THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECTIVE DRAWING TECHNIQUE

TO ASSESS ID, EGO AND SUPEREGO INTERACTION

APPROVED:

Ma j orProfe ssjbr /yyv-.'

LyJ Minor Professor

A. Dean of the School <6f Education

DeariTof the Graduate School

10

THE DEVELOPMENT OP A PROJECTIVE DRAWING TECHNIQUE

TO ASSESS ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO INTERACTION

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements /

For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

By

Mark Wall, B. A.

Denton, Texas

January, 1970

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OP TABLES ' iv

Chapter

INTRODUCTION 1 Problem Assumptions Derivation of Hypotheses Hypotheses Description of Measuring Instrument

II. SURVEY OP LITERATURE 16

III. METHOD 28

Subject Procedures for Collecting Data Procedures for Analysing Data

IV. RESULTS . 32

V. DISCUSSION 36

VI. SUMMARY . 42

APPENDIX 44

BIBLIOGRAPHY 58

I "

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

I. Analysis of Variance Between Judges 32

II. t Test for Means of Three Predictive Scoring Categories 34

iv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

During the first two decades of the twentieth century

psychoanalysis focused upon the exploration of the uncon-

scious mind via dream analysis and free association. Sub-

sequently, with the publication of Freud's Beyond the

Pleasure Principle (8), The Ego a™* the Id (9), and

Symptoms, Inhibitions, and Anxiety (10), psychoanalysis

left the study of isolated mental phenomena for the

study of the dynamic interplay between intrapsychic pro-

cesses. This was made possible because of the introduction

of the concepts of id, ego, and superego. It was Freud's

basic tenet that every neurotic symptom represents a

compromise between the repressive forces of these intra-i

psychic components. This means of delineating intrapsychic

processes has proved of such value that the concepts are

used by disciplines other than psychoanalysis.

Diagnosticians, counselors, and psychotherapists with

a variety of orientations use such concepts as "ego strength"

with considerable frequency and acceptance. The goals of

therapy are often described as a redirection, control, or

expression of Id impulses In the service of the cognitive

processes, the ego* Some disciplines have changed the

labels but retained the concepts. When Rogerians, for

instance, speak of "enhancement of self," it is appropriate

to consider that the word "ego" was in the original German

"self" so that the Rogerian concept is merely a rephrasing

of the concept of ego strength. In the behavioristic ap-

proaches, desensitisation or conditioning processes are often

concerned with a diminution of superego strength. Despite

the clinical utility of these concepts and despite Freud's

statement that they characterized "a new field of research"

(6, p. 254), very little research has been done, and it is

often assumed that such concepts are inappropriate subject

matter for scientific inquiry because they seem extant only

hypothetically (13)•

However, as Dombrose and Solbin (6) point out, a great

many concepts, such as intelligence, cannot be validated but

have proved useful after being operationally defined. Our

concretely oriented scientific community may sometimes hold

such descriptive hypothetical concepts in less esteem than

concepts which can be directly measured in millimeters,

grams, and spacial displacement, but not since Berkley (4)

have philosophers found evidence to support a contention

that one might be more real than the other. The lingering

assumption that objects are real but concepts are spiritual

is a residual effect of dualism. The most central statement

of dualism, that body Is separate from spirit, has virtually M- •

vanished from psychology, yet it is peripherally revived

in such terms as "hypothetical constructs" versus "inter-

vening variables" despite the fact that such a dichotomy

between matter and ideation is not scientifically demon-

strable. As long as conceptual groupings of data under

such metaphysical headings as phylum names or ego defenses

are so operationally defined as to become communicable,

they are indistinquishable from any other scientific data.

Accordingly,'the measurement of the interactive forces

and relative strengths of id, ego, and superego are no less

reputable than the measurement of thrust in ion propulsion.

One of the means of measuring personality variables has

been the corollary to free association—projective tech-

niques. Projective testing in general began with sudden

popularity and persistence in 1921 with the advent of the

Rorschach test, which consists of a series of ambiguous or

unstructured ink blots (15). By 1931, Frank (7) pointed

out that a class of such tests had developed which he des-

cribed as "projective techniques." According to Swensen

(18), the Rorschach remains the most frequently used pro-

jective instrument, with the Draw-a-Person (D-A-P) second

in popularity among projective techniques. Such projective

methods of assessment emanate from the psychoanalytic con-

cept of projection pointed out by Sargent (16). Projection

is held to be a mechanism by which the conscious ego defends * *

itself from inadmissible Ideas and impulses by ascribing

4,

them to persons and forces outside the organism. As Bell

(3) pointed out, the term as used in testing is a general

process, not necessarily pathological, by which people

unknowingly endow unstructured or incomplete stimuli with

meaningful gestalts emanating from their personalities.

It is the process recognized since Aristophanes (2) by

which men perceive idiosyncratic objects in cloud

formations.

Although a projective technique would seem appropriate

for assessing the relative strengths and interactions of

id, ego, and superego, there are none now available that do

so.

Problem

The problem of the present study was threefold: 1) to

devise a projective drawing analysis technique which would

assess the operationally defined psychoanalytic concepts of

id, ego, and superego, 2) to devise a preliminary scoring

technique, and 3) to investigate the relationship between

the drawings and the original clinical scales of the

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

The problem arose because these three Freudian intra-

psychic components consitute a frequent means of grouping

and communicating personality data in psychiatric hospitals

and other facilities despite the fact that assessments per-

taining to them are derived from behavioral observations,

social history, or test batteries in which no single test

5, ..

is designed to elicit them. The assumptions clinicians

make about their patients in these terms are logical deri-

vations from data gathered from diverse media and are

only as valid as the logical facility of the clinicians

making them. The utility of the concepts, coupled with the

lack of personality theory underlying the construction of

current projective techniques, makes this problem one of

theoretical as well as practical significance.

Assumptions

It was assumed that the stimulus "draw something evil"

would elicit graphic illustrations of id Impulses dis-

avowed by the superego. It was assumed that the stimulus

"draw a picture of yourself" would yield a physiological

body image of the ego. The stimulus word "self" seemed

appropriate because Freud's word for "ego" in the original

German was not "ego" but, unpretentiously, "I." Additionally,

it seemed appropriate to specify "yourself" rather than

Goodenough's term "a person" because it remains in doubt

that "a person" will Inevitably yield a projection of the

self. Lastly, It was assumed that the stimulus "draw a picture

of God" would elicit a personification or abstraction of

the superego, i.e., the Internalized parent or deity which

Preud called the "uber Ich," the "over I." Summarily, it

was assumed that graphic responses to these stimuli would * A

yield valid and reliable measurements of the dynamic forces

which in interaction generate intrapsychic harmony or

malfunction.

Because the key words in the stimulus directions were

EVIL-SELF-GOD, the technique was identified toy the initials

E-S-G.

