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vii

Contents

Acknowledgements xi

Preface to the Third Edition xii

Note on Spelling and Currency xiv

Abbreviations xv

Maps xviii

Introduction: The Environment and Peoples of Malaysia 1

1 The Heritage of the Past 10Reconstructing early Malaysian history: Historiographical considerations 10Human habitation 13Austronesian migration and Malay origins 14Early trade and the products of the Malay Archipelago 15Indian influence in ‘The Land of Gold’ 19Chinese trade and early Malay-Indonesian entrepôts 22The historiography of Srivijaya 24Srivijaya and its rivals 25The bases of Srivijaya’s power 28The weakening of Srivijaya’s authority 32From Srivijaya to Melaka: Two differing accounts 37Melaka’s heritage 40

2 Melaka’s Legacy in a Changing Malay World, 1400−1699 42The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: Historiographical considerations 43Melaka in the tradition of Srivijaya 44Melaka as an international entrepôt 47The nature of the Melaka negeri 49Melaka’s territorial expansion 55Islam and the spread of Melaka culture 56The Portuguese conquest of Melaka 61Melaka’s legacy in Brunei, Perak and Aceh 64

Brunei 64Perak 67Aceh 69

Copyrighted material – 9780230293540


viii ContEnts

The northern Malay states and the Thais 71Johor’s ascendancy and the VOC 77

3 The Demise of the Malay Entrepôt State, 1699−1819 84The eighteenth century: Historiographical considerations 84The consequences of regicide in Johor 85Bugis influence in the Malay states 87Developments in the Peninsula outside Riau-Johor 93Economic and political challenges in the eighteenth century 97The growing influence of non-Malay groups in the Peninsula 101Expansion of Bugis influence 105English-Dutch rivalry and the impact on Malay trade 107The curtailment of Bugis power and the decline of Riau 109The resurgence of the Thais and the establishment of Penang 115The demise of the Malay entrepôt state 117

4 ‘A New World is Created’, 1819−74 122The nineteenth century: Historiographical considerations 122The British ‘sphere of influence’ and the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty 123Relations between Siam and the northern Malay states 127The creation of new political units in Borneo 133The campaign against piracy 138Changing patterns of trade in the Malay states 141Chinese domination of commercial agriculture and mining 144Chinese-Malay relations 148Malay conflicts and Straits Settlements involvement 153The debate on ‘civilization’ 159The Pangkor Treaty 163

5 The Making of ‘British’ Malaya, 1874−1919 165Historiographical considerations 165The extension of British control 166Resumption of the ‘Forward Movement’ 172The Residential system 179The ‘plural society’ 182Differing rates of development in the Protected States 189The creation of the Federated Malay States 190The expansion of British interests in Borneo 192The incorporation of the northern Malay states into British Malaya 199The inclusion of Johor under British rule 207The new ‘British’ Malaya 208

6 The Functioning of a Colonial Society, 1900–41 214Sources for the later colonial period 215Establishing the framework for an export economy 215

The tin industry 218



ContEnts ix

Early plantation crops 219The rubber industry 221The palm oil industry 223Padi (wet-rice) farming 224

Economic developments in North Borneo and Sarawak 226Education under the colonial government 230Education in Sarawak and North Borneo 245Ethnicity and identity 247Colonial government and the Malay rulers 251Final years of Company and White Raja rule in Borneo 256

7 Negotiating a New Nation, 1942−69 260Historiographical considerations 260The Japanese Occupation and the immediate post-war years 261The Malayan Union and the Federation of Malaya 268The MCP and the Emergency 273Independence 279The Alliance 282The formation of Malaysia 287Maintaining the unity of the Federation 293Growing ethnic tensions 295Economic developments 298Ethnic disturbances of May 1969 and ‘Emergency’ government 302

8 Restructuring Malaysia, 1969−1999 307Contemporary Malaysia: Sources and historiographical problems 307Economic and social restructuring under the New Economic Policy 308Objective One: the eradication of poverty 310 Government programmes in Peninsular Malaysia 310 Sarawak and Sabah 314Objective Two: Removing the association of ethnicity with economic function 316From agriculture to manufacturing 322National Development Policy and ‘Vision 20/20’ 324Other concerns: Gender, the urban poor and foreign workers 327The Economic Crisis, 1997−98 329Environmental costs of development 331The shape of politics post-1969 333The Islamic factor 340‘The Melayu Baru (New Malay)’ 342

9 Malaysia at a Cross-Roads, 1999−2015 346Politics in Malaysia in the new millennium 346The Malaysian economy in the new millennium 353The rise of political opposition 357



x ContEnts

Activist movements 361The Islamization of contemporary Malaysia 368

Conclusion: Some Themes in Malaysian History 374

Notes 382

Further Reading 392

Glossary 415

Index 418



1

Introduction: The Environment and Peoples of Malaysia

For the ordinary observer, the contemporary map of the Federation of Malaysia requires some explanation, because its formation in 1963 united two geographi-cally separated regions – Peninsular or ‘West’ Malaysia, and ‘East’ Malaysia, the Borneo states of Sabah and Sarawak. While this book will track the processes by which that formulation came about, it will also help to remind readers that Malaysia’s modern political boundaries cut through zones which were histori-cally and culturally linked. In national terms Malaysia is dominated by the Peninsula, the long land mass that extends southwards from Thailand, bordered on one side by the Straits of Melaka and the Indian Ocean and on the other by the South China Sea. A line originally drawn down the Straits of Melaka in 1824 divides Malaysia from Indonesia, but the east coast of Sumatra has long been part of the Malay cultural world. By the same token, the Thai-Malaysia boundary laid down in 1909 excluded the ethnic Malays of southern Thailand from what was then British Malaya. At the Peninsula’s southern tip is the island city-state of Singapore, a former British colony which joined Malaysia in 1963 but left in 1965.

Across the South China Sea, two hours away by plane, are the states of Sabah and Sarawak, which became part of Malaysia in 1963; the island of Labuan, pre-viously under Sabah, was made a Federal Territory in 1984. Together Sabah and Sarawak cover most of northwest Borneo, encircling the independent state of Brunei, which decided not to join Malaysia despite long standing ties to Malay/Islamic culture. These connections are a reminder of the maritime connections that bound the coastal areas of Borneo to the Peninsula and to the southern Philippines. Among the interior groups cultural and economic networks render the weakly enforced international boundary dividing Sabah and Sarawak from Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan) of little significance, and trans-border move-ment is normal.

We have given considerable attention to northwest Borneo because its linkages with the Peninsula were especially evident in pre-colonial times and because it is often overlooked in standard texts, despite its territorial expanse. On the Peninsula the most extensive state, Pahang (35,964 sq. km./13,900 sq. mi.), is many times larger than tiny Perlis (795 sq. km./307 sq. mi.) but it is dwarfed by both Sabah (73,631 sq. km./28,429 sq. mi.) and Sarawak (124,450 sq. km./48,050 sq. mi.). To some degree the historiographical marginalization of the Borneo states



2 A HIsTory of MAlAysIA

may reflect the perception of physical separation, notwithstanding older ties. At the closest point the Peninsula is still over 530 km. (329 mi.) away, while Kota Kinabalu (previously Jesselton), the capital of Sabah, is 864 km. (537 mi.) from Kuching (Sarawak’s capital) and more than 1,600 km. (995 mi.) from Kuala Lumpur. Moreover, Borneo concerns often appear very different from those of the Peninsula, especially since the category Bumiputera (sons/daughters of the soil) is dominated here not by Malays but by other indigenous groups. A sense of local identity has been heightened by the fact that until the outbreak of World War II Sarawak was governed by the ‘White Rajas’, the Brooke family, while Sabah was under the North Borneo Company. In addition, their union with Malaysia in 1963 occurred well after Malaya (then referring only to the Peninsula) gained independence in 1957. A telling reminder of the conditions under which the two states became part of the Federation is the requirement that Peninsular Malaysians show an official identity card or passport for entry into either Sabah or Sarawak. However, as the Borneo vote becomes more important in national politics it is very possible that Sabah and Sarawak will become more visible on the national stage.

Any description about the administration of modern Malaysia also requires a historical perspective, since the political structure combines the compromises and realties of the local situation with features of the parliamentary system. The Peninsula is divided among eleven states that also include hundreds of offshore islands. The constitutional head of nine of these states – Perak, Selangor, Johor, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perlis, Kedah, Terengganu and Kelantan – is the Malay ruler, several of whom trace their genealogies back to the fifteenth century or ear-lier. The ceremonial equivalent in Penang, Melaka, Sabah and Sarawak is the Yang Dipertua Negeri, but government is in the hands of the chief minister, leader of the dominant party. It was only independence and then federation that brought these different administrations under one national government, and since then three federally-governed territories have been created, namely the national capi-tal of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of Putrajaya, and the seven islands of Labuan.

