

12

33.8

33

62.6

Cau

data

11

22.5

11

20.9

Aves

Ciconiiform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Columbiform

es1

13

45.0

31

15

2.2

Coraciiform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Cucu

liform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Galliform

es1

12

12

2.5

75

44

19

8.2

Passeriform

es2

13

3.8

41

52.2

Mam

malia

Artiodactyla

44

54

810.0

1421

99

52

22.4

Carnivora

11

43

78.8

14

86

18

7.8

Erinaceo

morpha

11

1.3

11

0.4

Perissodactyla

12

11

33.8

13

12

73.0

Primates

11

31

45.0

112

34

20

8.6

Proboscidea

11

1.3

11

0.4

Roden

tia

12

13

3.8

13

15

2.2

Osteich

thyes

Cypriniform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Rep

tilia

Squam

ata

11

57

8.8

11

2224

10.3

Testudines

11

22.5

62

83.4

Sau

ropsida

Testudines

11

22.5

12

31.3

Teleo

stomi

Cypriniform

es1

11.3

11

0.4

Mollusca

Gastropoda

Eupulm

onata

11

22.5

91

10

4.3

Pulm

onata

11

22.5

12

31.3

TOTAL

11

21

37

34

80

100

31

71

56

77

232

100


(22.4%) reported using animals from the order Artiodactyla. Other importantorders included Squamata (24 remedies, 10.3%), Primates (20, 8.6%), Galliformes(19, 8.2%), Carnivora (18, 7.8%), and Hymenoptera (13, 5.6%). The distribution offauna and remedies is reported by country in Table 2. The greatest number ofremedies was reported in Spain, with 77 remedies coming from 34 species. This isclosely followed by Italy, where 71 remedies were reported from 21 species.Nepal reported the most species used–37 species used in 56 remedies, andAlbania reported 11 species used in 31 remedies.

Etic Categories of Use

Our research found over 50 categories of medicinal remedies, includingapplications for the treatment of various forms of infection and illness, as well asmagical or spiritual protection from illness or misfortune (Figure 2). Vulneraryagents were most numerous (20 remedies), followed closely by protectiveamulets and blessings (15 remedies). Each study site had a concentration ofcertain types of remedies. In Spain, the majority of remedies were for vulnerary(9) and anti-rhinitic (6) applications, and ethnoveterinary remedies for the

FIGURE 2. Distribution of remedies by etic category. Remedies reported only once are not included:fertility aid, anti-hydrocele, anti-blister, anti-dysenteric, anti-wrinkle, diaphoretic, heal inguinalhernia, treatment for difficulty passing urine, anti-enuresis, anti-erysipelas, anti-chillbains and anti-leucoderma.


treatment of sick livestock (7). In Italy, the majority of remedies were for anti-dermatitic (6), vulnerary (5), and emollient (5) applications. In Nepal, mostremedies were for protective amulets and blessings (9), followed by vulnerary(5), and reconstituent or nutraceuctical (5) purposes. In Albania, the mostcommonly reported remedies were for treating animal bites (3)–such as wolf, dogor snake-bites and for nutraceutical or reconstituent purposes (3).

Animal Parts Used in Remedies

There were 36 source categories reported for remedies (Figure 3). The mostcommon sources included the whole animal (33 remedies), milk and milkproducts (21), meat/animal flesh (16), fat (15), honey (12), and eggs (11). Some ofthe more unusual remedies come from animal excrements, including feces (10),urine (3), and seminal fluid (1). Figure 4 illustrates the use of some of thesedifferent remedies in traditional Spanish medical applications.

Only two species were used as remedies in all four study sites–the domesticchicken (Gallus gallus) and domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus). Other than thesetwo, Nepal shared no common species with the Mediterranean study sites.People in Albania, Italy, and Spain used 7 of the same species for their

FIGURE 3. Animal parts used in traditional zootherapeutic remedies. Animal parts quoted in only oneremedy are not illustrated: bees wax, cerumen, claws, heart, horns, saliva, milt, musk, silk, spines,sweat and teeth.


zootherapeutic pharmacopoeias. These were mainly common livestock such asdonkeys, sheep, and swine and the honey bee, medicinal leech, and dog.

Discussion

It is not surprising that the fauna used in traditional zootherapeutic remediesin Nepal differ significantly from those in theMediterranean study sites (Figure 5).