The problem then necessitated a method by means of which

the E-S-G data could best be assessed. In assessing data

from any projective technique for purposes of prediction of

behavior, there are two avenues of approafch—content analysis

and sign approach. Utilizing content analysis with the E-S-G,

raters might assume that a "self" figure drawn holding a

knife is indicative of overt hosillty. A "self" drawing

dismissed by the subject with the written words "Self—

Nothing" might imply low strength. A "God" drawing in

which God appears as a crutch might be indicative of socio-

pathy. While such productions are- capable of good inter-

rater agreement, they occur with such diversity that

extremely large samples are necessary in order to have

statistically useful quantities in each category. When

interpreters are asked to fit projective productions Into

a few very general categories in order to obtain sizable

categories, the broadness of each category, such as neurotic,

psychotic, psychopathic, leaves room for idiosyncratic

oplnionation by the raters. The ratio between American

diagnoses of schizophrenia and psychotic depression is

inversely proportional to that found in England (14). This

7

is assumed, to be a function of the diangosticians rather

than the patients.

The second avenue of approach, the sign approach, is

more readily assessable with small samples and is less sen-

sitive to rater sophistication and projection. The sign

approach additionally has the advantage of being scorable by

clerical personnel. Therefore, a sign approach was used,

based upon two variables, hardness and size. Hardness, i.e,

degree of pencil pressure, was assumed to be reflective of

affect. Size was assumed to be related to the subject's

perceptions of importance and power. A logical examination

of the possible combinations of these variables yielded

certain predictions about the subject's behavior on the

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (NMPX).

It was assumed that inexperienced laymen would produce

reliable judgments regarding relative hardness of line

in the three drawings on a three-point scale in which "hard"

lines were to be rated 3» "secure" lines were to be rated

2, and "light" lines were to be rated 1. It was assumed

that these raters would produce reliable judgments re-

garding relative size of the drawings on a three-point

scale in which a rating of 3 represented large drawings

and a rating of 1 represented small drawings. It was also

assumed that inexperienced laymen would produce reliable

judgments on three-point scales for the variables of hard-

ness and size on the E-S-G drawings of a clinical population.

8

The degree of inter-rater agreement•between laymen would

indicate the least reliability of the sign approach in

actual clinical practice.

Derivation of Hypotheses

Hardness of pencil pressure has long been associated

with expressions of hostile impulses in drawing analysis

techniques. It was reasoned that the degree of pencil pres-

sure on each of the three drawings would be indicative of

the degree to which each intrapsychic component incorporated

hostile Impulses. An "evil" drawing produced in hard line

pressure, exemplary of aggressive id drives, would be ex-

pected in normal subjects. Because the normally developed

ego does not incorporate this aggression but exerts a

rationally directing influence, the "self" (ego) drawing

was expected to be less hard, i.e., less aggressive. Be-

cause the superego is the "censor" of aggressive impulses,

the "God" (superego) drawing would be expected to yield a

very light pressure. More succinctly, the aggressive id and

the non-aggressive superego are mediated by the moderately

aggressive ego. The E-S-G drawings reflective of normal id,

ego, superego inter-action could be rated for relative

hardness as 3-2-1, respectively.

The second dimension, size, was assumed to relate to

perceptions of power. In an attempt to deny the power of

the forbidden impulses of the id, it was assumed that persons

9

exhibiting normal id, ego, superego interaction would pro-

duce constricted, small, "evil" (id) drawings. In an

attempt to express the relative importance and power of the

superego, normals would be expected to produce large "God"

(superego) drawings. Our cultural milieu espouses the be-

lief that God, the personification of virtue and power, is

larger than man and that man is in a constant battle to

suppress, control, and constrict his baser impulses. Ac-

cordingly, persons with normal id, ego, superego inter-

action would be expected to project E-S-G drawings with

small ids, large egos, and larger superegos, which would be

rated 1-2-3.

Psychopathic personalities of the criminal variety

would be expected to incorporate hostile impulses into the

ego structure so that the ego is in the service of the id.

The id and ego could be expected in these instances to be

rated 3 in hardness because they are both aggressive. How-

ever, problem children, professional criminals, sexual

deviates, and others described in these terms are often

manifestly religious or tenaciously espouse a value system

divergent only in kind from that of normals. Some of these

could be expected to project normal superego productions.

Persons who perceive superego functions as small in

importance might be expected to produce small "God" (super-

ego) drawings. Those who produced "God" drawings with

hard line pressure might be assumed to be expressing hosti-

lity toward superego restraints or toward authority In

10

general. While such attitudes are not necessarily indi-

cative of true psychopathy, they are attitudes incorporated

into the Psychopathic Deviate Scale of the MMPI.

While normals, neurotics, and others may be expected

to respond to the emotionally charged stimulus words, GOD-

SELF-EVIL, with varying emotional responses, emotionally

apathetic persons would not toe expected to do so. Those

schizophrenic personalities marked by apathy and flattened

affect could toe expected to yield flattened indices of

affect for the three drawings. This condition is marked

toy an incapacity to recognize the relative importance of

things. A charged emotional stimulus is likely to elicit

the same degree of affective response as a mundane stimulus.

Accordingly, such subjects could toe expected to yield

drawings of invariatole size and invariable hardness. How-

ever, they would not be expected to yield aggressive drawings

or large, important ones.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were investigated:

(1) Inexperienced laymen utilizing three-point

scales for the dimensions of hardness and size in rating

E-S-G productions would produce ratings, which, when summed

across both dimension^, would yield no significant inter-i •

rater difference.

(2) Subjects whose E-S-G drawings were rated 3-2-1

in hardness and 1-2-3 in size would yield MMPI profiles in

11

which the highpoint clinical scale score mean would be less

than a T-score of 70.

(3) Subjects whose E-S-G drawings included E-S

drawings both rated 3 for hardness, G drawings rated 3

for hardness, or G drawings rated 1 in size would yield

MMPI profiles in which the mean Psychopathic Deviate Scale

scores would be greater than a T-score of 70.

(4) Subjects whose E-S-G drawings were rated 1-1-1

for hardness and 1-1-1 for size, or 2-2-2 for hardness and

2-2-2 for size (or deviant from these patterns by only one

digit out of the total six, that digit not exceeding the

mode by more than a single rating point) would yield MMPI

profiles in which the mean Schizophrenic Scale scores would

be greater than a T-score of 70.

Description of Measuring Instrument

The E-S-G technique is a procedural method and there-

fore is appropriately described in Chapter III. The MMPI,

which was used as a validating instrument, is a true-false

Inventory designed for application in routine pschiatric

settings. The original eight clinical scales of the MMPI

were used in this study. These were constructed in accor-

dance with the frequency of responses given by known dia-

gnostic groups. The scales bear the labels of the corres-

ponding diagnostic groups such as Psychopathic Deviate,

Schizophrenic, etc.

12

These scales are accumulations of correlated response

probabilities. Therefore, differences in scores on any

scale can be interpreted in terms of differences in proba-

bility that the subjects who achieved them are members of

the appertaining pathological group, and reduce the proba-

bility that they are members of the normal group. A T-

score of 70, two standard deviations above the mean, is

generally considered the upper limits of the normal range.

