A Comparative Analysis of Two Texts Usin

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A Comparative Analysis of Two Texts using Halliday’s Systemic Functional

Linguistics

Michael Ruddick

A paper written as part of an MA in TEFL/TESOL at the University of Birmingham.

1. Introduction

Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of linguistics that claims

language, or any other semiotic system, can be seen as a system of choices. Language

users choose from a network of options in order to create a text, whether that text is

written or spoken. What is then conveyed, the meaning of the text, is dependent upon the

choices made by the speaker from the options within the language system or, in some

cases, from what is not chosen (Teo, 2000, p.24). Although SFL is primarily a linguistic

theory it is also concerned with the effect of culture and society on language (Coffin,

2001, p.94). The theory posits that all speakers are influenced by the economic/social

system in which they live and also by the roles they inhabit within these systems. Fowler

(1986, .p148) gives examples of birthplace, family, school and affiliated social groups,

together with the patterns of interaction and the limitations of experience associated with

them, as evidence of the above. Thus each speaker creates language acts, makes linguistic

choices that are constrained by the semantic repertoire provided by their personal and

cultural/social experiences. A text, then, provides the reader with a view of the world as

seen or understood by the writer/speaker. As Coffin (Coffin, 2001, p.95) explains one of

the central tenets of SFL is that:

“…behaviors, beliefs and values within a particular cultural and social environment influence and shape

both the overall language system…and language “instances”, the way people use language in everyday

interaction”.

Commentators have long been aware of bias in the media and the effect, intended or

otherwise, that media texts have in society (Lukin, 2005, p.2). White (2006, p.1) sees

news reporting, especially, as ideologically inclined and with an agenda to influence its


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intended audience. The positioning of the audience to take biased views of participants

and actions is a regular occurrence, according to White (2006, p.1). Text producers make

grammatical choices with regards to participants in certain types of news reports. These

are “choices as to which participants are represented as agentive and which as

affected/acted upon” (White, 2006, p.3). An effect of this is that the degree of agency

assigned may influence the amount of blame designated to one participant rather than

another, thus biasing the opinion of the reader (White, 2006, p.3). Teo (2004, p.25)

makes use of ‘Transitivity’, a key component in Halliday’s SFL, to reveal the attribution

of agency to participants in texts. Transitivity is an analytic tool which foregrounds

agency and makes salient “who does what to whom” (Teo, 2004, p.25).

The following inquiry highlights the linguistic choices made by two writers and how

those choices assign agency and so position the reader to accept a positive or negative

point of view of the participants in their texts. To further illuminate the concept of

transitivity a review of Halliday’s three metafunctions, and specifically the Ideational

metafunction, is undertaken. Following this is a qualitative and quantitative analysis of

both texts. This analysis focuses on the process types used with specific emphasis on the

material and verbal processes.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Three Metafunctions

In SFL, then, the system of language options available to the speaker and the choices

made depending on the context take precedent. In order to analyze language Halliday

(Matthiessen & Halliday, 1997) makes use of three interrelated metafunctions, the

Textual, the Interpersonal and the Ideational, as a way of classifying the various options

available and choices made by speakers. The Textual metafunction refers to written

language and how information is organized and presented. This may relate to the theme

of a clause or to the cohesion of a text. The Interpersonal refers to language as a medium

for interaction, expressing attitudes and obligation. The emphasis on expression places

modality at the center of the Interpersonal metafunction. Finally, the Ideational


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metafunction emphasizes the world of experience, events and circumstances. When

analyzing a clause, asking the question “Who does what to whom under what

circumstances?” will reveal the Ideational function (Butt, 2000, p.47). As one aspect of

the following analysis is an attempt to uncover “Who does what to whom?” a closer

examination of the Ideational metafunction and its aspects will be of benefit at this point.

2.2. The Ideational Metafunction

When analyzing language for its experiential functions it is possible to breakdown a

clause into three functional elements of Participant, Process and Circumstance. The

Participant element, usually the subject of the clause, can be termed as the Actor, Agent,

Goal, Carrier or Sayer of the clause (Butt, 2001, p.47). The Process constituent, the

central verb of the clause, can also be broken down into three separate elements and

described as Material, Relational and Projecting. The Circumstance element can be

referred to as the where, when, how, why, with whom or as what the process of the clause

occurred (Butt, 2000, p.64). The following two clauses (Figure 1 and 2), taken from text

A and B, show an example of how the Participant, Process, Circumstance functions work.

Figure 1

Thousands of political prisoners were released in the 1970s

Participant

Actor)

Process

Material)

Circumstance

When/Location)

Figure 2

He is wanted on a red Interpol list

Participant

Actor)

Process

Material)

Circumstance

Where/Location)

The verbal group, the Process, is at the heart of the clause, according to the Ideational

metafunction. It is through the Process element of the clause that expressions of

“happening, doing, being saying and thinking” (Butt, 2000, p.50) are realized. As


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mentioned above, Processes can be further broken down into Material, Relational and

Projecting verbs. According to Halliday (Matthiessen & Halliday, 1997), these terms can

be considered in the following manner:

2.3. Material Verbs

Material verbs can be categorized as doing and happening verbs. This includes actions,

activities and events. As well as the term Material these verbs can also be termed

Behavioral Processes. Both can be used to portray experiences in the external world but

Behavioral Processes relate more to physiological and psychological behavior (Butt,

2000, p.51).