FIGURE 4. Zootherapeutic remedies from Spain. (A) Feeding a mule bread and a snake skin to curegeneral sickness. (B) Applying a spider web to seal a skin laceration and promote healing. (C) Puncturingthe skin with a tip of a deer horn to release the poison from a snake bite. (D) Preparing an oleolite bysoaking several newborn mice in a jar of olive oil. The oil is instilled in the ears to treat earache.

FIGURE 5. Intercultural correlation of fauna reported in zootherapeutic remedies. The fauna reportedin Nepal (a) are very different from those in the other countries. Other than Gallus gallus (chicken) andCapra aegagrus hircus (goat) - reported in all study sites - Nepal shares no other common species withthe other study sites. Albania, Italy, and Spain (b) share 7 species as zootherapeutics: sheep, swine,donkeys, honey bees, medicinal leeches, and dogs.


While Albania, Italy, and Spain vary somewhat in their respective wild fauna, theirdomestic livestock are similar, typical of the agro-pastoral economies of theMediterranean. The study area in Nepal, on the other hand, is home to a muchdifferent wild fauna, and the ethnic populations living in this region demonstrate astrong reliance on wild resources rather than livestock. The native fauna in theNepali environment includes monkeys, rhinoceroses, tigers, and elephants–noneof which are indigenous to the Mediterranean.

It is interesting to note that even when the same or similar species are used inthe different study sites, the actual part of the animal and the application oftendiverge. The only exception we found is that in all study sites honey, fromvarious species of bees, is reported as a popular remedy for colds and sore throatand is typically added to a hot tea and drunk or eaten alone.

To better describe this divergence in preparation and use of similar species,we discuss the example of pigeons. Various species of pigeon are used in three ofthe study sites, but different parts or products of the pigeon are used dependingon the country. In Spain, pigeon feces are used to treat ingrown toenails and acne,whereas in Italy the meat is eaten as a soup for galactagogue, reconstituent, andpost-partum healing purposes. On the other hand, in Nepal, a live pigeon is setfree as an augury and magical protection against misfortune (Table 1).

The medicinal use of the domestic chicken also differs based on the studysite: in Italy it is used to heal broken bones, to treat general sickness, for post-partum healing, as well as to treat abscess and furuncle; in Spain it is used as anamulet, an anti-anemic, and treatment for ingrown toenail; in Albania it is used totreat kidney stones and stomachache, as a poison antidote and analgesic; inNepal it is used for magical blessings, as a vulnerary, and to heal broken bones.While some applications are similar in more than one country, the animal partused differs. For example, people in both Spain and Nepal use the chicken as avulnerary, but the egg white is used in Spain while fat is used in Nepal. Only inItaly and Albania, where eating boiled eggs is a diarrhea remedy, do we find asimilar preparation and application of chicken.

Besides chickens, other domestic animals commonly used as a source oftraditional medicine include cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, donkeys, and horses.In fact, the largest portion of animal-based remedies reported in this study comefrom domestic animals, and this is likely due to their role in local subsistencepractices and the consequential ease of access and availability of these species tohumans. This is particularly evident in the Mediterranean study sites. While themedicinal use of these species was reported in several sites, once again, we notethat the actual animal part(s), application, and preparation of the remedies differbetween locations.

The use of wild fauna for traditional medicine is, of course, highly dependenton local availability and accessibility to wild resources. We would expect theclose proximity of communities to natural resource reservoirs such as forests orwater sources to be correlated with a greater use of wild fauna. Communities inthe Spanish study site are located near game preserves and hunting is a popularsport. The time spent in the forests perhaps gives this population a greater levelof access to wild fauna like snakes, foxes, badgers, and lizards–all of which werereported as popular zootherapeutic remedies. In Nepal, on the other hand, the


emphasis on water creatures–such as fish, eels and turtles, as well as snakes–perhaps relates to the Nepalese economy, which is based in large part on fishing.In Italy and Albania the heavier reliance on domestic, rather than wild fauna islikely associated with the agro-pastoral economy of these study sites.

In addition to looking to other species for medical remedies, certainethnomedical solutions come from humans themselves. These human-basedremedies are not derived from essential organs, but instead from humanexcrements and secretions, including breast milk, cerumen, sweat, menstrualblood, urine, and feces. Some of these remedies, such as the use of breast milk asan anti-conjunctivitic, may have a biomedical basis to them. For example, breastmilk has antibacterial properties that could be useful in treating an eye infection(De Souza, et al. 2002; Stevens et al. 2000). While all of the human-based remedieswere reported in the Mediterranean study sites, this does not necessarily excludethe use of such products in Nepal. It is probable that many more zootherapeuticremedies are still practiced (or were used in recent years), but were simply notreported by informants in these particular field studies.