Accordingly, those who score below a T-score of 70 on their

highest clinical scale score are more likely to be members

of the normal population than if they scored above a T-score

of 70.

A score above a T-score of 70 on the Psychopathic

Deviate Scale increases the probability of group member- -

ship with those patients diagnosed "psychopathic persona-

lity" upon whom the scale was originally validated (12).

Similarly, a score above a T-score of 70 on the Schizo-

phrenic Scale increases the probability of group membership

with those patients diagnosed a "schizophrenic" upon whom

this scale was cross-validated (12).

While the validity of the MMPI for diagnosing is consi-

dered limited, Chronbach asserts that the sciales "have been

given meaning by all manner of research" (5> p. ̂ 92). As

an example, he points out that any experienced psychologist

might correctly predict that certain occupational groups,

for instance, actors, will score significantly higher than

13

other occupational groups on the Psychopathic Deviate

Scale. The confirmation of such predictions is evidence

of construct validity. Chronbach asserts that the "body

of evidence indicates that the Psychopathic Deviate Scale

measures some underlying personality structure" (5» p. ^93)•

He characterized this structure as "vague" and broader than

the diagnostic group upon whom the test was validated

but nevertheless extant.

More certainly, the scales measure the behavior eli-

cited by certain groups of statements. Whether the state-

ments are actually groups, as Chronbach believes, or merely

aggregates, is only tangentially relevant to this thesis.

The MMPI behavior in this instance ̂ is analagous to any

other behavior, which if predicted correctly, Is evidence

of construct validity. Precedent for this method of con-

struct validation was found in the work of Dombrose and

Solbin (6).

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Alexander, F. 0. and S. T. Selesnick, pie History of Psychiatry, New York, Harper and Row, 19bb.

2. Aristophanes, "The Clouds," The Complete Greek Drama, edited by W. J. Oates and E. O'Neill, Jr., New York, Random House, 1938. •

3. Bell, J. E., Projective Techniques, New York, Longmans, 1948.

4. Berkeley, G., "Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous," Readings in philosophy, edited by J. H. Randall, J. BucKler and E. W. Shirk, New

York, Barnes, and Noble, Inc., 1954.

5. Chronbach, L. J., The Essentials of Psychological ' Testing, New York, Harper, 1950.

6. Dombrose, L. A. and M. S. Solbin, "The IES Test," Perceptual and Motor Skills, VIII (December 1958), 347-389.

7. Frank, L. K., "Projective Methods for the Study of Personality," Journal of Psychology, VIII (June, 19395. 3tf9-113.

8. Preud, Sigmund, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle," Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Standard Edition, Vol. itt, l9«?$> 7-b4.

9 . Freud, Sigmund, "The Ego and the Id," Complete Psycho-logical Works of Sigmund Freud, Standard Edition* Vol7l9,~I^I,"T2^

10. Freud, Sigmund, "Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety," Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Standard Editlon,*Vol 2 ^ 9 ^ 87-174.

11. Freud, Sigmund, "Neurosis and Psychosis," Collected Papers, Vol 2, London, Hogarth, 1924, 254.

12. Good, P. K. and J. P. Branter, The Physician's Guide to the MMPI, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota 1^887^960.

14

13. Kris, E.,"Nature of Psychoanalytic Propositions and Their Validation," Freedom and Experience, Essays Presented to Horace M. Kallen, edited by S. Hook, and M. R. Knovitz, liKIca, New York, Cornell University Press, 1947, 239-259.

14. Litt, S. and A. Margoshes, "Sex-change in Successive Draw-a-Person Tests," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XXI (October, 19bt>), 471.

15. Rapaport, D., M.M. Gill and R. Schafer, Diagnostic Psychological Testing, New York, International Universities Press, 1968.

16. Sargent, H., "Projective Methods; Their Origins, Theory and Application in Personality Research," Psychological Bulletin, 42 (May, 1945), 257-293.

17. Schaeffer, R. W., "Clinical Psychologists> Ability to Use the Draw-a-Person Test As an Indicator of Personality Adjustment," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXXVIII (August, 19b4)7~3S!n

18. Swensen, C. H J r . , Handbook of Projective Techniques, New York, Basic Books, Inc., 19&57

19. Wolman, B. B., Handbook of Clinical Psychology, New York, McGraw-Hill, i565.

I

15

ir w? .

CHAPTER II

SURVEY OP LITERATURE

An appropriate survey of related research and test

development must encompass two areas, namely, drawing anal-

ysis as an effectively appurtenant projective technique,

and previous attempts to measure specific Id, egp, superego

interactions by other techniques. Because the two have not

been combined prior to the introduction of the E-S-G technique,

they will be discussed separately.

Some crude research and experimentation as well as

actual clinical use of drawing analysis as a means of asses-

sing personality began in the last century but occurred

among Isolated workers rather than as an accepted movement

(25). The American, Samuel Calverton, elucidated the concept

and procedures of such analysis in his Children's Expression

Through Drawing (5), published in l8$>4. The actual movement

emanated virtually by accident from P. Goodenough*s 1926

Draw-a-Man technique (14), which was intended to yield a

culture free estimate of Intelligence. Goodenough, however,

recognized that the test also yielded personality data In

the form of aspirations and anxieties, and that the body Im-

age was "A natural figure for such projections" (18, p.

A few years later, Machover developed the "Draw-a-Person"

J.6

17

test as a projective instrument, after which she published

her 19^8 work, Personality Projection in the Drawing of the

Human Figure (23), for which she is accepted as the leader

of the evolving drawing analysis movement. Quite simulta-

neously however, Buck introduced the "House-Tree-Person"

technique in the form of a scoring manual (4). Utilization

and acceptance of the drawing analysis techniques immedi-

ately followed, as well as more rigorous modern research.

Although the American acceptance of projective tech-

niques in general has been considered by some European

authorities as so preposterous as to be labeled "scan-«

dalous" (9), projective drawing techniques have long been

established In this country when used in concert with other

projective devices. In fact, drawing analysis tests are

considered by American projective technique experts to be

second only to the Rorschach for diagnosis (16) despite the

fact that these researchers are quite aware of the numerous

studies which negate the predictive value of drawing tech-

niques for this purpose. This contradiction is justified

by the widely accepted American view that a series of tefets

with low validity individually can and do yield valid

judgments when examined in interrelation.

In 1950 and 1952, Fisher (10), later Fisher and Fisher

(11), found the D-A-P technique unable to distinquish

between diagnostic groups. First the sign approach was

examined, using eleven of Machover's Indices. Later*

18

Fisher and Fisher found the same negative results by using

the sign approach in conjunction with the global judgments.