2.4. Projecting Verbs

Projecting verbs can be categorized as Mental and Verbal. Mental verbs refer to cognition,

emotion, intention and perception (Matthiessen & Halliday, 1997). These verbs

encapsulate the inner mind and consciousness. Verbal Processes are verbs of “saying”

(Thompson, 2004, p.100) and encode the physical act of speaking.

2.5.

Relational Verbs

Relational Processes can be sub-divided into Existential and Relational verbs. Existential

Processes are identified by the use of is, are, was, were and signal the existence of a

relationship between two concepts (Thompson, 2004, p.96). The function of Relational

verbs is to “identify one entity in favor of another ” (Thompson, 2004, p.96). The use of

was, were, have, felt and belong to are typical of these processes.

Using the above process types as analytical tools it is possible to pin-point how the writer

represents the dominant agents of the text and so uncover the motivation and bias of the

text producer. In the following analysis two texts (The Other Extradition by Norman

Stone and Will Castro Be Next in the Dock? by Maurice Walsh: see appendix 1 and 2 for


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the full text of both articles) are compared and contrasted using Halliday ’s transitivity

theory.

3. Text A and Text B

Text A is an article from the Guardian newspaper titled The Other Extradition, written by

Norman Stone in November 1998 (Appendix 1). Text B, titled Will Castro Be Next in the

Dock? (Appendix 2), was published by the New Statesman magazine, also in November

1998 and written by Maurice Walsh. The Guardian and the New Statesman are British

publications know to be left wing in their political stances. Both articles use the fate of

the Chilean dictator General Pinochet to highlight similar themes. In 1998 Pinochet was

detained by the British Government and faced extradition to Spain to face charges of

human rights during his reign of power. Text A asks why Apon Ocalan, the leader of the

Kurdish PKK, has not been extradited from Italy despite being the leader of a terrorist

organization and being wanted for murder in Germany. Text B, similarly, highlights the

human rights abuses attributed to the Cuban dictator Fidel Castro and asks if he too might

one-day face charges under international law. In the following section the process types

chosen by both writers are highlighted and criticized.

4. Analysis of Process Types in Text A and B

In order to complete the quantitative analysis below five steps were taken. Firstly,

process types, Actors and affected participants, or Goals, were highlighted in both texts

(appendices 1 & 2). Secondly, in order to ascertain the most prominent verbal group

chosen by the authors, processes types were counted and placed into the categories

mentioned above (See Table 1). Thirdly, Actors and the Material Process types affiliated

with them were counted in order to determine the most active participants (Table 2 &

appendices 3 & 4). Next, in an attempt to uncover which participants were affected most

by actions, Material Processes were counted in relation to Goals (Table 3 & appendices 5

& 6). Finally, as with step three, Verbal Processes and the participants they refer to were

counted so as to identify the most verbal characters in both texts (Table 4 & appendices 7


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& 8). Following this process a qualitative analysis was applied relating to the

quantitative data (see section 4.3).

As mentioned, Table 1 below shows the amount and kind of process types used. We see

from the analysis that both texts are almost parallel in their kind and amount of process

types. Material processes greatly out-number all other types with Text B out-numbering

Text A by only two instances. While Text B shows the highest amount of material

processes, Text A represents a higher amount of all other processes. Overall Text A

represents more process types with sixty-five instances while Text B makes use of fifty

eight.

Table 1

Process Types in Text A and Text B

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Material Behavioral Verbal Mental Relational Existential

Process Types

% Text A

Text B\

4.1. Actors and Material Processes

As mentioned earlier, Material Processes encode physical actions. These processes relate

to what is going on, doing or happening. Thompson (2004, p.90) differentiates between

those material processes that represent action related only to the Actor and those that

“also affect or are ‘ being done’ to another participant”, in this case categorized as the

Goal. The example below (figure 3) from Text A illustrates one variation of the Actor,

Process, Goal, Circumstance, clause type as propounded by Thompson (2004, p.90).


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Figure 3

In 1985 PLO men hijacked a cruise ship

Circumstance Actor Process

(Material)

Goal

When attempting an analysis of this kind it is important to separate the Actor from the

Goal but also to distinguish between the kind of Actor being represented (Lukin, 2005,

p.5). For example, in the statement It will not extradite Ocalan to Turkey (appendix 3) the

Actor is a political entity, in this case the Italian State, whereas in he runs the PKK the

Actor is the individual, Apon Ocalan. It is also worth mentioning the difference between

an active and a passive clause at this point. Thompson (2004, p.91) explains that all

material processes have an Actor even though the Actor may not appear explicitly in the

clause. This makes a vital difference between the active and passive clause in transitivity

theory. In the passive clause from Text B Torture was institutionalized (appendix 4) the

Actor can be revealed by asking the question “Who by?”, in this case the inexplicit Actor

is the Cuban State. In Table 2 below, then, the various Actors from both texts have been

categorized and the material processes attributed to them are shown. The Actors shown in

Table 2 also include those presumed by passive material process clauses.