Other studies conducted in countries like Brazil (Alves 2009) and India(Mahawar and Jaroli 2008) have documented the zootherapeutic use of 250 and 109animal species, respectively. In comparison with these studies, our documentationof 34 medicinal species in Spain, 21 in Italy, 11 in Albania, and 37 in Nepal, reflectsa rather small number of species. This may be a consequence of one or more ofseveral possible factors: 1) our study documents the zootherapeutic practices ofisolated communities in distinct regions of each country, and the data do not reflectthe TK of zootherapy for the entire country; 2) the conversion of wildland habitats(especially forests and wetlands) to accommodate grazing animals and crops hasbeen detrimental to the faunal populations of these regions and also reducescommunity access to these wild resources; 3) modernization efforts and economicshifts in each study region have contributed to a decline in human daily interactionwith the environment and a general abandonment of traditional lifeways; and 4)especially in contrast to NE Brazil (Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c), thebiodiversity of our field sites is relatively low, and this is reflected in the diversityof resources used by the communities we studied.

Local Perceptions of Animals as They Relate to Human Health

Local economies doubtlessly play an important role in the relationshipbetween human health and the environment. We have established thatcommunities with an agro-pastoral economy, like that of the Mediterraneanstudy sites, utilize more domestic animals (especially ungulates such as sheep,cattle, swine, donkeys, and goats) in the management of human health, whereasethnic communities in Nepal that subsist on a fishing economy utilize moreanimals associated with a riverine or wetland environment for their medical care.These trends underline the implicit link between human subsistence behaviorsand the traditional healing praxis. While this general correlation is likelyassociated with ease of access to certain species, other distinct socioculturalfactors, such as religion, should also be taken into consideration.

Like other Nepalese ethnic groups, the Majhi believe in animism. The Majhiworship a family deity called Kulkulayan and sacrifice animals to appease the


deity. The Majhi also worship a forest goddess called Ban Devi, who protects theforest, an area essential for Majhi survival. This devotion to the forest goddessexplains the group’s attention to resource conservation. The forest is believed tobe governed by the deity and thus is considered sacred. The Mahji believe thatlife is influenced by the attitude of forest spirits, and many of the zootherapeuticremedies prepared by this group are utilized as protective amulets against badspirits and as tokens of good fortune. In this sense, religion influences the Majhiperceptions of health and illness and guides the selection of remedies forparticular disease states. This health epistemology where a preoccupation withillnesses of magico-spiritual or supernatural origin predominates greatly differsfrom that of the Mediterranean.

The people in the Mediterranean study sites are Catholic and overall have amore naturalistic perception of health and illness. In other words, theMediterranean informants believe that many illnesses are caused by exposureto natural elements such as changing temperatures, humidity, rain, wind, andother seasonal weather events. In addition, our informants in Italy and Spainhave greater access to allopathic medical care and, as a consequence, alsodemonstrate a greater understanding of biomedical principles of health andillness. Here, zootherapeutic remedies are selected to treat distinct symptoms ofdisease–such as the use of animal fat as an emollient for burns and wounds ordairy products in the treatment of intestinal disorders (diarrhea and constipa-tion). In some cases, however, spiritual or magical elements are thought to be thecausative factor in disease or misfortune (Quave and Pieroni 2005), and there aresome zootherapeutic remedies, such as evil-eye amulets made from dog hide,which are used as a mode of spiritual protection.

Threats to these Medicinal Fauna

Eleven of the species documented in these field studies are included on theIUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Many of these species are threatened as aconsequence of human development and the associated loss of natural habitats.In the Mediterranean sites, medicinal reptiles are most at risk–the European pondturtle is listed as lower risk/near threatened (Tortoise & Freshwater TurtleSpecialist Group 1996), the four-lined snake is listed as near threatened (Romanoand Jelic 2008), and Lataste’s viper is listed as vulnerable (Mateo et al. 2008) Inaddition to the threat from loss of habitat, these two snakes are also subjected tohuman attack throughout their respective ranges. The European medicinal leech,whose use for phlebotomy has been documented over the centuries, is listed aslower risk/near threatened (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996). Themajor threats to this species are over-collection for medicinal purposes and theloss of their primary habitat from the conversion of grazing marshes to arableland.