This was to prove typical of subsequent findings, and was

corroborated quite shortly by Blum (3)> who found no signifi-

cant relationship between psychiatric ratings and the

D-A-P technique. Recently, Lewinsohn (21) found OVQ

ratings of figure drawings not significantly predictive of

psychologists' judgments based upon clinical observation

and battery test data. Although these have been typical

findings* they have been occasionally contradicted by such

workers as Holzberg and Wexler (18), who found that the

D-A-P could distinguish between diagnostic groups.

To reconcile this disparity in findings, it is seldom

considered in this context that psychiatric and other expert

judgments are themselves suspect. Studies such as those

by Ash (1), Hunt (19)* find others indicate that such judg-

ments are sufficiently unreliable even with only three or

four pathological categories as to make the use of such

judgments questionable as validating criteria against

which to measure individual Instruments. Taking this Into

consideration, some drawing analysis studies such as the i

one by Watson (27) have examined the relative validity,

and often invalidity, of scorers with sharply varying

degrees of experience. These typically find the scorer's

experience irrelevant to the scorer's diagnostic acuity

with drawing analysis techniques. It is, however,

19

quite possible that definitions of a scorer's "level of

sophistication," as Watson called it, when based upon

academic achievement and/or years of experience, do not

designate an actual level of sophistication. Studies

such as Holzberg and Wexler's may show better diagnostic

prediction because these scorers were actually more expert.

This reconciliation of the mutually exclusive findings

as to whether drawing analysis tests are predictive of diag-

nostic categories only assumes what Ash has already demon-

strated, that professional accreditation and experience do

not necessarily generate diagnostic agreement.

The weight of evidence shows that current workers

usually can not adequately diagnose with drawing analysis

techniques alone. The next most specific assumption was

that these techniques could distinguish between normal and

pathological groups, I.e., greatly broader diagnostic

categories.

With this in mind, Whitmyre's 1953 study (28) at-

tempted to determine whether scorers using a global

approach could differentiate between psychiatric patients

and normals, using groups of twenty-five each. While the

results were In the appropriate direction, the correlation

was not significant. Hiller and Nesvig (IT), similarly con-

trasting a normal group with a hospitalized group (in this

instance adolescents), found that using a broad sign

20

approach based upon empirically derived criteria, the

scorers proved 79 per cent accurate.

The highest validity has been found when the tech-

niques are used for specific trait analysis. Royal (24)

found that judgments from eight signs taken as a whole

discriminated between anxiety neurotics and normals.

Baker, Mathis and Powers (2) found that two of several

signs examined were predictive in determining homosexu-

ality. Witkin (29) found a high.relationship between

personality characteristics and attitudes toward the

body in male subjects as opposed to female subjects,

thereby concluding that women are more concerned with

social relationships and emotional externalization,

whereas men are more concerned with body image. Griffith

and Peyman (15) found eye and ear emphasis in figure

drawing significantly correlated (X2, 7.754 for 1 df\

P <.01) with ideas of reference. Hoyt and Baron (19)

found two sign Indicators significantly correlated with

manifest ansiety on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale

(P< .05).

Summarily, the research done in this area indicates

that these techniques are not suited for diagnosis, mildly

differentiating between psychotic and normal groups but

best suited for trait assessment. Research continues in

trait assessment which may eventually provide valid

diagnoses, but this eventuality does not seem Imminent.

21

A new direction in these techniques began with Lawton

and Sechrest (20), who drew attention to the clinical use of

the Draw-a-Family test as a means of assessing familial

interaction. The Draw-and-Tell-a-Story test, by Levy (22),

in an attempt to measure social interaction, asks the sub-

ject to draw three figures, then to give them names, and,

to tell a story about them which will presumably yield data

concerning the subject's relationships with significant

figures* The trend to assess group interaction via such

drawings has culminated in Cookerly's 1965 (7) Draw-a-Group

test for measuring interpersonal responsiveness. The ra-

tionale for this development is simply that the human fig-

ure is more suited for expressing extrapsychic social

interaction and perceived relationships than for presenting

a cohesive intrapsychic portrait of the personality.

Based upon this related research, it seemed reason-

able to assume that drawing analysis techniques with other

stimuli than the human figure, or additional to the human

figure, might prove more suitable for diagnosis. The pre-

sent study evolved from this assumption.

The dynamic interpsychic components which the E-S-G

aims to assess are the concepts of id, ego, and superego

which emanate from Freud's presentation of a structural

point of view in 1923 (12)* Since that time they have

retained a prominent and ever more specifically defined

place in psychoanalytic literature. Freud characterised

22

the id as a "seething cauldron" of alien impulses. He

thought of the ego or "self" as the largely conscious

cognitive processes, and he characterized the superego

as diverse identifications yielding a value system ideal

quite similar to the theological concept of conscience.

The latter is experienced predominantly in terms of mood,

ranging from free self esteem to depression and guilt.

This intrapsychic "structuralism" did not actually imply

such compartmentalization as many of the minutia-oriented

discussions concerning their precise dispositions imply.

Freud's "structures" were conceived as logical constructs

under which intrapsychic forces could he grouped for con-

venience in dealing with the data, and, in accordance with

Freud's emphasis upon their dynamic aspects, are perhaps

best considered as vectorial energies rather than as

discrete physiological phenomena.

Attempted measurement of these forces is not without

precedent. Dombrose and Solbin (8) in 1958 deviled the IES

Test (Id*Ego-Superego) as a clinical aid and research tool

for measuring the relative strengths of these three intra-

psychic components. The first of four subtests consists

of titles projected by the subjects to twelve drawings

which depict impulse activities. The second elicits con-

clusions to Incomplete cartoons, while the third elicits

projections by the subject concerning emotions in

photographic portraits. Lastly, the subject performs a

23

perceptual-motor task requiring a solution which may be

idiosyncratic and revealing of personality dynamics. The

scoring technique yields scores of varying weights, which

are held to he proportional to the relative strengths of

the three components, id, ego, and superego.

Several evaluative research studies have been con-

ducted using subjects of varying age, sex and diagnoses.

The originators of the test made predictions regarding

the variations in scores to be expected among normals,

constricted neurotics and paranoid schizophrenics, finding

23 of 36 rank order predictions to be correct (8). Chamea

(6) found that adults and ten-year-olds react similarly,

while adolescents react differently from other groups,

from which he concluded:

The test behavior of the different groups in-dicates that the test taps a basic personality balance which is formed by the age of ten, which is changed by the pressures of adolescence, and which is restored in adulthood to its early equilibrium only somewhat altered by intervening growth, education and socioeconomic status (2, p. 107).

Golden (13) administered the test to eleven-year-

old normal children and compared the test results with

teacher ratings regarding the categories of lmpulslvity,

constriction, and good adjustment, finding 39 correct rank

predictions out of 45.

Verrill and Costanza (26) examined the test's ability

to predict ward behavior in thirteen patients as measured

24

by the MultIdimenalonal Scale for Rating Psychiatric

Patients (MSRPP) Toy the psychiatric nurse. The I score

correlated significantly with Impulsive behavior.