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Table 2

Actors and Material Processes in Text A and B

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

D i c t a t o r s

G e

o p o l i t i c a l E n t i t i e s

V i c t i m s

A g e n t s

O b s e r v e r s

T o r t u r e

C

h a r g e s / E v i d e n c e

O t h e r

Actors

I n s t a n c e s

Text A

Text B

In Table 2 the category of Dictators represents only Pinochet and Apon Ocalan.

Geopolitical Entities describes any country or state taking action in the texts. Victims

relates to those affected detrimentally by either Dictators or Geopolitical Entities. The

category of Agents depicts groups or individuals taking action on behalf of a political

movement such as the PLO or a geopolitical entity such as the Cuban State. Observers

signify those groups or individuals, such as Selim Curukkaya or the Cuban Community

for Human Rights, who comment on the various events in both texts. Torture and

Charges/Evidence appear only in text B and relate to the act of torture and the possible

charges and evidence against Castro in an international court of law. Other, includes

instances of the generic you and revolutionary justice. When comparing Table 1 and table

2 we see that a marked contrast has occurred. Both texts show a similar amount of

material processes but the distribution of these processes with regards to actors is very

different. In Text A the most active participants are Dictators with twelve instances

whereas in Text B Observers are the most active with ten instances. Text B shows a very

limited role for Dictators as Actors with only two instances while Text A shows a similar

lack of emphasis for Observers with only three instances. All other categories, except

Torture and Charges/Evidence, show a similar representation of material processes with a

difference of 1 instance in each category.


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4.2. Participants Affected by Material Processes

Above then we see how the writers of both texts have chosen to associate certain Actors

with action processes. As was mentioned earlier there are those action processes that

pertain to the Actor and those that affect or are done to others. Table 3 below shows those

entities in both texts that are the recipients of action.

Table 3

Entities Having ctions Done to Them

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

D i c t a t o r s

V i c t i m s

A g e n t s

O b s e r v e r s

G e o p o l i t i c a l E n t i t i e s

T o r t u r e

I n f o r m a t i o n O t h e r

Categories

I n s t a n c e s

Text A

Text B

With regard to action, once again we see a difference in how the writers choose to portray

participants. Both texts characterize Victims as being the participants most affected byactions. Text B emphasizes this with twelve instances of material processes while Text B

represents victims with nine instances. Again Text A places more emphasis on Dictators

but also shows double the amount of Agents affected than Text B. In Text B the concept

of torture claims two instances and the category of information, related specifically to

statistics, also takes two. Observers and Geopolitical Entities are represented by one


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instance each in Text B but do not appear at all in Text A. It is clear, then, that the

writers of Text A and B have used material processes differently. By further comparing

and contrasting the texts it is possible to highlight the points of view each writer has with

regards to the participants, and the effect this may have on the reader ’s perception of

those participants. For all quotes from Text A and B in the following section see

appendix 3, 4, 5 and 6.

4.3. Commentary on Material Processes in Text A and Text B

As both texts focus on the crimes and abuses of two dictators it may be assumed that

Ocalan and Castro play major active roles in both articles. As we have seen from the

above analysis this is not so. In Text A Ocalan has more material process attributed tohim than any other character or entity. Ocalan is associated with processes of violence

and control. He broke a ceasefire, and killed 20 unarmed young conscripts and runs the

PKK in Stalinist style. Castro, though, has no action processes attributed to him at all.

The only instance ascribed to a dictator in Text B is ascribed to Pinochet. Table 3 above

shows that Victims are the participants that have the most actions done to them. In Text

A Ocalan is shown to be directly involved in many acts against victims. As well as the

above mentioned 20 unarmed conscripts, the writer Selim Curukkaya was imprisoned by

Ocalan. Ocalan also takes action as an omitted Actor in the Agentless passive clause four

defectors from his organisation were killed . As already mentioned the writer of Text A

states that Ocalan runs the PKK . This is re-enforced by Ocalan, who has led the Kurdish

PKK since its foundation 20 years ago, has waged a terroristic war … The inclusion of

these clauses solidifies the idea that Ocalan is in control of the Kurdish PKK and so is

responsible for any acts committed by agents of the organisation. Thus when two young

primary school teachers were killed and the PPK obliged in the killing of a

schoolteacher ’s wife, it is Ocalan, through association with his actions that we equate

with the violence.

Text B also has its share of violence and killing. Torture is not only seen as an entity

acted upon in this article but also as an Actor, as in the sentence: Torture was

institutionalized and several accounts leave little doubt that the Cuban version – despite


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the rhetoric about the “new man” – did not fight shy of the malevolent ingenuity that is

the trademark of its practitioners. As mentioned above the initial passive clause in this

sentence begs the question “By whom?” In Text A, because of Ocalan’s active

participation, the answer would be the Dictator. However, despite the claim that final

decisions concerning crime and punishment in Cuba are Fidel Castro’ s personal

province in Text B, action is transferred away from Castro to Agents and the Cuban State.