At the national level the constitutional head is the Yang Dipertuan Agung, a position that rotates among the traditional rulers of the peninsular states. The Federal parliamentary system is bicameral; the upper house, the Dewan Negara, consists of 70 state delegates and nominated members, and the lower house, the Dewan Rakyat, comprises 222 elected representatives. The ruling party, led by the prime minister, is currently the Barisan Nasional (BN), or National Front, a coalition of 13 parties, with the most important claiming to represent the interests of the major ethnic groups: the Malays, Chinese and Indians. The BN is dominated by UMNO, the United Malay National Organization, and prior to 2008 its hold over the electoral machinery was highly effective. Yet the fact that Malaysia has held elections at regular intervals since independence does present voters with potential opportunities for registering dissatisfaction with the BN performance. In 2008 and again in 2013 a strong challenge was mounted by



InTroducTIon: THE EnvIronMEnT And PEoPlEs of MAlAysIA 3

opposition parties, although the BN held on to power and is now one of the world’s longest-serving governments.

In adopting a long term view of Malaysia’s history, we are acutely aware that the geographic environment has been fundamental in determining the nature of historical experiences. Confronted by a landscape dominated by palm oil planta-tions and the expanding urban sprawl (especially along the west coast), a visi-tor will find it hard to imagine that the coastal lowlands of the Peninsula were once covered with thick jungle. But because these areas were generally amenable to human habitation and always accessible to maritime trade, it was here that population centres developed. The mountainous interior, however, was a differ-ent matter. The range that stretches down the spine of the Peninsula varies from 914 metres (3,000 feet) to 2,134 metres (7,000 feet) above sea level, and the high-lands that cover much of Kelantan, inland Terengganu, and Pahang include the Peninsula’s highest peak, Gunung Tahan (2,207 metres/7,241 feet). One has only to read early European accounts of failed expeditions to appreciate the impedi-ment these mountains posed to trans-peninsular movement, and the importance of the river system with their headwaters in the inland ranges. Early political centres were therefore established along these rivers, and it is from their principal river that most peninsular states derive their name. Of these the Pahang River (447 km./278 mi.) is the longest.

The geographic environment has been equally important in Borneo, where low-lying, often swampy alluvial plains form a belt along the coast, narrow-ing considerably when they reach Sabah, where settlement has been concen-trated in the lowlands of the north and east. Behind these plains foothills lead up to a mountainous mass through which runs the border between Malaysia and Indonesia. The imposing Mount Kinabalu (4,101 metres/13,455 feet) in Sabah is the highest point in Southeast Asia outside New Guinea and northern Myanmar. From the highlands of the interior the great rivers of Borneo flow down to the sea, the largest in Malaysian Borneo being the Rejang in Sarawak (563 km./350 mi.) and the Kinabatangan in Sabah (560 km./348 mi.). Prior to the development of road transport, these rivers provided the principal means of travel and communication.

As the following chapters will show, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo came to world attention in early times because the warm and humid climate provides almost perfect conditions for the growth of equatorial rainforests, home to rare woods and resins that were greatly valued in the international marketplace. Temperatures range from 25.5° to 33°C (78° to 91°F), except at high altitudes and the heavy rainfall averages from 2,000 mm. to 4,000 mm. (79 −157 inches) per annum. The surrounding seas, shallow and easily navigated, were equally rich in marine life and products. A second factor that has been fundamental in shap-ing Malaysia’s history has been the rain-bearing monsoon winds that influenced the annual agricultural cycle. In the days when sailing ships were the primary means of international travel and commerce, the seasonal pattern of the mon-soon winds also determined maritime routes and even the siting of ports. From




November to March the northeast monsoon sweeps across the South China Sea, with a transitional period in April−May followed by the advent of the south-west monsoon from late May to September. Another transitional period occurs in October−November, and the whole cycle starts again. The monsoon winds are also linked to changes in rainfall. The wettest season coincides with the northeast monsoon, and during this period the Peninsula’s east coast is often closed off by high seas. In recent times variations in the monsoon pattern have been recorded due to the El Niño effect, which has led to above average temperatures and unu-sually long dry periods.

In thinking about the environment we have been particularly conscious of changes in the landscape, which have accelerated since we wrote the first edi-tion. Between 1990 and 2010 Malaysia lost 8.6 per cent of its forest cover, largely because of heavy logging and clearance for plantations, most notably in Sabah and Sarawak. While a national total of around 205,000 sq. km. (79,151 sq. mi.) is covered with natural forest or planted agricultural tree crops, the primary rainfor-est is increasingly confined to national parks and reserves and to areas so inac-cessible or at such high altitudes that they will probably remain uncleared. These areas have provided a refuge for many of the indigenous animals that now face extinction, like the tapir and the Malayan tiger. Less international publicity has been given to Malaysia’s wetlands, mangroves and peat swamp forests that bor-der sheltered coasts and estuaries, sometimes reaching inland for 20 km. (around 12 mi.). They provide not only a unique ecosystem that supports rare flora and fauna, but also plays an important role in preventing coastal erosion. Over the last five decades, however, clearance for commercial projects such as pineap-ple plantations and shrimp and crab farms has reduced the mangrove cover by 30 per cent, and between 2001 and 2012 the area lost was larger than the entire Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. Illegal activities continue to pose a threat to the mangrove forests, despite protective regulations and current replanting schemes. Tourists, lured to Malaysia by beautiful beaches and offshore islands, have also played a part in changing the landscape. The environmental changes in popular island destinations like Penang, Pangkor and Langkawi show that resort development has come at a cost, with over-construction of hotels and an increas-ing number of residents and tourists applying pressure on local resources.

A related theme of this book is the changing nature of the economy, and the marketing campaigns that have helped make tourism Malaysia’s second greatest earner of foreign exchange are just one indication of the vast changes that have occurred since the first edition. In the 1960s the twin pillars of the Malaysian economy were tin and rubber, but diversification has expanded to make Malaysia a leading exporter of electrical appliances, electronic components, palm oil and natural gas. Successfully weathering regional and global economic crises, the country has recorded an average annual growth rate of 4−6 per cent for the last 25 years, although ordinary Malaysians are increasingly concerned about grow-ing income disparity between rich and poor. While predictions for the immedi-ate future have been lowered because of declining prices for commodity exports,




the downturn in China, and reduced investor confidence, Malaysia still aims to achieve first world status by 2020.

Demographic changes in modern Malaysia are a reflection of its prosperity in relation to its neighbours. The country has continued to attract large num-bers of foreign workers from Indonesia, the Philippines, Myanmar, Nepal and Bangladesh, who may enter on a contract basis but in some cases can eventu-ally negotiate citizenship status. In early 2016 the number of registered foreign workers was estimated at over two million, but individuals without approved documentation may be twice that figure, and proposals to extend an amnesty to those in certain businesses are generating considerable public concern. Underreporting of illegal workers means that Malaysia’s population is almost certainly higher than the 28,334,135 listed in the 2010 census and the 2017 estimate of 31 million.

Though statistics do not list the ethnicities of non-citizens, the varied ori-gins of foreign workers have added to Malaysia’s demographic complexity, which remains one of its distinguishing features. This complexity merits par-ticular attention because issues relating to ethnicity pervade virtually all aspects of modern Malaysian society. Among Malaysia’s citizens, the dominant group is the Malays, who in 2010 comprised 54.6 per cent of the total population (an increase from 50.7 per cent in 1991) but 61 per cent in Peninsular Malaysia. The legal definition of a Malay – one who habitually speaks Malay, adheres to Malay customs, and is a follower of Islam – has readily permitted the inclusion of migrants from Indonesia and the southern Philippines, and even individuals from other groups. Children of mixed parentage may also self-identify as Malay because of the advantages this conveys. Fifty years ago Malays were largely rural, but government policies have helped create a large urban-based Malay middle class. Although they still predominate in government service, the army and the police force, Malays are now found in all sectors of the economy.