This preliminary resear> with the EES indicates

that operationally defined measurements of psychoanalytic

intrapsychic components can yield valid and reliable

measurements of some aspects of behavior relating to

diagnostic symptoms. Yet in the decade since the test

was introduced* it has not become widely accepted. This

may be somewhat due to its complexity in administration

and scoring. A simpler, less time-consuming Instrument

yielding similar results may prove of more practical

value in the clinical setting. /

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ash, P., "The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLIV (January^ctober, l9W$J, 272-277.

2. Barker, A. J., J. R. Mathis and J. A. Powers, "Drawing Characteristics of Male Homosexuals," Journal of Clinical Psychology, IX (April, 1953)* 185-188T"

3. Blum, R. H.. "The Validity of the Machover DAP Tech-nique," Journal of Clinical Psychology, X (April 1954), 126-125.

4. Buck, J. N., The H-T-P Technique: A Qualitative and Quantitative Scoring Manual," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 4 (October, 1948), 319-396.

5. Calverton, S. B., Children's Expression Through Drawing, Baltimore, Maryland, Williams and Wilkins, Co., 1894.

6. Chames, G., "The Relative Strengths of Impulse, Ego and Superego in Latency, Adolescence and Adult-hood," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Western Reserve University, 1953.

7. Cookerly, R., "The Experimental Draw-A-Group Projective Technique for Measuring Interpersonal Responsive-ness," unpublished master's thesis, Department of Psychology, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1965.

8. Dombrose, L. A. and M. S. Solbin, "The IES Test," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8 (December, 1958), 347-389. r"

9. Eysenck, H. J., "The Effects of Psychotherapy, "Hand-book of Abnormal Psychology, edited by H. Eysenclc, New York, Basic Books, 1961.

10. Fisher, G., "A Preliminary Investigation of Schizo-phrenic Indicators in the Machover Test," Maritime Psychological Association, (Spring, 1952), 11-14.

25

26

11. Fisher, S., and R. Fisher, "Test of Certain Assumptions Regarding Figure Drawing Analysis," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLV (October, 1930), ?25=T3^

12. Freud, S., "The Ego and the Id," Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 19, London, Hogarth Press, 1923, 12-56.

13. Golden, D., "Manifestations of Impulse, Ego and Super-ego in Elementary School Boys and Girls," unpub-lished doctoral dissertation, Western Reserve University, 1954.

14. Goodenough, F. L., Measurement of Intelligence by Drawings, Tarrytown-on-Hudson, N. Y., world Publishing Co., 1926.

15. Griffith, A. V. and D. A. R. Peyman, "Eye-Ear Emphasis in the Draw-a-Person Test as Indicating Ideas of Reference." Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIII (December, 1959T,'56o7

16. Harrower, M. "Differential Diagnosis," Handbook of Clinical Psychology, edited by B. J. Wolman, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1965.

17. Hiller, E. W. and D. Nesvig, "An evaluation of Criteria Used by Clinicians to Infer Pathology from Figure Drawings," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIX (December, 19657, 520-529.

18. Holzberg, J. D. and M. Wexler, "The Validity of Human Form Drawings As a Measure of Personality Devi-ation," Journal of Projective Techniques, XIV (Dec-ember, 1950), 34P31.

19. Hunt, W. A., CI. L. Wittson, and E. B. Hunt, "A Theo-retical and Practical Analysis of the Diagnostic Process," Current Problems in Psychiatric Diag-nosis, edited by P. ri. Hoch and j7 Zubin, New York, Grune and Stratton, 1953, 53-65.

20. Lawton, M. J. and L. Securest, "Figure Drawings by Young Boys from Father-Absent Homes," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XVIII (July, 1962) , 304-3$!?.

21. Lewinsohn, P. M., "Psychological Correlates of Overall Quality of Figure Drawings," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIX (December, 19*>5)> 504-512.

27

22. Levy, S., "Figure Drawing As a Projective Test," Projective Psychology, edited by L. E. Abt, and L. Bellak, New York7 Grove Press, 1950, 285.

23. Machover, K., Personality Projection in the Drawing of the Human Figure, Springfield,Illinois, . TJKarles c. Thomas, 1948.

24. Royal, R. E., "Drawing Characteristics of Neurotic Patients Using a Drawing-of-a~Man~and-Woman Technique," Journal of Clinical Psychology, V (October, 19^)7^2^95:

25. Stuart, G., Understanding Children in School, Syracuse, New York, C. w. Bardeen CoT, 1099.

26. Verril, B. B. and Costanza, V., "The IES Test and Ward Behavior," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XVIII (March, 1962), 295-WT'

27. Watson, C. G., "The Relationship of Distortion to Draw-a-Person Diagnostic Accuracy Among Psycholo-gists at Three Levels of Sophistication," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXXI (April, 19&7).

28. Whitmyer, J. W., "The Significance of Artistic Excel-lence in the Judgement of Adjustment Inferred from Human Figure Drawings," Journal of Consul-ting Psychology, XVII (December, 195377 421-424.

29. Wit kin, H. A., and others, Personality Through Perception, New York, Harper & Brothers, 1954.

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Subjects

The investigation consisted of forty subjects with

an age range from ten to sixty-seven. There were sixteen

males and twenty-four females. There were four children,

twelve teenagers, and twenty-four adults* Thirty- four

of these subjects were psychiatric patients, predomi-

nantly first admissions, with a wide range of socioeco-

i nomic backgrounds.

Procedures for Collecting Data

Each subject was presented an ordinary sheet of

blank white paper, approximately eight and one-half by

eleven inches, and a sharpened pencil, usually of number

two hardness, with an eraser. Each subject was then

asked to "draw something evil." Provided with a new sheet

of paper, each subject was then asked to draw himself*

Finally, on a third sheet of paper, each was asked to

"draw a picture of God." Inquiries for more specific

instructions were met with the reply, "Draw whatever it

represents to you," or "Your idea of yourself." Questions

relating to artistic quality were answered by the statement,

28

29

"How good an artist you are doesn't matter at all."

All statements and questions were handled in such a way

as to be encouraging without guiding in the drawing con-

tent.

The E-S-G was administered in the foregoing manner

on an individual basis during the regular test battery.

The battery included the MMPI.

Procedures for Analyzing Data

In order to assess inter-rater agreement between

inexperienced laymen, automobile mechanics were chosen

as raters. The choice of such an occupational group was

expected to emphasize the lack of necessity for psycholo-

gical sophistication in rating a clearly defined sign

approach on a small rating scale. Four mechanics were

asked individually to rate each of the drawings on a three-

point scale for hardness of line* and subsequently for

relative size of the drawings. Each rater was shown an

example E-S-G with clearly defined gradations in hardness

and size. Each was asked to notice that the "evil"

drawing was second hardest in line of the three* and that

the "God" figure was lightest of the three. They were

advised that such an E-S-G should be rated 3-2-1 for

hardness. Drawings to be rated 3 were described as

"hard'.".* Those to be rated 2 were described as "secure/'

and those to be rated 1 were described as "light."