Cornelis (2003, p.65) brings attention to the passive clause as a means to create distance

and closeness in a text. She posits that in a passive clause the Goal is emphasized and so

brought closer to the reader/writer, while the Actor is distanced. The passive construction,

she states, evokes the agent:

“… but leaves it offstage, non-central in the conceptualisation. To evoke the agent, but to leave it off-

stage, is a highly marked choice, especially because the agent is the entity with which the entire event

begins…” (Cornelis, 2003, p.65)

Stone and Walsh make extensive use of passive clauses to indicate action in their articles.

Both make use of use of six in each text. Of Stone’s passive clauses Ocalan is the agent

of two while the PKK, directly under his control, is also the agent of two. In Text B,

prisoners were shot by firing squads and judged by special tribunals, a tugboat of

passengers…was rammed (by Agents), Torture was institutionalized (by the Cuban State)

and survivors and their families were harassed (by Agents). Here, Agents and the Cuban

State are distanced by the writer. This has the further effect of showing Castro to be twice

removed from the violence in Walsh’s text compared to Ocalan in Stone’s article. With

regards to Victims the use of passives has a twofold effect. Cornelis (2003, p.61) tells us

that active and passive agents denote perspective in such a way as to conceptualize the

identities taking part in the event as those “closest to us or most similar to us” (Cornelis,

2003, p.61) and those which are not. In this way the writers bring us closer to the Victimsand so make it easier for the reader to sympathize and identify with them. On the other

hand this portrayal of the Victims as Goal has a negative effect. Table 2 shows a low ratio

of Material Processes attributed to Victims while Table 3 shows a high ratio of actions

perpetrated against them. Combined with a series of passive clauses the overall effect of


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this is to portray the Victims as weak and unable to take part in or change the

circumstances in which they find themselves.

5. Verbal Processes

As Lukin (2005, p.6) points out an analysis of verbal processes will show us who gets a

voice in the text. Table 4 below shows those participants in the role of ‘Sayer ’ (Lukin,

2005, p.6).

Table 4

Verbal Processes in Text and Text B

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Observers Dictators Agents Victims Other

Categories

n

s

t

n

c

e

s

Text A

Text B

Here we see differences and similarities in the use of verbal processes by the authors.Observers share an equal amount of verbal processes in both texts. In the category of

Dictators, Castro, in Text B, takes double the amount of processes compared to Ocalan in

Text A. Agents speak more in Text A than Text B. Victims have no voice at all in Text B

but are allowed two instances in Text A.


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5.1. Commentary on Verbal Processes in Tex A and Text B

With regards to Observers we can now see how important this category is to Walsh. A

look at Table 2 shows that in Text B Observers are the most active participants with eight

instances of material processes. In Table 4 Observers take up almost half of the verbal

processes in Walsh’s Text. However, a further analysis of the material processes related

to Observers in Text B reveals that half of the actions taken are affiliated to general

Pinochet. Walsh writes that in 1990 a commission…investigated Pinochet ’s rule, that it

produced two rigorously sourced volumes that it concluded that 1,158 people had died

and that victims were classified by age ,profession, religion (by the commission). Of the

other instances one claims that Independent human rights monitors have

found …violations of rights to privacy, freedom of expression…in Cuba, while another

states Some anti-Castro groups put the figure at 60,000, the figure here pertaining to the

amount of political prisoners in Cuba at the time. The key point here is that the “the

commission” is acting in such a way as to highlight and criticize the abuses of Pinochet ’ s

rule. Conversely, Walsh’s Independent human rights monitors found violations of rights

to privacy in Cuba, not Castro’s Cuba. Likewise, the anti-Castro groups are given no

opportunity to vent their anti-Castro sentiments. They do not “attack ” Castro’s earlier

admission of 25,000 political prisoners, nor does their figure “clash” with Castro’s. They

merely put the figure at 60,000 with no mention of Castro at all.

Turning to the verbal processes used to voice the opinions of the Observers in Text B we

see similar occurrences. As mentioned earlier Walsh writes If there is a case against

Pinochet, shouldn’ t there, asks the right, also be a case against Fidel Castro? Here

Walsh gives voice to the right and allows them to ask a question using the modal

shouldn’t there. White (2000, p.16) points to modals as being used to assess the

probability of the information a clause is providing. In this case the use of shouldn’t

conveys a belief that there is less probability of the event occurring than if “must” were

used. Also Walsh has the right ask the question rather than “tell” the reader. A feeling of

distance is created here as by asking, rather than telling, the right seem to be unsure of

the information they are conveying. By re-phrasing the sentence to If there is a case


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against Pinochet, there must, the right tells us be a case against Fidel Castro, the

speakers reveal themselves to be more sure of their beliefs and their information. Turning

to Tad Szulc, Walsh tells us that Castro’s biographer has written that “ final decisions

concerning crime and punishment in Cuba are Fidel Castro’ s personal province”.

However, as shown above we are given no real evidence to support Sulzc’s words in the

text. Finally, Walsh writes that Amnesty international said the survivors and their

families were harassed... As has already been established this harassment was at the

hands of the Cuban State and not Castro. Although Walsh gives the Observers a voice,

they do not use it to speak out against Castro. They are either unsure as to his guilt, or, as

with Szulc, their words are made impotent by the lack of evidence to support his claim.