As well as Malays, the category of Bumiputera in Peninsular Malaysia includes other numerically small but historically important indigenous groups, now col-lectively known as Orang Asli (literally, original people or aboriginals), a term coined during the 1950s. In 2010 their numbers were estimated at 160,993, a significant increase over the 1991 figure of 98,431, but still much less than 1 per cent of the population. Around 40 per cent of the Orang Asli are now lowland and coastal dwellers. Their settlements were traditionally at the fringes of the forest, and thus better placed for exploitation of the forest products, for access to sources of food through hunting and gathering, and for swidden agriculture, but these areas have been severely diminished through logging and the spread of urban and industrial development. There are officially 19 different Orang Asli sub-groups, commonly divided into three broad divisions. However, the merging of Orang Asli with other groups, notably Malay, and their increasing choice of marriage partners outside their own communities is blurring the three catego-ries which academics and administrators continue to use, despite reservations. The first is the Semang (meaning roughly ‘savage’ in Malay, and thus for some




unacceptable), numbering around 3,600, who are usually of shorter stature with curly hair and darker skin and were therefore termed ‘Negrito’ by early anthro-pologists. The second is the Senoi, who in the past were largely shifting culti-vators and are found in the central part of the Peninsula. In 2010 their total of 63,146 included some of the largest Orang Asli groups, notably the Temiar and the Semai. The third division is the southern Orang Asli (86,704 in 2010), who have been burdened with the labels ‘aboriginal Malay’ and ‘proto-Malay’. This is partly because communities like the Temuan and the Jakun have had close associations with coastal Malays for generations, and in many cases have adopted a sedentary farming life and have become Muslim. An unknown number of individuals are also descendants of the boat dwelling Orang Laut (literally, ‘sea people’), who played such an important role in the earlier history of the Malay world. From the early nineteenth century, however, the boat dwellers (that one early ethnologist called ‘Sea Jakuns’) were encouraged or compelled to move to the land where they were more subject to official authority, and today true sea peoples are rarely seen in Malaysian waters.

Malaysia’s non-Bumiputera citizens include Arabs, Armenians, Eurasians, Filipinos and numerous others, but the two main communities are Malaysians of Chinese descent, estimated at 24.6 per cent in 2010 (around 7 million, but less than the 27.5 per cent recorded in 1991) and Malaysian ‘Indians’, a census classi-fication that incorporates people from India itself as well as Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (7.3 per cent, well over two million, and less than the 1991 figure of 7.8 per cent). Both groups are largely descendants of migrants who arrived from the mid-nineteenth century to work in the colonial economy. The forebears of Malaysian Chinese came from various areas of southern China, with Hakka, Teochew, Hokkien, Cantonese and Hailam the major language groups. Today the majority are Christian, Buddhist, Confucianist, Daoist or a combination of these, while some have adopted Islam. About 80 per cent of the South Asian or ‘Indian’ population is Hindu, but there are also Christian, Sikh, Buddhist and Muslim minorities. Chinese have historically been associated with urban centres where they tend to be employed in the professions and the business sector, but there is a significant rural Chinese population. Middle-class Indians are prominent in the bureaucracy and professions, in the retail trade and in certain government departments such as railways. In the past rubber estates provided employment for the descendants of indentured recruits from south India, but with the decline of the rubber industry and a major expansion into palm oil, a reduced labour force is filled by cheaper contract workers from Bangladesh, Indonesia and else-where. As a result, the poor and largely unskilled plantation Indians have drifted to urban areas where they engage in lowly-paid manual labour.

The demographic picture changes considerably when we take Sarawak and Sabah into account. In Borneo classification of local peoples, problematic enough on the Peninsula, has posed enormous difficulties for census makers, partly because the common boundary with Indonesia has allowed for consider-able cross-border mobility. Attempts to construct a census category of ‘Malays




and other Bumiputera’ that includes all indigenous groups have not been suc-cessful in Sabah and Sarawak because there are so many ethnic groupings, which have in turn amalgamated many communities listed in the earlier and much longer lists. Until 2015, official forms only included race specification columns imported from the Peninsula – Malay, Indian Chinese and the controversial ‘Lain-lain’ (others). In Sabah and Sarawak individuals will now have the option to state their own ethnicity, which will greatly complicate the current picture. As in Peninsular Malaysia, development has brought marked changes in tradi-tional lifestyles, particularly for those who once lived in the fast-disappearing jungles. The various groups subsumed under the terms Penan or Punan (defined as ‘to wander and subsist in the forest’) were estimated at around 10,000 in 2011. However, most previously nomadic groups are now settled and only about 200 are still hunter-gatherers.

While categorization may change in the future, an examination of Borneo groupings reveals the extent of population increase as well as changing percent-age distributions, often because small communities have been included in larger ones. Around a quarter of Sarawak’s population of 2.47 million are Chinese, a large number of whom are descended from nineteenth-century Fuzhou migrants, and there is also a significant Hakka community. The Bumiputera total (1,759, 853 in 2010) includes Malays, Iban, Bidayuh, Melanau and Orang Ulu (interior peoples). The largest of these, the Iban, formerly referred to as Sea Dayak, comprise around 40.5 per cent of the Bumiputera population and thus outnumber the Malays (32.3 per cent). More homogenous than other groups, they have in many cases adopted Christianity. The Bidayuh (formerly Land Dayak), given as 11.3 per cent, are also largely Christian; by contrast, the majority of the Melanau (7 per cent), are Muslim, and many have identified as Malay. However, Sarawak is said to be home to 47 languages (one of which is now extinct), and the Orang Ulu who number 8.9 per cent, incorporate various groups, including the Kayan, Kenyah, Kajang, Lun Bawang, Kelabit, the Bisaya, Tagal, Kedayan, and the Penan (sometimes called Punan). Even in this listing there are subdivisions; the peoples classed as ‘Kenyah’, for example, include a number of other smaller groups.

In Sabah, Malaysia’s third most populous state, migration from Indonesia and the southern Philippines has contributed to rapid population growth, with resi-dents now reckoned at 3,293,650, but including 27 per cent non-citizens, many of whom are illegal. Among the Bumiputera the largest group is the Kadazan/Dusun. At 28.9 per cent they incorporate speakers of 13 related languages and are grouped under the term Kadazandusun, which has been experiencing a revival as an identity and a standardized language. The majority of Kadazandusun are Christians but there is a substantial Muslim minority. The second largest group is the Muslim Sama Bajau of the east and west coasts (22.9 per cent), many of whom were formerly boat dwellers but who, like the sea peoples of the Peninsula, have settled on land. Malays amount to 9.4 per cent, the more rural Murut groups 5.2 per cent, and other Bumiputera groups around 33.6 per cent.




These broad divisions hide the fact that currently there are said to be more than 50 distinct indigenous languages in Sabah (in addition to around 80 dia-lects), and that speakers of these languages see themselves as the true anak negeri (‘children of the country’). In 2015 Sabah submitted a list of 42 ethnic groups and over 200 sub-ethnic groups to the federal government for approval, and it plans to revisit this list every two years. Some ‘sub-ethnic groups’, it has been sug-gested, should probably be considered ‘a full ethnic group’.1 The Chinese commu-nity comprises 12.8 per cent of Sabah’s total population, but as in Sarawak they can be roughly divided into urban dwellers, predominantly merchants and mid-dlemen, and rural agriculturalists. Although the majority are of Hakka descent, the ‘Chinese’ category also includes speakers of Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew and Hainanese, and there has been considerable intermarriage with indigenous peoples. A major change is the increase in the Sabah’s Muslim population, who now comprise 65.4 per cent, largely as a result of migration from Indonesia and Philippines.

Although the state religion is Islam and 61 per cent of its citizens are Muslims, across Malaysia the ‘Bumiputera/non-Bumiputera’ divide is complicated by the range of religious and cultural traditions. Facility in the national language, Malay, has been seen as critical in promoting a sense of national unity, and the teaching medium in all government secondary schools is Malay. This policy has not gone unchallenged, and some have deplored the potential loss of other indigenous lan-guages, especially among smaller linguistic communities. Furthermore, Malay has not been mandated at lower levels, and in deference to non-Malay cultures many vernacular schools have continued to operate. Slightly more than 50 per cent of Indians attend Tamil-language primary schools while 90 per cent of Chinese chil-dren are enrolled in Chinese primary schools, where the medium of instruction is Mandarin. Now more widely spoken among a younger generation and enjoying higher status, Mandarin is gradually displacing the southern Chinese languages that were previously common. As one would expect, among South Asians Tamil is most prevalent but other regional languages from the sub-continent are also found. Despite official recognition of the importance of English, government attitudes are somewhat ambivalent, and proposals that would require students to gain a passing mark in the language are currently on hold.