30

Overall outline rather than specific shading of

certain areas was to "be the basis of the raters* judg-

ments. The raters were advised that emphasized details

such as items of clothing in an otherwise lighter drawing

were to he ignored. Lastly, they were asked what rating

they would give an E-S-G in which all the drawings were

quite light* When each responded with the rating 1-1-1,

he was allowed to proceed. When each rater concluded

his ratings of the productions of the forty subjects, he

was asked to review his judgments and to make any corrections

he felt necessary. The review of the Judgments was felt

necessary in order to equalise any improvement in judg-

mental acuity which might have occurred as the raters

gained experience.

An equivalent procedure was subsequently used re-

garding the relative size of the drawings In each E-S-G.

Large drawings were to be rated 3, average drawings2,

and small drawings were to be rated 1. An example E-S-G

rated 1-2-3 was presented in which the drawings increased

in relative size. When multiple human figures were pre-

sented in one drawing, the raters were Instructed to rate

the drawing on the basis of the largest figure present.

Each rater was asked what rating should be given a drawing

in which all the figures were small. When each responded

1-1-1, he was allowed to proceed in rating the productions

of the forty subjects.

31

An analysis of variance was chosen as a means of

assessing the variance between judges' ratings. The

analysis of variance technique was applied to the summed

ratings over both dimensions for each of the forty sub-

jects. The predictive hypotheses were investigated by

use of the t statistic as a test of significance.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS #

Presented in this chapter are the results obtained

and the statistical analyses of those results. To assess

the effects of lnter-rater disagreement upon the validity

of the three predictive hypotheses, an analysis of vari-

ance was conducted on the ratings obtained by the four

Judges. The ratings of each judge were summed over both

dimensions for each subject's E-S-Q productions. The

analysis of variance was conducted on these sums. This

procedure constituted a test of the hypothesis that no

significant differene existed among the mean ratings

of the judges. Table X presents the results of the

TABLE I

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN JUDGES

Source SS df MS ' P

Between Raters 1.7 3 .57 .24

Between Subjects 627.9 39 16.07 6.87

Remainder 273.8 *

117 2.3^

32

33

analysis. The difference between raters' judgments was

not significant at the .05 level, as indicated by the P

value between raters in Table I. As opposed to a re-

quired P value of 2.68, the obtained P value of .24

indicates the difference between raters1 Judgments did

not approach significance.

The difference between ratings received by subjects

was significant at the .001 level, as indicated by the P

value between subjects in Table X. The P.value of 6.87

indicates that the difference between subjects' ratings

was significant at beyond the .01 level.

The data were tabulated to investigate the hypothesis

that E-S-G drawings rated 3-2-1 respectively for hardness

of line and 1-2-3 for relative size would have been pro-

duced by subjects whose mean high point clinical scale

scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

(MMPI) would be equal to or less than a T-score of 70.

Pour subjects were rated as meeting the above criteria.

The highest T-score of each of these four subjects was

tabulated without regard to which clinical scale bore

this highest score. The mean of the high point clinical

scale scores of these four subjects was 64, with the stan-

dard error of the mean being 2.34. Subtracting the hypo-

thetical parameter mean of 70 from the sample mean and

dividing the result by the standard error of the mean

yielded a t-score of 2.32. Since this t score did not

34

exceed the critical value of 3.18, the results were not

significant at the .05 level. The data are summarized iri

Table II, the category being described as "normal."

TABLE II

t-TEST FOR MEANS OP THREE PREDICTIVE ~ SCORING CATEGORIES

Categories X Scale Score t df P

Normal 64 2.34 4 P> .05

Psychopathic Deviate 82 3.33 3 PC.01

Schizophrenic 91 3.41 19 P<.01

The data were tabulated to investigate the hypothesis

that E-S-G drawings in which the "God" figure was rated 3

in hardness or 1 in size or in which the Evil-Self

drawings were rated 3-3* respectively, would have been pro-

duced by subjects whose MMPI Psychopathic Deviate Scale

score mean would exceed a T-score of 70. Twenty subjects

were rated as meeting the above criteria. With the sample

mean of 84.32 and a standard error of the mean being 13.45,

the corresponding t score was found to be 3> Since this

t score exceeds the critical value of 2.86, the results

were significant atthe .01 level. The data were summa-

rized in Table II under the "psychopathic deviate" category.

35

The data were tabulated to investigate the hypothesis

that E-S-G drawings rated 1-1-1 respectively for hardness

and 1-1-1 for size, or rated 2-2-2 for hardness and 2-2-2

for size (or deviant from these patterns by no more than

a single numerical value out of the total six) would be

yielded by subjects whose mean MMFI Schizophrenic Scale

scores exceeded a T-score of 70. Five subjects were rated

as meeting this criteria. With the sample mean of 91*6

and a standard error of the mean being 3.41, the corres-

ponding t value was found to be 6.3* Since this t score

exceeds the critical value of 4.6, the results were sig-

nificant at the .01 level. The data are summarized in

Table II, under the "schizophrenic" category. /

/

/

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The analysis of variance detailed in Chapter IV

indicated that the difference between raters' judgments

did not approach significance at the .05 level. Had the

variance between the ratings given to subjects been in-

significant, the interpretation of the above finding would

have been in doubt. However, the difference between the

ratings given to subjects was significant at the .01

level. This aspect of the present study suggested that

the E-S-G drawings analysis technique can be reliably

scored by inexperienced laymen when the scoring is based

upon three-point scales for drawing size and intensity

of pencil pressure. Such scoring, although preliminary

to the investigation of other variables, can be done by

clerical personnel while the psychologist can concentrate

on evaluative techniques involving professional training.

The second phase of the experiment tested three hypo-

theses relating to validity. A certain score configuration

was hypothesized to be predictive of MMPI protocols with

a mean high point clinical scale less than a T-score of

70. Should the high point clinical scale mean be below

a T-score of 70, it could be assumed that allclinical

36

37

scale scores would be below this point. A second confi-

guration was hypothesized to be predictive of an MMPI

Psychopathic Deviate Scale score mean exceeding 70. The

third configuration was hypothesized to be predictive of

an MMPI Schizophrenic Scale mean exceeding a T-score of

70.

The first of these three hypotheses was not confirmed.

All subjects whose E-S-G drawings were rated 3-2-1 respec-

tively in hardness and 1-2-3 in size had no score exceeding

an MMPI T-score of 70. However, the category included

only four cases. They could not be considered represen-

tative of a normal population because the sample was taken

from a largely psychiatric population. The results were

not significant at the .05 level. These findings indicate

that an investigation among a normal population is appro-

priate regarding this hypothesis.