Of the four verbal processes used by Observers in Stone’s article only one instanceoccurs which actively implicates Ocalan. Stone writes that: You are not even allowed to

cross your legs in his camps, says Selim Curukkaya, as it might be taken as a sign of

disrespect. Although here the writer allows the speaker to directly criticize Ocalan it must

be considered that this is the only voice critical of Ocalan from the category of Observers.

Other instances of verbal processes from this category refer to the wider political

landscape involving Turkey and the Kurds.

While Table 4 shows Observers as the largest group of ‘Sayers’, we also see that in Text

B Dictators are given a voice comparable to the latter. In this category all four instances

of verbal processes are attributed to Castro himself. Here Walsh allows the dictator space

to express himself on many different levels. Firstly, Castro is allowed to justify the events

and actions of the revolution when Walsh writes: Castro declared that “revolutionary

justice is not based on legal precept but on moral conviction”. The Dictator is also

permitted to apologize: Castro said it (drowning of refugees) was an accident : to reveal

information and confess: Castro himself admitted to 25,000 political prisoners and finally

to give an imperative and show mercy: He ordered the firing squads to stop. Conversely

only two verbal processes are attributed to Ocalan in Text A. Stone allows Ocalan to

justify his actions when he writes that Ocalan claims the usual indulgences for terrorism

although he does not let Ocalan expand on his claim as Walsh does with Castro. The


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second instance is when Stone tells us that Ocalan asks for help from the Italian

Government: He flew to Italy and requested political asylum.

6. Reflections

Above we have seen how the use of material and verbal processes can assist writers to

position the reader. Here the reader is positioned to view the participants in Text A and

Text B from a particular point of view. With regards to action, Ocalan is placed in the

foreground while Castro is maneuvered into the background. Stone portrays Ocalan

negatively. Ocalan is seen as active and responsible for the violence of the PKK. Even

though Castro led the revolution and obviously bears responsibility for the violence and

inhumanity that has occurred in Cuba, Walsh portrays Castro positively. In Text BAgents and the Cuban State are depicted as being violent but Castro is portrayed as

inactive and distant. In both texts the Victims are depicted as sympathetic but helpless.

Verbal Processes continue to project these images of both Dictators. Observers speak

about Castro in a vague way, which continues to foreground the Dictator. Castro is also

given a chance to speak, rather than act. This stratagem of allowing the dictator to

express himself gives Castro a human face but also portrays him as passive compared to

the active Ocalan. Ocalan, on the other hand, is given little chance to speak. There is only

one reference to Ocalan by an Observer and that is directly critical of the dictator, in

contrast to criticisms of Castro.

7. Conclusion.

In our everyday lives the language we encounter can influence our perceptions and

attitudes with regards to “ people places and events and therefore becomes a potentially

powerful site for the dominance of mind” (Teo, 2000, p.9). With news reporting

especially we find that writers not only impart information but also manipulate the reader

to interpret information in certain ways. Text producers do not write in a vacuum. Texts

are not simply there but are infused with ideologies and agendas. The choices writers

make while producing texts can help to covertly promote meanings related to their own

agendas. The above analysis shows that Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics is a

potent tool for uncovering the stratagems that writers/speakers use to convince us of their


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view-points. An emphasis on the material and verbal process types alone can uncover,

among other things, how the audience is positioned to take a positive or negative view of

the participants in a text.


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References

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Explorer ’ s Guide. Sydney: National Center for English Language Teaching and Research,

Macquarie University.

Coffin, C. (2001). Theoretical approaches to written language – a TESOL perspective. InBurns, A. & Coffin, C. (eds.), Analysing English in a Global Context . Routledge, pp. 93-

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Cornelis, L. (2003). Ajax is the Agent: subject versus passive agent as an indicator of the

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Fowler, R . (1996). Linguistic Criticism. Oxford University Press.

Lukin, A. (2005). Mapping media bias: a multidimensional affair, Australian Journalism Review, Vol 27 (1), pp. 139-155.

Matthiessen, C. & Halliday, M.A.K . (1997). Systemic Functional Grammar: a first step

into theory. http://minerva.ling.mq.edu.au/resource/VirtuallLibrary/Publications/sfg_firststep/SFG%2

0intro%20New.html (Internet source quoted on 10/8/07)

Teo,P. (2000). Racism in the news: a Critical Discourse Analysis of news reporting in

two Australian newspapers, Discourse & Society Vol 11 (1), pp. 7 – 48.

Thompson, G. (2004). Introducing Functional Grammar . Arnold:London

White,P.R.R . (2006). Evaluative semantics and ideological positioning in journalistic

discourse – a new framework for analysis. In Lassen, I. (ed.), Mediating Ideology in Textand Image: ten critical studies. John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 37-69.

White, P.R.R. (2000). Functional Grammar . The Center for English Language Studies,University of Birmingham. (Course booklet for MA in TEFL/TESOL)

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Appendix 1

Text A

Pink - Processes

Red – Transitive/Intransitive verbs

Blue – Agent/Acted upon

The Other Extradition

1) An interesting question: compare the fate of General Pinochet, aged (relational) 83, and Comrade

“Apon Ocalan”, aged (relational) 48.