It is over 50 years since the Federation of Malaysia was formed in 1963. Many Malaysians have expressed the hope that politicians will now abandon electoral campaigns directed towards specific communal groups and work to address social issues that affect all citizens, especially the less advantaged. Some progress has been made, but despite political rhetoric ethnic differences remain a divisive issue in Malaysian society. Certainly, the ethnic riots of May 1969 have not been repeated and the country has not experienced the religious and racial violence found in other parts of the world. Nonetheless, most observers are agreed that Malaysian leadership must do more to address the underlying resentments and inequities that fester beneath the surface. It is disturbing to learn that as of 2014 nearly two million Malaysians, the majority being skilled non-Malays, have left




the country. Although the government has displayed little toleration for oppo-sition, Malaysia’s strong economic performance has encouraged relative public quiescence. However, as the twenty-first century advances, a weakening global economic environment has contributed to fears that the country will be unable to maintain previous growth levels, and adverse publicity has fostered widespread uncertainty about the country’s future political and social direction. Much will depend on the ability of Malaysia’s leaders to meet popular expectations regard-ing good governance and the rights of minority groups while reconciling the often competing ethnic demands for equitable sharing of resources and participa-tion in government.



418

Index

Abbreviations

R. = Raja

S. = Sultan

YDM = Yang Dipertuan Muda

d. = died

AAbdul Hamid, S. of Kedah, 200–205Abdul Jalil, Bendahara later S. of

Johor (d. 1721), 82, 86–87, 90, 93, 104

Abdul Jalil, S. of Johor (d. 1677), 82Abdul Jamil, Tun, Laksamana of Johor,

80Abdul Rahman, R. later S. of Riau

Johor (d. 1832), 119Abdul Rahman, Tunku, 281, 283–284,

286–289, 294–295, 303–304, 369, 391

Abdul Rahman Yakub, Datuk Patinggi, 305

Abdul Razak, Tun, 286, 303, 309, 350Abdul Said of Naning, 125Abdul Samad, S. of Selangor, 156–157,

166, 169, 181Abdullah, R. of Kelang, 148, 155–156Abdullah, R. later S. of Perak (deposed

1875), 159, 163–164, 167, 170–171

Abdullah, S. of Perak (d. 1857), 157Abdullah, Tunku, later S. of Kedah (d.

1797), 110–111, 115–116Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 347–355,

363

Abdullah Ma’ayat, S. of Johor, 78Abdullah Munshi (see also Hikayat

Abdullah), 92, 120–121, 123–124, 126, 130, 138, 142

Abdullah, Maria Chin, 357Abu Bakar, Temenggung later S. of

Johor (see also Johor)becomes sultan, 160–161British and, 161, 172–175, 177–178,

184, 207Chinese and, 149, 184–185Islam and, 162neighbouring Malay states and, 154,

156, 173, 175Aceh

challenges Melaka and Johor, 42, 63, 69–70, 74–76, 78–79

defeated by Portuguese, 70Dutch and, 79–80Islam in, 58, 70, 114Melaka’s legacy in, 69–71Perak and, 68–69, 70, 74trade in, 69–71

activist movements, 361–368Ahmad, Bendahara later S. of Pahang,

153–154, 157, 175–177Ahmad, S. of Kedah (d. 1843), 118,

127–128, 131–132Ahmad, S. of Melaka, 62–63, 72Ahmad, S. of Rembau, 103Ahmad Tajuddin II, S. of Kedah (d.

1879), 132, 200Alam, R. later S. of Siak, 105, 107,

111–112Alauddin Riayat Shah, S. of Johor

(d. 1564), 63, 68



Index 419

Alauddin, S. of Melaka (d. 1488), 55Alauddin, S. of Perak (d. 1792), 100Al-Azhar University, 212Albuquerque, Afonso de, 61–62Alexander the Great (see Iskandar

Zulkarnain)Ali, Bendahara of Pahang, 126–127,

142, 153Ali, R. fifth YDM of Riau-Johor, 116Ali Jalla, S. of Johor (d. 1597)Ali, S. of Johor (d. 1877), 153, 173Ali, S. of Perak (d. 1871), 159Ali Haji, R. of Riau (see also Tuhfat

al-Nafis), 85, 162Ali, Sayid, later S. of Siak, 112–113,

114Al-Ikhwan (Syaikh al-Hadi), 249–250Al-Imam, 212al-Raniri, Nur al-Din, 70Alliance Party, 282–287, 369, 372

education policies of, 286–287, 296–297

forms Barisan Nasional (National Front), 333–334

founded, 280language policy of, 295MCA and MIC in, 284–286,

295–296, 303, 333, 3721969 election and, 301–303PAP and, 302

All-Malay Council of Joint Action (AMCJA), 273, 280

Alternative Front, see Barisan AlternatifAmerican Trading Company, 138anak raja (sons of princes), 100, 118,

131, 153, 209Anderson, Governor John, 192, 210Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM),

310, 342, 365, 369Angkatan Sasterawan, 296Anglo-Dutch Treaty (1824), 123–127,

138–139, 213Anglo-Siamese, Secret Convention

(1897), 203, 205

Anglo-Siamese Treaty (1826), 129Anglo-Siamese Treaty (1902), 204Antah, Tunku, 173, 174antimony, 135, 142, 228, 229Anwar Ibrahim, 310, 330, 337–338,

346–347, 349, 351, 360, 362, 370, 372

Arabs (see also Mecca)historical sources, 11, 25, 26, 29, 30,

31, 57inhabitants of Malaysia, 101intermarriage with Malays, 101,

112, 131, 134, 188Islam and, 58, 60, 69, 87, 115, 130,

162, 212, 249, 380schools, 161, 243, 244traders, 29, 33–34, 57

Armenians, 6, 47, 87Aru, 34, 44, 46, 56Arung Palakka of Bone, 81Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN), 292Atlantic Charter, 269Austronesian migration and Malay

origins, 14–15Ayutthaya, see Thailand Azahari, A.M., 291

BBaginda Umar, 132–133Bahaman, Dato (Abdul Rahman),

Orang Kaya of Semantan, 176–177bahasa, 21, 60, 87, 130, 251, 296Bahasa Malaysia, see also Malay

language Bajau, 18, 65–66, 67, 85, 136, 141,

197, 198, 335Bakun Dam, 320, 332, 348Balambangan, 111, 119Baling, 281, 310, 311Bangladesh, 5, 6, 328Baram River, 143, 192, 195Barisan Alternatif (Alternative Front),

338–340, 347



420 Index

Barisan Nasional (National Front), 2, 334–338, 325–338, 340, 344, 347–350, 351, 353–360, 361, 364, 368, 370–372, 381

‘Barus’, 34Batak, 188Batek, 51 (see also Orang Asli)Bau, 152Bendahara, position of

in Johor, 80, 82, 86–87, 126in Kedah, 128in Melaka, 48, 53–54, 62, 64, 79in Pahang, 117, 119, 124, 126, 127,

142, 153–154, 157, 175–176in Perak, 96, 159

Berjaya Party, 409Bernam, 55, 68, 156Bersih movement (Coalition of Clean

and Fair Elections), Bersih.1 – Bersih.4, 357, 361–363

Bertam, 38–39, 45, 55Beruas, 68Besut, 94Bidayuh (Land Dayaks), 7, 134, 257,

315, 334Bintan (see also Riau), 39, 55–56, 62,

63, 78, 87Birch, J.W.W., 157, 166–167, 169–172,

192, 282 birds’ nests, 65, 97, 99, 141Bisayas, 7, 66, 136Blundell, Governor Edmund, 154Borneo (see also Brunei; North

Borneo; Sabah; Sarawak), 15, 27, 35, 48, 66–67, 81, 87, 88, 99, 100, 113, 121, 133, 140, 179, 215, 222, 226–230, 270, 288, 290–292, 226–230, 270, 288, 290–292, 294, 295, 297–298, 299, 300, 303, 314–316, 375–376, 377–379

British and, 133–141, 165, 11–112, 119, 122, 123, 124, 133–141, 165, 192–199, 208, 212–213,

214, 226–230, 256–259, 269, 270, 288–289

Chinese enterprises in, 142, 143, 146–147, 227, 228

Chinese schools in, 234–235, 245–247, 265

Chinese trade and, 18, 64Dutch and, 98, 124, 133geography, 16, 23Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan),

88, 292Islam and, 115, 246–247, 257Japanese Occupation and, 261–262,

265–266Melaka and, 65populations of, 15, 22, 146, 228Sulu and, 16, 65–67, 85, 118, 137,

138, 139Bose, Subhas Chandra, 264–265Bot, R. of Selangor, 148, 160, 180Briggs, Sir Harold, 276–278British (see also Malaya; Borneo;

Brunei; Straits Settlements),approaches to Malay rulers,

111–112, 116attitude to Malays, 182, 208, 259,

377attitude to Chinese and Indians,

145, 152, 182, 209, 230, 245, 251Borneo and, 134–138, 152, 192–199,

258, 270Dutch and, 117, 122, 124, 133–134,

153Emergency and, 273, 299forward movement and, 167–79extension of control, 166–172maritime superiority of, 84,