The hypothesis that certain E-S-G score configurations

would be predictive of a MMPI Psychopathic Deviate Scale

score mean greater than a T-score of 70 was confirmed at

the P<.01 level. This hypothesis assumed that "God" fig-

ures depicted as small would be so depicted by persons

perceiving authority as diminished in importance. The

hypothesis assumed that those "God" figures depicted in

hard lines would be reflective of an aggressive impulses

toward superego restraints. It further assumed that the

combination of hard "evil" and "self" drawings would be

38

indicative of aggressive id impulses incorporated into

the ego structure with a concomitant rejection of social

restraints. These productions were assumed to be pre-

dictive of high scores on the MMPI Psychopathic Deviate

Scale. The confirmation of the hypothesis that the means

of such scores would be above a T-score of 70 is consistent

with the contention that the E-S-G assesses those intra-

psychic components which it was designed to assess.

The hypothesis that a certain E-S-G score configu-

ration would be indicative of an MMPI Schizophrenic Scale

score mean greater than a T-score of 70 was confirmed at

the P<.01 level. The E-S-G configuration of evenness

in ratings for relative line hardness and size was assumed

to be indicative of only those schizophrenically oriented

subjects who exhibit flattened affect. Whereas neurotics,

normals, and others would be assumed to respond with vari-

ations in affect exemplified by hardness of line and

drawing size to the different stimulus directions, subjects

with more flattened affect would not be expected to respond

with variations of these variables in their graphic pro-

ductions. The small quantity of subjects so judged, five

out of forty, remains consistent with the assumption tfrat

flattened-affect schizophrenically oriented persons enter-

testing centers in small quantities. While generally

elevated MMPI profiles are to be expected, such general

39

elevations are quite different from meaningful Schizo-

phrenic Scale elevations as the result of ideation con-

comitant with flattened affect.

The preliminary scoring technique used in this study

was intended to sample the possibilities of that method

if applied on a larger basis. The variables of hardness

and size were chosen largely because they seemed suffi-

ciently objective as to be capable of yielding good inter-

rater agreement. The confirmation of this assumption

suggests that similar variables might prove equally reli-

able. For example, the speed with which the drawings are

produced is a similarly objective variable and may well

relate to states of depression and excitement. Variables

such as these contrast sharply with such highly subjective

judgments as degree of psychosexual difficulty. This

study shows additionally that highly specific and rea-

sonably objective variables which exclude the possibility

of poor professional judgment in scoring can be predictive

in a limited way.

A small increment toward a clinically useful sign

approach has been made. With other such increments, the

E-S-G may become a useful clinical tool.

A final aspect of the present study relates to con-

struct validity. Theoretical concepts emanating from a

personality theory were used to make predictions concerning

the expected variations In E-8-0 configurations. Certain

40

scoring configurations were hypothesized to be predictive

of specified MMPI behavior. This procedure related to

that employed by Dorabrose and Solbin, who used "theoretical

concepts in order to test predictions" (1, p. 361) in

establishing the construct validity of the IBS test.

They assert the methodological soundness of this approach

and say, ". . . if it can be demonstrated that the num-

ber of correct predictions is greater than that to be

expected by chance, then the tests will be shown to have

validity, and the theoretical concepts underlying them to

have validity" (1, p. 361).

•CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

X. Dombroee, L. A. and M. S. Solbln, "The ESS Test," Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol* 8 (December 1958), 3̂ 7-389.

/ /

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY

An experimental drawing analysis technique called the

E-S-G was devised to assess the psychoanalytic concepts of

idf ego, and superego in three separate drawings. Hypo-

theses were based upon these theoretical formulations to

investigate certain E-S-G score configurations as pre-

dictors of behavior on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory (MMPI). The technique was administered to forty

subjects from a largely clinical population.

It was hypothesized that inexperienced laymen could

rate the drawings reliably along a three-point scale for

hardness of pencil pressure and for size of the drawings.

An analysis of variance was performed by summing across

both dimensions to ascertain if the difference between the

judges' ratings was significant. The difference was not

significant at beyond the .05 level, implying homogeneity

In the judges1 ratings.

It was hypothesized that E-S-G drawings rated 3-2-1

respectively for hardness of line* and rated 1-2-3 for

relative size would have been produced by subjects whose

MMPI high point clinical scale score mean would be less

than a T-score of 70. That score lies two standard

'k>

*3

deviations above the mean. Scores above that point are

not necessarily indications of pathology, and scores be-

low that point are not necessarily indications of normal

behavior. However, scores below a T-score of 70 are usually

considered to be within the normal range. The t statistic

was used to ascertain the probability of the parameter

mean being equal to or less than a T-score of 70. The

results were not significant at the .05 level. It is

suggested that this hypothesis might best be tested

using a normal rather than psychiatric population.

It was hypothesized that certain E-S-G score con-

figurations' would be indicative of an MMPI Psychopathic

Deviate Scale score mean greater than a T-score of 70.

The hypothesis was confirmed at the .01 level of signi-

ficance.

It was hypothesized that certain E-S-Q score con-

figurations would be predictive of an MMPI Schizophrenic

Scale score greater than a T-score of 70. The hypothesis

was confirmed at the .01 level of significane.

The experimental E-S-Q technique has been shown to be

reliable when scored by laymen along a three-point scale for

hardness of pencil pressure and along a three-point scale

for relative size of the three drawings. The successful

prediction of two of the hypotheses Is supportive of con-

struct validity.

APPENDIX

EXAMPLES OF THE E-S-G DRAWINGS PRECEDED

SY EXPLANATORY NOTES

Each of the drawings shown received evaluations

reflecting substantial agreement among the four raters.

They are exemplary of the various predictive categories.

Drawings le, Is and lg were, respectively, the

E-S-G productions of a single subject whose MMPI exhi-

bited no score above a T-score of 70. The drawings were

rated as increasing in size while decreasing in hardness.

Drawings 2e, 2s and 2g were, respectively, the E-S-G

productions of a single subject, rated 3 for hardness in

the "evil" and "self" drawings, scoring above a T-score

of 70 on the MMPI Psychopathic Deviate Scale. The sub-

ject was a ten-year-old hospitalized psychiatric patient

with a history of overly aggressive behavior.

Drawings 3e, 3a and 36 were productions of a single

subject whose "God" figure was rated 3 in hardness and

who scored above a T-score of 70 on the MMPI Psychopathic

Deviate Scale. The subject was a sixteen-year-old referred

for psychiatric treatment due to delinquent sexual be-

havior and drug abuse. The subject stated in association

with the "God" drawing, "You can't draw God, but you can

44

45

draw a flower." She was diagnosed as schizophrenic and

subsequently became hallucinatory.

Drawings 4e, 4s and 4g were, respectively, the

E-S-G productions of a single subject scoring above a

T-score of 70 on the Schizophrenic Scale of the MMPI.

The drawings were rated 2-2-2 in hardness and 2-3-2 in

size in accordance with the schizophrenic criterion.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Alexander, P. G. and S. T. Selesnick, The History of Psychiatry, New York, Harper and Row, l'96b.