2) Pinochet faces (material) extradition.

3)

Ocalan, who has led (material) the Kurdish PKK since its foundation 20 years ago, has waged

(material) a terroristic war in south eastern Turkey.

4)

Of course, he claims (verbal) the usual indulgence for terrorism, but he has been personally charged

(material) with murder, in Germany, where four defectors from his organisation were killed (material).

5)

He is wanted (mental) on a red Interpol list, at the behest of the German government.

6)

He flew (material) to Italy, and requested (verbal) political asylum, and has not been made to face

(material) justice there - instead there he sits (material), in a comfortable house near Rome.

7) Has the Italian state got (material) a soft spot for murderers?

8) In 1985, PLO men hijacked (material) a cruise ship, the Achille Lauro.

9) An elderly, crippled tourist, in a wheelchair , berated (verbal) them.

10)

He was shot, (material) and dumped (material) over the side, wheelchair and all.

11)

The four killers were later arrested (material) in Italy.

12)

They "escaped" (material) while "on leave" from prison.

13)

Now, it seems (material), the Italian state is (relational) at it again.14) It will not extradite (material) Ocalan to Turkey.

15) This is (relational) a strange contrast with British behaviour over Pinochet.

16) The problem is that Ocalan himself is hugely complicating (material) a difficult enough situation.

17) The PKK claims to speak (verbal) for "the Kurds", and there is (existential) in some quarters an easy

acceptance of this claim.

18)

But most of his victims have been (relational) Kurds.

19)

One of his onetime lieutenants, Selim Curukkaya, wrote (material) his" memoirs (PKK - Die Diktatur

des Abdullah Ocalan).

20)

Ocalan is (relational) a Communist, complete with hammer and sickle, and he runs (material) the PKK

in Stalinist style, complete with executions and purge trials.

21)

You are not even allowed to cross (material) your legs in his camps, says (verbal) Selim Curukkaya, as

it might be taken fore (sic) a sign of disrespect; he himself was imprisoned (material) by Ocalan, and

managed (material), with great difficulty, to get away (material), through Beirut.

22)

Other defectors have not been (relational) so lucky, most of them Kurdish innocents.

23)

In 1993, Ocalan broke (material) a ceasefire, and killed (material) 20 unarmed young conscripts in a

bus.


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Appendix 1 Continued

24)

A particularly horrible case involved (relational)) two young primary school teachers, who had gone

(material) to the south east out of idealism-, bring (Material) education to the backward east.

25)

They were killed (material).

26)

The newly-married wife of one was going to be spared (material) but she asked (verbal) to be killed aswell, and the PKK obliged (material).

27)

The PKK is (relational) a terroristic organisation with links to gangland and its aim is (relational) the

creation of a Maoist state in areas of Turkey and Iraq.

28)

Such movements can talk (verbal) the language of "national liberation", and gain (material) credibility

in serious circles. But there is not (existential) A Kurdish Question: there are (existential) several.

29) What the answer to the Kurdish problems is (relational), I do not know (mental).

30) Even nationalist Turks sometimes say (verbal) that there should be (existential) a Turkish - Kurdish

state, a federation of the kind suggested (verbal) by the late Turgut Ozal at the time of the Gulf war, as

an alternative to the survival of Saddam Hussein.

31) Others say (verbal) that the answer must be decentralisation which again, is not senseless.

32) Many observers, in view of the complications, just think (mental) that assimilation should go ahead

and will do so.

33) Whatever the answer, this is not a situation where you can automatically apply (material) minority

statutes.

34) The Turkish Republic has done (material), overall, a pretty remarkable job of "modernisation"; in some

ways, it has been (relational) the only successful Third World country, with free media, respectable

economic growth, and social circumstances that are way above those of any of her neighbours, except

Greece.

35) Not many Kurds wish to throw (mental) this away for the sake of the PKK's flyblown variant of Che

Guevara's romantic agony.

36)

By giving (material) aid and comfort to this murderer , the Italian government has behaved (behavioral) contemptibly.

(Norman Stone The Guardian, Saturday 28/11/98)


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Appendix 2

Text B

Pink = Processes

Red = Transitive/Intransitive verbs

Blue – Agent/Acted uponWill Castro be next in the dock ?

1)

If Pinochet gets away (material) with it, can we look forward to (mental) the possibility of more cases

being brought against foreign dictators?

2)

If nothing else, the Law Lords have set (material) a legal precedent. And if there is (existential) a case

against Pinochet, shouldn't there (existential), asks (verbal) the right, also be a case against Fidel

Castro?

3)

Both, after all, were (relational) - and, in Castro's case, are (relational) - Latin American dictators, in

countries of similar size.

4)

In 1980, the population of Cuba was (relational) 11.1 million; the population of Chile, 9.7 million.

5)

Over the years, independent human rights monitors have found (material) that violations of rights to privacy, freedom of expression, assembly and due process of law are consistent and systematic in Cuba.