108–109, 11, 119Malaya’s independence and, 273,

278–281, 369Malayan Union and, 269–271Melaka transferred to, 96, 112, 117occupy Penang, 116–117occupy Singapore, 119–121



Index 421

policy towards piracy, 138–140relations with Malay states,

125–127, 154–157, 160–161, 163–164, 165–172

Siam and, 128–133‘sphere of influence’, 122, 123–124,

133, 153, 204World War II and, 261–262,

266–267, 270–272British Borneo Timber Company, 227,

300British Indian Army, 214, 264British Military Administration,

270–271British North Borneo Company, 2, 35,

141, 194–196, 198–199, 226–227, 229, 245, 246, 247, 256, 292

Brooke, Anthony, 258Brooke, Charles

administration of Sarawak, 136–137, 179, 197

Brunei and, 135–136, 194, 195, 196Chinese and, 135–136, 228education in Borneo and, 245ethnic categorization by, 136–137,

198–199rivalry with North Borneo

Company, 194–196Brooke, James

administration and, 136–137becomes White Raja, 134expansion of Sarawak and, 134piracy and, 134–135relations with Britain, 155–156, 138

Brooke, Vyner, 256, 258, 269Brunei

adaptation to environment, 65Boni as predecessor of, 35, 64–65Britain and, 135, 165, 192, 194–195,

199, 213Brookes and, 134, 135–136, 194–195Islam in, 65–66, 136Japanese and, 262Malay culture and, 42, 64, 121, 136

Malaysia and, 288–289, 291Melaka’s legacy in, 60, 65, 67,

285–286Sama Bajau and, 65, 66, 67, 85, 136Spanish and, 66–67, 137Sulu and, 65–67, 119, 137, 138trade of, 57, 65, 67

Buddhagupta Stone, 20Buddhism, 21, 27, 31, 115

in Srivijaya, 24, 25, 30Bugis (see also under Kelang; Linggi;

Selangor)Dutch and, 81, 106, 112–113, 116,

121influence in Malay states, 85, 87–93,

94, 95, 104, 105–107, 109–115, 116, 118

migrations to Malay world, 81, 87, 88

Orang Laut and, 92rifts among, 91–92, 103, 110as traders and mercenaries, 88–89,

105, 109Bujang Valley, 12, 18, 20–22, 28, 34,

35Bukit Seguntang, 30, 39, 49, 50, 52, 55,

69, 81, 85, 86, 90, 92, 96, 114, 118Bulan Melayu, 243Bumiputera, 2, 5, 7–8, 288, 289, 301,

308, 316, 318–319, 321, 324, 325, 330, 335, 344, 352, 353–354, 355, 356, 367, 368, 377, 378

bunga mas dan perak (gold and silver flowers)

description of, 73origin of, 74sent by Malay states, 74, 75–76, 77,

127–128, 129, 133, 200, 205submitted to Britain, 205

Burhanuddin, al-Hemy, Dr, 251, 264, 268, 283

Burma, 10, 40, 75, 95, 96, 115, 173, 186, 225, 265, 328

Burney, Henry, 129



422 Index

CCairo, 212, 243Cambodia, 13, 26, 75, 87, 102, 173,

243Candi Bukit Batu Pahat, 21Canton, 30, 35, 57, 109, 111, 139,

145Cantonese speakers, 6, 8, 145, 149,

150, 151, 152, 159Cantonese occupations, 150schools, 232

Cavenagh, Governor Orfeur, 154Cellak, Daeng, second YDM of Riau-

Johor, 91, 102–103, 105, 107, 110

Ceylon (see also Sri Lanka), 186–188, 220, 221

Chakri dynastyChulalongkorn (Rama V), 132, 173,

199, 200, 201, 203, 205Mongkut (Rama IV), 132Rama I, 115, 116, 127, 201Rama II, 127Rama III, 128, 130

Champa, 48Chee Yam Chuan, 148Chin Peng, 275, 281, 312, China (see also Chinese;

communism), 5, 6, 14, 17, 26, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 64, 93, 125, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 211, 217, 218, 227, 232, 234, 235, 236, 245, 262, 265–266, 267, 280, 312, 314, 356

Boni (Brunei) and, 65economic strength of, 356historical sources from, 11, 16, 18,

20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 33, 35, 65, 98

Islam and, 57Melaka and, 56nationalism in, 212, 214, 233opium trade and, 108relations with Srivijaya, 24, 26, 28,

29, 37

trade, 11, 15–16, 18, 19, 20, 22–24, 28, 29, 33, 36, 41, 45–46, 57, 64, 67, 74, 97, 98, 109, 111, 119, 121, 136, 139, 141–142, 144, 193, 196, 374

Chinese (see also communism; secret societies)

in agriculture, 144, 148, 165, 219–220, 222, 224, 226, 234, 255, 276

Baba Chinese, 131, 147, 185, 188, 210

Borneo and, 7–8, 57, 102, 143, 145, 150, 152, 183, 196–197, 199, 228, 230, 245–247, 257, 262–267, 269, 276, 296–297

ceramics, 12, 15, 18, 19, 25, 26, 34–35

British attitudes to, 144–145, 209, 230, 245, 251

citizenship and, 201, 211, 253, 272, 284

class divisions among, 150–151, 154, 158–159, 163, 210, 211

dialect groups, 8, 150–151, 280, 284

during Japanese Occupation, 262–267, 269, 276, 296–297

economic influence in Malay world, 146–149, 156, 164, 182, 200–201, 202, 230, 252, 255–256, 257, 296, 298, 308, 319

education, 8, 183, 211, 231, 232, 236, 240, 245–7, 249, 259, 265, 274, 285, 286, 298, 317–318, 337, 338, 367

emperor and court, 29, 32, 35, 36, 37, 65, 71, 97

envoys, 26, 27, 46in Federal and State Councils, 180,

191, 249GLU and, 274headmen, 151, 152, 185, 102, 122labour, 135, 138, 143, 145, 152, 184,

187, 230



Index 423

language, 8, 211, 296, 305, 318Malayan Union and, 275–273, 279MCA and, 278, 280, 284, 285, 296,

3211, 333, 349middlemen, 143, 229migration, 84, 101, 102, 122, 125,

136, 145, 146, 227, 228, 245, 376–377, 379

Muslim, 57, 65–66nationalism, 211, 214, 233, 248NEP and, 308, 311–312, 314–320,

321, 340 occupations, 6, 136, 249population, 6, 7, 101, 145, 151, 186,

190, 203, 248, 255, 301, 372in Riau, 87, 102, 113secret societies, 149–150, 151, 152,

155, 156, 163, 183, 184, 211, 216in Straits Settlements, 140–2,

145–6in tin mining, 102, 122, 144,

145–146, 148, 152, 154, 157, 158, 165, 182–183, 189, 191, 192, 216, 217, 184, 216, 218, 234, 308

trade, 12, 18, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 33, 35, 58, 63, 65, 87, 97. 102, 107, 117, 119, 120, 141

Chinese Education Movement (Dongjiaozong), 318

Chinese Protectorate, 183–184, 185Christianity, Christians, 4, 5, 6, 308,

326–76, 7, 59, 62, 66, 150, 162, 197, 212, 228, 245, 247, 279, 301, 316, 321, 334–335, 348, 350, 367, 370, 375, 377, 378

Chua Tian Chang, 339Chulalongkorn, King of Siam, see

Chakri dynasty citizenship in Malaya/Malaysia,

269–270, 272, 273, 379, 281, 284, 285, 286, 287, 298, 314, 339, 367, 376

civilizationBrookes and, 195European concept of, 164, 375

Malays and, 159–162, 175, 178, 202, 212, 348

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), 333–354, 362, 363, 365, 371

Clarke, Governor Andrew, 163, 166, 168, 169, 175

class differences, 54, 168–169, 181–182, 188, 209, 210–212, 213, 232, 236–238, 240, 248, 248, 256, 259, 265, 298, 325, 240, 364

Clementi, Governor Sir Cecil, 235, 253–254, 258, 271

Clifford, Hugh, 175, 177, 196, 209, 214Clifford School, 236Cobbold Commission, 290Coèdes, George, 24coffee, 97, 144, 187, 201, 217,

220–221, 226, 231communism (see also Emergency)

Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 211, 235, 247, 265

Malayan Communist Party (MCP), 248, 266–267, 268, 273–281, 282, 286, 302

Confrontation (Konfrontasi), 291–293, 294

Constitution, ‘Merdeka’, 281, 295, 352, 369, 370, 376, 380

Councils, State (see also Federal Council), 182, 185, 191, 236, 249, 252, 253, 254, 273

country traders, 89, 108, 109, 115, 116, 120

Cowie, W.C., 196, 226, 227, 256‘crony capitalism’, 324, 325, 342, 348,

354Cyberjaya, 325–326

DDaim Zainuddin, 320dakwah movement, 340–341, 342, 344Dandan, 26, 27Darul Arqam, 342daulat, 31, 50, 52, 54, 86, 342Davidson, J.G., 156, 160, 161