In Nepal, four of the medicinal species documented in our study are listedunder endangered status: elongated tortoise (Asian Turtle Trade Working Group2000), Asian elephant (Choudhury et al. 2008), Himalayan musk deer (Wang andHarris 2008), and Bengal tiger (Ahmad et al. 2008). The sloth bear (Garshelis et al.2008) and Indian rhinoceros (Talukdar et al. 2008) are listed as vulnerable species.The Assam macaque is listed as a near threatened species (Boonratana et al.


2008). Populations of the listed species above are declining due to a combinationof habitat loss and poaching/hunting. Moreover, obtaining medicinal productsfrom these species oftentimes requires killing the animal, which also contributesto the population decline.

Loss of habitat is not the only negative environmental factor instigated bypeople; reduced habitat quality also severely impacts these threatened species.The conversion of land for agriculture leads to the invasion of nonnative plantspecies and grazing by domestic livestock. Indian rhinoceros populations, inparticular, have been affected by such a reduction in habitat quality (Talukdar etal. 2008). Likewise, the Assam macaque is threatened by both a loss of habitat anddecline in the quality of habitat as a result of selective logging. They are alsotrapped for sport, food, medicine, and the pet trade (Boonratana et al. 2008).

Conclusion

We have found that while animal-based remedies constitute an importantfacet of traditional medicine in each study site, the actual application andpreparation of animal products differs noticeably among sites. In addition, thepopularity, or consensus of use, is dependent to a large degree on theaccessibility or availability of the animals to these communities. Moreover, ourstudies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by humansubsistence patterns. In other words, people are more likely to utilize medicinalproducts from animals with which they are in regular contact. This is why themost popular zootherapeutic remedies in the Mediterranean come from domesticanimals (especially ungulates), whereas in Nepal, communities rely more heavilyon wild fauna. In this sense, economic models play an important role intraditional healthcare practices by influencing the selection of particularmedicines.

Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in theMediterranean and Asia, and these differences play a substantive role in theselection and use of animal-based remedies. In Nepal, where a magical orspiritual medical epistemology is predominant, amulets are popularly used toward off bad spirits and to bring good fortune. Powerful and even feared animalssuch as the Bengal tiger provide a ‘‘strong’’ medicine. The same is true in Spainwith the medicinal use of venomous snakes. The difficulty of obtaining productsfrom rare (vulnerable and endangered) species is often associated with the‘‘potency’’ of the particular remedy. The sociocultural value assigned tothreatened species that are considered to be ‘‘powerful’’ due to their rarity orthe peril associated with their collection should be taken into consideration whendesigning biodiversity conservation measures.

In both the Mediterranean and Asia, populations of wild fauna are in a stateof decline due to over-hunting, habitat loss, and reduced habitat quality. Threatsposed to endangered and vulnerable wild fauna by poaching, which is alsodriven by their use in traditional medicine, must be acknowledged andaddressed. The resulting loss of biodiversity is detrimental not only to theimmediate wildlife affected, but also to local ecosystems and humans in general.Depletion of the variety of natural resources in our environment diminishes the


potential for the discovery of new and much needed drugs. Thus, biodiversity iscritical to current and future human health. A thorough understanding of humancognition of animal utility in folk medical systems is necessary for the creationand implementation of appropriate biodiversity conservation measures.

Acknowledgements

This project was supported by grant numbers F31AT004288 and F32AT005040 fromthe National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. The content is solelythe responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the official views of theNational Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine or the National Institutes ofHealth. Additional support for C. Quave was provided by Botany in Action and the AnneChatham Fellowship in Medicinal Botany. Financial support for U. Lohani was providedby the University Grant Commission, Nepal. Support for A. Verde, D. Rivera, C. Obon,and A. Valdes was provided by the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha (PBC-05-011-2. Estudio etnobiologico de las areas de montana y humedales de Castilla-LaMancha and PAC-08-173-4838. Etnobiologıa de la Flora Medicinal De Castilla La Mancha).Support for A. Pieroni’s fieldwork in northern Albania was provided by EU Commission(RUBIA project, ICA3-2002-10023, http://www.rubiaproject.net/, 01.01.2003-31.12.2005).

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