6) Castro's biographer , Tad Szulc, has written (material) that "final decisions concerning crime and

punishment in Cuba are Fidel Castro's personal province."

7) But although there is (existential) a clear link between Castro's leadership and the repression of dissent

in Cuba, charges similar to those made against Pinochet would have to be based on (material) crimes

subject to universal jurisdiction, such as genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

8) The evidence against Castro might fall (material) into three broad categories.

9) One would be the executions of former soldiers from the Batista regime carried out (material)

immediately after the revolution in Cuba, the revolutionaries described (verbal) this as the "cleansing"

of the defeated army.

10)

Many of the prisoners shot (material) by firing squads were judged (material) within a few hours byspecial tribunals supervised by Che Guevara.

11)

In response to American accusations of a bloodbath, Castro declared (verbal) that “revolutionary

justice is not based on (material) legal precepts but on moral conviction".

12)

But within a few months, after acknowledging (mental) that 550 people had been executed, he ordered

(verbal) the firing squads to stop.

13)

At the time, the revolution was (relational) widely popular and many of those executed had (relational)

a reputation for brutality.

14)

As the revolution was consolidated (material), people left (material) Cuba in droves.

15)

State security agents were on the lookout (behavioral) for anyone regarded as counter-revolutionary.

16)

In the mid-1960s, Castro himself admitted (verbal) to 25,000political prisoners.17) Some anti-Castro groups put (material) the figure at 60,000.

18) Torture was institutionalized (material) and several accounts leave (material) little doubt that the

Cuban version - despite the rhetoric about the “new man" - did not fight shy (material) of the

malevolent ingenuity that is the trademark of its practitioners.

19) It included (relational) electric shocks the incarceration (material) of prisoners in dark isolation cells

the size of coffins, and beatings (material) to extract (material) information or confessions.

20) Thousands of political prisoners were released (material) in the 1970s.


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Appendix 2 Continued

21)

The Cuban Committee for Human Rights, established (material) more than 20 years ago, estimated

(verbal) that in 1991 there were (existential) 3,000 political prisoners; some observers believe (mental)

the number may now have dropped (material) to 500.

22)

The third possible basis for charges against Castro under international law might be found (material) in

specific incidents such as the drowning (material) of 41 people in July 1994, when a tugboat of

passengers trying to get to (material) Florida was rammed (material) off the Cuban coast.

23) Castro said (verbal) it was an accident.

24)

Amnesty International said (verbal) the survivors and their families were harassed (material) and

intimidated (material) when they tried to commemorate (material) the incident.

25)

One reason why it has been (relational) possible to bring (material) a case against Pinochet is because

contrary to many assertions - Chile's reckoning with its past has been (relational) exemplary.

26)

In 1990, after an imperfect democracy was (relational) re-established, a commission, including some

who had been at least sympathetic to the dictator, investigated (material) Pinochet's rule.

27)

It produced (material) two rigorously sourced volumes in February 1991.

28)

Without once mentioning Pinochet by name, it concluded (material) that 1,158 people had died(material) at the hands of agents of the state or others operating (material) from political motives and

that 957 had disappeared.

29)

The victims were classified (material) by age, profession, region and political affiliation.

30) It was acknowledged (mental) at the time that there were other deaths and disappearances yet to be as

firmly established.

(Maurice Walsh, New Statesman 11/12/98)


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Appendix 3Text A

Actors and Material Processes

Blue – Actor

Red- Process

Pink – Passive Clause

2)

Pinochet faces extradition.

3) Ocalan, who has led the Kurdish PKK …..has waged a terroristic war …..

4) …four defectors from his organisation were killed…(by Ocalan).

5) He flew to Italy … and has not been made to face justice…there he sits…

7)

Has the Italian State got a soft spot for murderers?

8)

PLO men hijacked a cruise ship

10) He (tourist) was shot, and dumped over the side…(by the PLO)

11) The four killers were later arrested…(by the Italian State)

12) They (PLO men) escaped…

14) It (Italian State) will not extradite Ocalan…

16) …Ocalan himself is hugely complicating a difficult enough situation.

19)…Selim Curukkaya, wrote…..

20). ..he (Ocalan) runs the PKK …..

21) You are not even allowed to cross your legs…it might be taken as a sign of disrespect...he (Curukkaya)

was imprisoned (by the PKK) and managed…to get away…

23) Ocalan broke a ceasefire, and killed 20 unarmed young conscripts…

24) …two young primary school teachers, who had gone…to bring education to the backward east.

25) They were killed (by the PKK)

26) The newly married wife of one was going to be spared (by the PKK)…the PKK obliged.

28) Such movements can…gain credibility…

33) …this is not a situation where you can apply minority statutes.

34) The Turkish Republic has done, overall, a pretty remarkable job…

36) By giving aid and comfort to this murderer, the Italian Government has…..


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Appendix 4Text B

Actors and Material Processes

Blue – Actor

Red – Process

Pink – Passive

1)If Pinochet gets away with it…

2)…the Law Lords have set a legal precedent…

5)…independent human rights monitors have found

7)…charges similar to those made against Pinochet would have to be based on….

8)The evidence against Castro might fall into three broad categories.