424 Index

Dawud, Shaykh, 130–131‘Dayakism’, 334Dayaks see Bidayuh; Ibans debt bondage (see also slavery), 168,

169, 181decentralization issue, 251–254Deli, 44, 86Demang Lebar Daun, 39, 52Democratic Action Party (DAP), 302,

303, 321, 333, 337, 338, 339, 342, 349, 360, 361, 363

Dent, Alfred, 193Department of National Unity, 304Depression, 214, 217, 223, 235, 248,

249, 250, 251, 253, 276derhaka, 21, 31, 50, 52, 54, 69, 86, 87,

91, 114, 366, 375, 376Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 295Dewan Negara, 2, 282Dewan Rakyat, 2, 282, 293–4, 302,

304, 306. 339district officers, 137, 180, 184, 196,

206, 263, 267Dongjiaozong (Chinese Education

Movement) 318Drahman, Haji, 226Duff, R.W., 204–205durbar, 191, 238, 253Dusun see KadazandusunDutch and Dutch East India Company

(VOC)bankruptcy of, 113and Bugis, 81, 88, 89, 91, 105, 106,

107, 112capture Melaka, 69, 71, 78decline of, 107, 108, 111, 113, 117effects of presence, 77, 80, 81, 113,

118 Malay view of, 171monopolies, 69, 96, 98, 107, 118relations with Johor, 71, 78, 79, 85,

86, 87, 91, 93, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 119, 121, 126, 127, 132, 207

relations with Negeri Sembilan, 103, 106, 113

relations with Perak, 69, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102, 104

rivalry with Britain, 84, 107–109, 120, 122–127, 133, 135–136, 138, 193, 195, 213

sources 43, 51, 85, 86, 94, 99–100, 102structure of, 77–78

EEast Asian economic crisis (1997–

1998), 329–331Economic Transformation Programme

(ETP) 356education

Chinese medium, 232–236, 247, 280, 285, 318, 337, 338

colonial attitude to, 182, 188, 205, 212, 230–245, 259

English medium, 180, 210, 211, 212, 236–239, 240, 249

female, 212, 233, 241, 242, 243, 246–247, 297, 317, 318

in independent Malaya/Malaysia, 10, 286–287, 295–296, 297, 298, 302, 316–317, 327, 337, 338, 341, 352

of Indians, 118, 231–232, 285Islamic, 162, 188, 202, 212,

243–244, 380Malay medium, 235, 239, 240, 241,

242, 243, 247, 316–317NEP and, 317, 343in North Borneo (Sabah) and

Sarawak, 235, 245–247, 289, 297, 352

Orang Asli, 365universities and colleges, 239, 317,

318, 326, 356Education Act, 296Education Ordinance, 286Egypt and Egyptian (see also Cairo),

57, 61, 62, 243elections, federal



Index 425

(1955), 279, 280, 283, 284, 285(1959), 283–286, 301, 339(1964), 203, 302–303(1969), 301, 302–304(1995), 321, 335, 336, 337, 342(1999), 321, 328, 329, 338, 339, 344,

347(2008), 2, 347, 359, 372, 381

(2013), 2, 350, 351, 352, 359, 368, 372, 381

Emergency (1948–1960), 273–279Emergency Government (1969–1971),

302–306English East India Company (EIC)

acquires Singapore, 119, 126and Borneo, 133and China trade, 108, 126and Kedah, 111, 116, 117 and Penang, 115, 116, 117and piracy, 140rivalry with Dutch, 84, 107–109,

120, 122–127, 133, 135–136, 138, 193, 195, 213

and Siam, 127, 128, 129sources from, 85

environment, 3, 4, 16, 17, 19deforestation, 4, 313, 331endangered animals and plants, 4erosion, 226, 331petrol emissions, 332river pollution, 331Environmental Quality Act of 1974,

331export economy framework for

Malaya, 215–224infrastructure, 216legal and administrative system,

216–217padi agriculture 224–226palm oil industry 223–224plantation crops, 219–221rubber industry, 217–218, 221, 223tin industry, 218–219

Eurasians, 6, 188, 237, 240, 263

FFederal Council, 191, 214, 249, 252,

253, 254, 279, 280Federal Land Consolidation and

Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA), 300

Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA), 300–301, 311, 312, 315, 329

Federated Malay States (FMS), 202–203, 206, 258

civil administration, 186, 205, 238, 252–253

compared to Unfederated Malay States, 255–256

economic development of, 216–226formation of, 190–192Japanese Occupation in, 261Johor and, 207–208Malayan Union and, 269–270sources for, 215

Fei Chew clan, 152, 156, 158,-159Foloan, 34foreign workers, 5, 225, 326, 327–329forest products see jungle products forestry see timber; see also under

environmentForestry Research Institute, 227Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784),

111Fourth Malaysia Plan (1981–1985),

322–323France (French), 25, 90, 117, 120, 136,

173, 176, 178, 193, 200, 203free trade zones, 311Fujian, 65, 102, 145, 228Fullerton, Governor Robert, 125, 140Funan, 22, 26

GGagasan Demokrasi Rakyat

(Movement for Peoples Democracy), 339

Galang, Orang Laut from, 139, 142



426 Index

Gama, Vasco da, 61gambier, 102, 122, 144, 148, 149, 152,

219–220, 222, 225, 226, 228, 255Gandhi, M.K., 248Gantuoli (Kan-t’o-li), 24–25, 41gas, 4, 315, 318, 323, 325, 351, 356,

357gender, Malaysia restructuring and,

327–328General Labour Unions (GLU), 274Gent, Edward, 269, 275Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan),

301, 303, 333, 349, 251, 352, 360, 363

Ghee Hin Society, 149, 150, 151, 156, 158, 183–184

goldLand of (Suvarnadipa), 20mining and deposits, 18, 45, 55, 97,

98, 102, 133, 142, 147, 152, 174, 190, 229

objects, 11, 18, 29, 66, 67, 76, 77ornaments, 19, 27, 54and silver flowers (bunga mas dan

perak), 73, 74, 77, 95, 96, 110, 129trade in, 19–20, 61, 80, 98as tribute, 73 (see bunga mas dan

perak)Government Transformation

Programme (GTP), 356Graham, W.A., 204–205Green Movement in Malaysia, 332Guangdong, 65, 102, 145, 151, 159Guangxi, 145Guillemard, Sir Laurence, 252–253,

271Gujarat (Gujarati), 44, 47–49, 57, 58,

62, 70, 101Guomindang (GMD), 233, 234, 235,

247, 265, 266, 279 Gurney, Sir Henry, 277Guthrie and Co., 156, 217, 222, 223gutta percha, 142–143

HHai San Society, 156, 158, 183Hainan, 140Haji. R., fourth YDM of Riau Johor,

110, 111–112Hakka, 6, 7, 8, 145, 147, 149–152, 156,

158–159, 197, 228Hang Tuah, 50, 51, 53, 59, 60, 74, 79,

115, 136, 363, 268, 383Harrisons & Crosfield, 217, 222, 227The Heat, 358, 362Hikayat Abdullah (see also Abdullah

Munshi), 123, 139Hikayat Aceh, 70Hikayat Hang Tuah, 50, 51, 74, 79, 136,

383 n.9Hikayat Marong Mahawangsa, 74, 199Hikayat Pahang, 126Hikayat Panglima Nikosa, 137Hikayat Patani, 96 Hikayat Siak, 85, 86, 94, 11Hikayat Sri Kelantan, 202Hinduism, 21, 348Hindu Rights Action Force (Hindraf),

363–364Ho Hup Seah Society, 158–159Ho Seng Society, 150, 151, 158–159,

171Hokkien, 6, 8, 101, 102, 145, 146, 147,

148, 152, 155, 158, 159, 185, 200, 232

Hoo Ah Kay (Whampoa), 146Husain, R. later S. of Singapore, 119Hussein Onn, 310

IIban (Sea Dayak)

Brookes and, 134–135, 137, 197and communist insurgency (1970s),

314education, 241government economic schemes and,

315



Index 427

identity, 7, 17, 85, 134, 136, 137, 140, 199, 257, 334, 343

language, 15migration, 87–88, 143, 195in politics, 294, 334, 378as Sarawak Rangers, 137