Aristophanes, "The Clouds," The Complete Greek Drama, edited by W. J. Oates and E. O'Neill, Jr., New York, Random House, 1938•

Bell, J. E. Projective Techniques, New York, Longmans, 19^8.

Berkeley, G., "Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous," Readings in Philosophy, edited by J. H. Randall, J . Buchler, and E. W. Shirk, New York, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1954.

Calverton, S. B., Children's Expression Through Drawing, Baltimore, Maryland, Williams and Wilkins, Co., 1094.

Chronbach, L. J., The Essentials of Psychological Testing, New York, Harper, I9bd.

Hunt, W. A., C. L. Wittson, and E. B. Hunt, "A Theoretical and Practical Analysis of the Diagnostic Process," Current Problems in Psychiatric Diagnosis, edited by P. H. Hoch and J.Tub in, New York, Grune and St rat ton, 1953.

Preud, Sigmund, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle," Complete '\ological Works of Sigmund Preud, Standard Lon, Vol. ISTTbnabn, HogarOTTress, 1920.

Psychological Works of Sigmund Preud, StandarH"

, "The Ego and the Id," Complete Psychological Works o?~Sl0nund Preud, Standard Edition, vol. iy, London, Hogarth Press, 1923 •

, "Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety," Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Preud, Standard Edition, vol. HO, Londont Hogarth fress, 1920.

58

59

, "Neurosis and Psychosis," Collected Papers, Vol. II, London, Hogarth Press, 1924.

Good, P. K. and J P. Branter, The Physician's Guide to the MMPI, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, I P .

Goodenough, P. L., Measurement of Intelligence by Drawings, Tarrytown-on-Hudson, New *ork, World PublilKing Co.; 1926.

Harrower, M., "Differential Diagnosis," Handbook of Clinical Psychology, edited by B. J. Wolmari7~toew York, McGraw-Hill, 19̂ 5•

Kris, E., "Nature of Psychoanalytic Propositions and Their Validation," Freedom and Experience, Essays Presented to Horace M. Kallen," edited by S. hook and M. R. Kohvitz, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1947.

Levy, S., "Figure Drawing As a Projective Test," Projective Psychology, edited by L. E. Abt and L. Bellak, New York, Grove Press, 1950.

Machover, K., Personality Projection in the Drawing of the Human Figure, Springfield, illinoTs, Charles C. Thomas, 1948. — —

Rapaport, D., M. M, Gill, and R, Schafer, Diagnostic Psychological Testing, New York, International Uni-versities Press, 19t>o.

Stuart, G., Understanding Children in School, Syracuse, New Yor£, C. w. Baraeen Co., lB59»

Swensen, C. H., Jr., Handbook of Projective Techniques, Basic Books, Inc., 1905.

Witkin, H. k., and others, Personality Through Perception, New York, Harper & Brothers, i9t>4.

•

Wolman, B, B., Handbook of Clinical Psychology, New York, McGraw-Hill, 19t>$-

Articles

Ash, P., "The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLIV (January-Cctober, 1949), 2 7 2 - 2 7 ^

60

Barker, A. J., J. R. Mathis, and J. A. Powers, "Drawing Characteristics of Male Homosexuals," Journal of Clinical Psychology, IX (April, 1953), ltf5-ltfS7""

Blum, R. H., "The Validity of the Machover DAP Technique," Journal of Clinical Psychology, X (April, 195*0, 120-125.

Buck, J N., "The H-T-P Technique: A Qualitative and Quantitative Scoring Manual," Journal of Clinical Psychology, IV (October, 1948), 319-3957

Dombrose, L. A. and M. S. Solbin, "The IES Test," Percep-tual and Motor Skills, VIII (December, 195$), 3̂ 7-3*39.

Eysenck, H. J., "The Effects of Psychotherapy," Handbook of Abnormal Psychology, edited by H. J. Eysenck, Hew York, Basic Books; 1961.

Fisher, 0., "A Preliminary Investigation of Schisophrenic Indicators in the Machover Test," Maritime Psycho-logical Association, (Spring, 1952), 11-14.

Fisher, S. and R. Fisher, "Test of Certain Assumptions Regarding Figure Drawing Analysis," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLV (October7^L950), 725-732•

Frank, L. K., "Projective Methods for the Study of Per-sonality," Journal of Psychology, VIII (June, 1939)#

Griffith, A. V. and D. A. R. Peyman, "Eye-Ear Emphasis in the Draw-a-Person Test as Indicating Ideas of Reference," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIII (December, 1959), 56S7

Hiller, E. W. and D. Nesvig, "An Evaluation of Criteria Used by Clinicians to Infer Pathology from Figure Drawings," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIX (December, I9b3), 5 2 ^ 5 2 9 . — 6sL

Holzberg, J. D. and M Wexler, "The Validity of Human Form Drawings As a Measure of personality Deviation," Journal of Projective Techniques, XIV (December, 1950), 3*7 61.

Lawton, M. J. and L. Sechrest, "Figure Drawings by Young Boys from Father-Absent Homes," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XVIII (July, 1962), 304-305.

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Lewinsohn, P. M., "Psychological Correlates of Overall Quality of Figure Drawings," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIX (December, l9t>5), 50^P5l2.

Lltt, S. and. A. Margoshes, "Sex-change In Successive Draw-a-Person Tests/' Journal of Clinical Psychology. XXI (October, 1966), 47T: ^

Royal, R. E., ^Drawing Characteristics of Neurotic Patients Using a Draw in g-o f ~ a-Man-and-Woman Technique,"

o f C l l n i c a l Psychology, V (October, 1949), 392-395.

Sargent, H., "Projective Methods: Their Origins, Theory and Application in Personality Research," Psycho-logical Bulletin, 42 (May, 1945), 257, 293.

Schaeffer, R. W., "Clinical Psychologists" Ability to Use the Draw-a-Person Test As An Indication of Per-sonality Adjustment," Journal of Consulting Psycho-logy* XXXVIII (August, 1964), 353Z * —

Verril, B. B. and Costanza, V., "The EES Test and Ward Behavior," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XVIII (March, 1962), 295-53?"

Watson, C. G., "The Relationship of Distortion to Draw-a-Person Diagnostic Accuracy Among Psychologists at Three levels of Sophistication," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXXI (April, 1967), 142-146. : *

Whitmyer, J. W., "The Significance of Artistic Excellence in the Judgment of Adjustment Inferred from Human Figure Drawings," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XVII (December, 1953)>42CT24.

Unpublished Materials

Charnes, G., "The Relative Strengths of Impulse, Ego and Superego in Latency, Adolescence and Adulthood," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Western Reserve University, 1953.

Cookerly, R., "The Experimental Draw-a-Group Projective Technique for Measuring Interpersonal Responsiveness," unpublished master's thesis, Department of Psychology, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1965.

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62

Golden, D., "Manifestations of Impulse, Ego and Superego in Elementary School Boys and Girls," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Western Reserve University, 1954.