9)…the executions of former soldiers from the Batista regime carried out (by revolutionaries)…

10) Many of the prisoners shot by firing squads were judged within a few hours by special tribunals

supervised by Che Guevara

11)…revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts…

14) As the revolution was consolidated (by the revolutionaries), people left Cuba in droves.

15) Security agents were on the lookout…

17) Some anti-Castro groups put the figure at 60,000

18) Torture was institutionalized (by the Cuban State)…several accounts leave little doubt…the Cuban

version (of torture) – did not fight shy of the malevolent ingenuity…

19) It (torture) included…..beatings to extract information…

20) Thousands of political prisoners were released (by the Cuban State)…

21)…the number (of political prisoners) may now have dropped to 500.

22) The third possible basis for charges against Castro under international law might be found…specific

incidents such as the drowning of 41 people…a tugboat of passengers trying to get to Florida was

rammed (by the Cuban State)…

24) …the survivors and their families were harassed and intimidated( by the Cuban State) when they tried

to commemorate the incident.

25) One reason why it has been possible to bring a case against Pinochet..

26) …a commission…investigated Pinochet’s rule.

27) It (the commission) produced two…volumes…


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Appendix 4 continued

28) it (the commission) concluded...1,158 people had died…agents of the state or others operating from

political motives…957(people) had disappeared.

29) The victims were classified by age (by the commission)


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Appendix 5Text A

Those having actions done to them or against them.

Red Material Process

Blue Goal

1)…compare the fate of general Pinochet…. and comrade “Apon Ocalan”.

.

3) Ocalan, who has led the Kurdish PKK ….has waged a terroristic war …

4) …he(Ocalan) has been…charged with murder…four defectors from his organization were killed.

8) …PLO men hijacked a cruise ship…

10) He (tourist) was shot and dumped over the side…

11) The four killers were later arrested.(by the Italian State)

14) It (Italian State) will not extradite Ocalan…

16) …Ocalan himself is hugely complicating a difficult enough situation.

20)…he (Ocalan) runs the PKK…

21) You are not even allowed to cross your legs…he himself (Curukkaya) was imprisoned by Ocalan…

23)…Ocalan broke a ceasefire, and killed 20 unarmed young conscripts…

.

24) A particularly horrible case involved two young primary school teachers…

25) They (teachers) were killed.

26) The newly married wife of one was going to be spared…

36) By giving aid and comfort to this murderer (Ocalan)…


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Appendix 6

Text B

Those having actions done to them or against them.

Red Material Process

Blue Goal

1) If Pinochet gets away with it (possibility of extradition)

2) …the Law Lords have set a legal precedent…

7) …charges similar to those made against Pinochet…

9) …executions of former soldiers from the Batista regime carried out (by revolutionaries)… the

revolutionaries described this (executions) as the “cleansing” of the defeated army

10) Many of the prisoners shot by firing squads were judged within a few hours by special tribunals

supervised by Che Guevara.

14) As the revolution was consolidated, people left Cuba…

15) State security agents were on the lookout for anyone regarded as counter-revolutionary.

17) Some anti-Castro groups put the figure at 60,000.

18) Torture was institutionalized…

20) Thousands of political prisoners were released…

21) The Cuban Community for Human Rights, established more than 20 years ago…

22)…the drowning of 41 people…a tugboat of passengers…was rammed of the Cuban coast.

24)…the survivors and their families were harassed and intimidated..

25) …it has been possible to bring a case against Pinochet

27) It (commission) produced two rigorously sourced volumes

26) …an imperfect democracy was re-established…a commission…investigated Pinochet’s rule…

29)…the victims were classified by age…


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Appendix 7Text A

Verbal Processes

Blue – Actor

Red – Verbal Process

4) Of course he (Ocalan) claims the usual indulgences for terrorism.

6) He (Ocalan) flew to Italy and requested political asylum.

9) An elderly and crippled tourist in a wheelchair berated them

17) The PKK claims to speak for the Kurds…

19) Selim Curukkaya wrote in his memoirs...

21) You are not even allowed to cross your legs in his camps says Selim Curukkaya.

26) The newly married wife of one was going to be spared but she asked to be killed as well.

28) Such movements can talk the language of national liberation…

29) Even nationalist Turks sometimes say that there should be a Turkish/Kurdish state, a federation of the

kind suggested by the late Turgut Ozal…

31) Others say that the answer must be decentralization.


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Appendix 8Text B

Blue – Actor

Red – Verbal Process 2) If there is a case against Pinochet, shouldn’t there, asks the right, also be a case against Fidel Castro.

6) Tad Szulc has written that final “final decisions concerning crime and punishment in Cuba are Fidel

Castro’s personal province.

10) The revolutionaries described this as the cleansing of the defeated army.

11)

Castro declared that “revolutionary justice is not based on legal precept but on moral conviction”.

12) He (Castro) ordered the firing squads to stop.

13) Castro himself admitted to 25,000 political prisoners.

14) Castro said it (drowning of refugees) was an accident.

21) The Cuban Community for Human Rights…estimated…

24) Amnesty international said the survivors and their families were harassed

A Comparative Analysis of Two Texts Usin

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