Ibrahim, R. of Minangkabau, 80–81Ibrahim, S. of Johor (d. 1685), 82Ibrahim, S. of Johor (d. 1959), 270Ibrahim, S. of Selangor, 112, 113, 116Ibrahim, Temenggung of Singapore,

126, 139, 142, 148, 149, 153, 160Ibrahim Yaacob, 251, 264identity in colonial Malaya, 247–251Idris, S. of Perak, 184, 191, 236Ikatan Muslimin Malaysia (ISMA), 365,

371Ilanun, 113, 114, 116, 118–119, 139In Situ Agricultural Development

Programmes (IADP), 311Independence of Malaya Party, 280,

301, 360Inderagiri, 55, 56, 80, 81, 86India

as Buddhist pilgrimage, 27, 30Chola dynasty, 32, 33, 34cultural and religious influence,

20–22, 30early trade, 16, 19, 20and Indianization, 22Islamic influences from, 57, 58, 59,

60, 62, 94, 101, 109, 150, 212Melaka and, 59, 63Srivijaya and, 24, 25, 30, 31textiles from, 59, 74, 76, 97, 108

Indians (see also Malayan Indian Congress; Sikh police; Tamils; Telegu)

category of, 187–188, 209–210, 232, 237, 248, 251

education of, 231–232, 236, 239–241, 259, 317

identity of, 248–249

Japanese Occupation and, 263–266, 268

Malayan Union and, 272migrant labour, 185–187, 206, 213,

214, 217, 230–231, 244, 245, 248, 255, 259, 263, 274, 277, 285, 301, 312, 313, 363, 364, 372, 376, 377, 379

nationalism, 214, 248, 264–265, 272

in politics, 272, 273, 280, 285–286, 298, 301, 302, 303, 333, 334, 344, 349, 351, 352

population, 145, 150–151, 185, 372radical unions and, 274as traders, 58, 59, 61–62, 63, 68, 70,

71, 95, 98, 101, 117, 141, 144, 187, 218, 374

Indonesia (see also Java; Sumatra) 14, 16, 18, 25, 47, 61, 248

boundaries of, 125, 127, 190Confrontation (Konfrontasi) by,

291–292Islam, 114–115, 243, 263Japanese Occupation in, 263–264links with Malaya, 264, 268,

271–272, 283, 288, 290, 291migrant labour from, 5, 6, 7–8, 88,

189, 230products from, 18, 20 22, 62

Industrial Co-ordination Act (1975), 319, 320

Industrial Master Plan (IMP), 324industrialization, 299, 318, 323Internal Security Act (ISA), 282, 303,

305, 337, 350, 357, 364other restrictive laws, 357–358

International Rubber Regulation Agreement, 223, 230

Ipoh, 189, 192, 282, 284Iskandar, R. later S. of Perak (d. 1765),

95–96Iskandar, S. of Melaka, 39



428 Index

Iskandar Muda, S. of Aceh (d. 1636), 70, 78, 96

Iskandar Syah, Megat, S. of Melaka, 46, 55

Iskandar Thani, S. of Aceh (d. 1641), 70

Iskandar Zulkarnain (Alexander the Great), 39, 41, 49, 69, 85, 96, 114

Islam, 57, 72, 78, 106, 130–131, 160, 162, 178, 188, 207, 212, 214, 252, 263, 290, 305,335, 348, 352, 355, 365, 366, 368, 380

in Aceh, 69, 70in Brunei, 66–67China and, 57and Constitution, 352conversion, 21, 35, 44, 58, 59, 60,

66, 74education, 243–244and financial services, 341, 355, 372hudud, 360jihad, 81 in Kedah, 94, 114–115, 131, 203in Kelantan, 202, 212and kingship, 59, 86localization of, 66, 114, 250Malay culture and, xiii, 1, 42, 50,

57, 136, 262and Malay identity, xiii, 5, 130, 188,

206, 272, 340, 344, 365, 367, 372, 277–378

Malay nationalism and, 8, 283, 351, 352

Malayness and, xiii, 61, 69, 212, 244Malaysian history themes and,

380–381modernist, 243, 244, 249Pan Islam, 157reformist, 110, 122, 207–8, 338resistance movements and, 76, 112role in government, xii-xiii,

341–342, 368, 372

role in society, xii-xiii, 22, 59, 317, 340, 341, 344, 348, 361, 365, 368–372

scholars of, 70, 87, 94, 109, 114–115, 130, 162, 202, 206, 212, 243

Sufism, 58, 109syariah law, 60, 69, 70, 103, 123,

162, 202, 205, 257, 348, 368in Terengganu, 202, 212trade, 57–58, 59, 60, 66

Islam Hadhari (Civilizational Islam), 348

Islamic-oriented NGOs (IONGOs), 365Ismail, Bendahara later S. of Perak,

163, 167, 170, 171Ismail, R. of Selangor, 156, 157, 159Ismail, R. of Siak, 109–111Ismail Abdul Rahman, Tun Dr. 303,

305, 309

JJakun, 6, 55, 64, 142, 177Jambi, 24, 26, 29, 30, 31, 33, 36, 40,

50, 80, 81, 82Japanese Occupation of Malaya, 240,

260, 261–267, 268, 270, 271economic effects of, 276, 299ethnic relations and, 258–9, 263

Jardine, D.J., 246Java, 63, 81, 88, 94, 114, 115, 124,

282, 306and Islam, 58–59labourers from, 188, 220, 227, 283in Malay society, 189, 379Melaka and, 38–39, 46–48, 50, 224Srivijaya and, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33,

36–37taken by British, 120

Jawi Peranakan, 150, 151, 188, 285, 379

Jelebu, 172, 173, 174Jengka Triangle Project, 301



Index 429

Jervois, Governor Sir William, 170, 172–173, 175, 182

Jesselton (Kota Kinabalu), 2, 195, 246, 266, 269

Johol, 125, 172, 173Johor, kingdom of (see also Riau)

Aceh and, 70, 75, 79Anglo-Dutch Treaty (1824) and,124,

126, 127Ayutthaya and, 73, 74, 75, 77, 87becomes part of British Malaya,

207–208Bugis and, 81, 85, 88–93, 103–107,

109–115capitals of, 63, 73, 79, 80, 87cession of Singapore, 118historical sources for, 43, 85Islam in, 87, 109, 162, 178and Minangkabau settlements, 80,

81,102–103, 106Orang Asli and, 14, 64, 114,

142–143Orang Laut and, 30, 64, 79–80, 86,

92, 100, 114, 117–118, 139, 142Patani and, 75–76Portuguese and, 63regicide in 82–83, 85–87relations with Dutch, 71, 78–79, 87,

112rise of Temenggung family,

126–127, 139, 142, 178as successor to Melaka, 25, 42–43,

56, 64, 65, 68, 69, 72, 84, 92, 130trade of, 5, 79, 82, 87, 109wars with Jambi, 80, 82

Johor, state of (see also Abu Bakar)agricultural expansion in, 149, 219,

200, 255, 301becomes part of British Malaya,

207–208, 216Chinese in, 148–149, 184–185, 203,

219, 267links with Singapore, 161, 255, 349

Malay administration of, 161, 208rise of temenggung family in,

127–8, 134–5under NEP, 322, 324

Johor Bahru, 160, 189, 216, 324Johor Tenggara Project, 301Juma’at, R. of Lukut, 148, 156, 160,

162, 168, 180

KKadazandusun, 7, 15, 290, 294, 334,

335, 336, 343, 350, 378Kah Yeng Chew, 151, 156Kamboja, Daeng, third YDM of Riau-

Johor, 103–107, 109Kampar, 55, 56, 63, 80Kampé (see also Aru), 34–35, 44Kampung Gelam, 119kangani system, 186–187, 231kangchu, 148–149Kapitan Cina, 101, 149, 151, 183, 184Kayan, 7, 15, 195, 257Kecil, R. of Siak

and Bugis, 90–93, 104and civil wars in, 105, 114and Johor, 90, 93and Orang Asli, 114and Orang Laut, 92, 114and Perak, 95

Kedah, 16, 94, 98, 99, 100, 171–172, 200, 283, 312, 349, 350, 377

archaeology in, 11–12, 20, 21, 28, 34attacked by Aceh, 70, 74and British, 205–206, 270and Bugis, 89, 100–105, 112early history, 18–19, 28, 33, 34, 35,

57, 376economy, 200–201, 225, 322, 323and EIC, 111, 116, 117, 128, 129,

201, 203and Islam, 115, 117, 131, 162, 203,

339Malay control of, 255



430 Index

Kedah (continued)poverty in, 255, 310–311relations with Thais, 56, 74, 76–77,

110, 115, 116, 117, 118, 127–128, 129, 130, 131–132, 140, 188, 200, 201, 204, 261

and trade, 20, 40, 95, 98, 99, 101, 109

Kedayan, 7Kelang, 68, 86, 160, 166, 171

Bugis in, 81, 88, 91, 92, 105–106ceded to VOC, 113Chinese-Malay relations in, 148,

152, 155–156, 157 Valley, 324, 331, 332

Kelantan, 2, 3, 90, 94, 100, 109, 153, 202, 214, 216, 224, 249, 377

and British, 203–204, 205, 206, 210, 213

culture, 130, 343early history, 12, 13, 26–27, 45, 56, 59education in, 239, 242, 243, 244gold in, 98, 102, 190Islam in, 162, 202, 212, 243, 244links with Patani, 73, 75, 76, 96, 97NEP in, 322Orang Asli in, 99PAS in, 283, 337, 338, 339, 341, 349poverty in, 255–256, 300, 310–311,

329relations with Thais, 72–73, 74,

97, 115, 128, 129, 132–133, 177, 200–201, 203, 204, 261

Kemaman, 94, 133Kenyah, 7, 15, 125, 143, 257kerajaan, concept of, 50–52, 69, 162,

212, 250, 251, 254, 293, 336, 376Kerian, 98, 132, 220, 225Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Young Malay

Union), 251, 264, 268Kesatuan Rakyat Indonesia

Semenanjung (KRIS), 264, 268Kinta, 184, 192, 218

kongsi, 147, 149, 151, 152, 184, 218Kota Bharu, 197, 199, 239, 318Kuala Kangsar, 96, 191, 221, 236

Malay College at, 238, 240, 242, 244Kuala Kesang, 55Kuala Lipis, 190, 216Kuala Lumpur, 2, 24, 42, 157, 237,

325, 329, 335, 362capital of FMS, 191Chinese in, 148, 152, 183modern city of, 331–332, 354, 357,

363pollution in, 332rivalry with Singapore, 192, 208,

214–215Kuala Selinsing, 18Kuching, 2, 134, 143, 145, 150, 152,

229, 245, 257–158Kudin, Tengku of Kelang, 156–157,

160, 162, 166Kudin, Tunku, of Kedah, 131, 140Kuning, R. of Patani, 75, 76

LLabour Utilization Relief, 320Labuan, 1, 2, 135–136, 193, 269, 335Lai Tek, 266, 274, 275laksamana

in Johor, 70, 80–82in Kedah, 128in Melaka, 51, 53, 70

Langat, 156, 157, 166Langkasuka, 26–27, 74Langkawi (Pulau Lada), 4, 44, 98, 99Laos, 173Larut, 96, 169, 170, 189

archaeological finds in, 18, 34Chinese conflicts in, 158–159, 163,

166tin in, 98, 158, 166, 218

Lawas, 195Lee, Henry S., 268–269, 279Lee Kuan Yew, 289, 290



Index 431

Leong Yew Koh, 279, 282Light, Francis, 88, 101, 108, 115, 116,

145, 232Ligor (Nakhon Sithammarat), 28,

35, 36, 71–72, 73, 75, 116, 118, 127–129, 131, 200

chronicles from, 71–73Lim Chong Eu, 284–285, 301Lim Guan Eng, 360Lim Kit Siang, 338Limbang River, 195Lina Joy, 370Lingga (see also Riau-Lingga

archipelagos), 98, 113Linggi

British and, 155, 166Bugis in, 81, 88–92, 106ceded to Dutch, 106tin in, 88, 91, 92, 155

London Tin Corporation, 219Long Ja’afar of Larut, 158Long Yunus of Kelantan, 97Low, Hugh, 179, 218Low, James, 12, 129Loyue, 26Lukut, 148, 156, 160, 168Lumu, R. later S. Salehuddin of

Selangor, 103, 110

M1MDB (Malaysian Development Bhd),

357, 362–363, 372Macapagal, Diosdado, Philippines

President, 291MacMichael, Sir Harold, 270–271madrasah, 244, 246Magellan, Ferdinand, 66Mahathir Mohamad, Dr Datuk Seri,

affirmative action and, 353economic policies, 307, 309,

319–320, 325–326, 330, 356education and, 311, 316, 327, 338Islam and, 332, 341–342, 370–371

influence of, 347, 348, 349–350, 352–354, 363, 372

judiciary and, 336, 340, 369Malay Dilemma, 304, 309Malay rulers and, 331, 340‘New Malay’ and, 342–344opposition to, 337–338, 346–347,

348, 358as prime minister, 320, 336, 347,

372Vision 20/20 and, 327

Mahdi, R. of Selangor, 152, 156–157Mahmud, S. of Johor (d. 1699), 82–83,

86, 90, 91Mahmud, S. of Melaka (d. 1528),

56–57, 62–63, 67–68, 72Mahmud, S. of Riau (deposed 1857),

132, 154Mahmud, S. of Riau-Johor (d. 1812),

109, 112–114, 116, 118–119Mahmud, Tengku later S. of Pahang,

177Majapahit see JavaMajlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA), 308,

317, 318Makassar, 81Malay Administrative Service (MAS),

210, 238, 250Malay language, 8, 12, 13–15, 24–25,

32, 42, 45, 49, 60–61, 66, 69, 71, 166 , 169, 189, 196, 213, 263, 336, 343

as National Language, 8, 286–287, 290, 295–297, 304–305, 306, 327

Malay Reservations Act, 188, 224Malay Studies, 209, 215Malay Translation Bureau, 242Malaya, British, 269

administration of, 191, 208–209, 215, 251–256, 260, 269

Borneo interests and, 192–199class in, 210–211economy of, 215–226, 299



432 Index

Malaya, British (continued)education in, 230–246forward movement, 172–179Johor inclusion in 207–208northern Malay states incorporated

into, 199–207plural society in, 182–189, 257, 379residential system and, 179–182sources for, 215use of term, 208–209

Malaya, Federation ofcitizenship in, 281Constitution of, 276, 281, 290, 352,

369–370, 376, 380established, 272, 282, 282political parties in, 273, 283–287proposed, 268Singapore and, 288

Malaya Plan, First (1956–1960), 298–299, 308

Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) allies with UMNO, 278–279, 280, 282, 284–285, 296, 360, 369

in business, 320–321challenged by PAP, 293Chinese community and, 280, 287,

295, 298, 301Chinese schools and, 285–286loses Chinese support, 301, 303,

321, 333, 349, 351–352, 372Malayan Civil Service, 237, 271, 279, 287Malayan Communist Party (MCP)

248, 266–268, 273–279, 20–282, 286, 302

Malayan Democratic Union, 268, 273–274, 301

Malayan Indian Congress (MIC), 272, 280–281, 285, 344, 372

Indian community and, 285–286, 298, 301, 333–334

Malayan Nationalist Party, 273–274Malayan Peoples’ Anti Japanese

Association (MPAJA), 264, 266–267, 269, 274–275, 276

Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA), 276, 282

Malayan Union, 253, 268–272, 283, 306, 379

Malays (see also Melayu)attitude to Thais, 73–77, 115, 127,

129–130, 200–201, 204, 377categorization of, 7, 13British attitude to, 163–164, 182,

188, 207, 209, 222, 225, 239, 268Brooke attitude to, 134, 136, 137,

245–246, 257Bugis and, 88–90, 91–93, 104–107,

110–111, 112, 121Chinese and, 101–102, 146–147,

148–149, 151, 154–156, 184–185, 211, 216, 249, 266–267, 276–277, 279, 303–304, 318,

Borneo states and, 88, 134–135, 269–20, 288–289, 295, 334–335, 351, 378

colonial Malaya and, 168, 179–181, 191, 204, 210, 214, 216, 222, 249

culture and identity of, 1, 10, 21–22, 26–28, 32, 41, 42, 49, 64, 68, 79, 86, 94, 96, 99–100, 121, 126, 130, 136, 138, 153, 167, 172, 177, 189, 206, 248, 250, 377–378

definition and categorization of, 5, 7, 13, 188–189, 272, 367,378

during Occupation, 262–263education of, 235, 236–243,

246–247, 259, 286, 316–317Europeans and, 108–109, 111, 124,

153Islam and, xiii, 22, 58–59, 61, 87,

114–115, 117, 130–131, 162, 207, 212–213, 243–244, 249–250, 283, 340–342, 344, 361, 365–366, 368, 377

language, 8, 12, 13–15, 24–25, 32, 42, 45, 49, 60–61, 66, 869, 71, 166, 169, 189, 196, 213, 263,



Index 433

286–287, 295–297, 304–305, 336, 343

literature of, 26, 31, 38, 44, 69–70, 84–86, 123, 153, 166, 215, 297–298

Minangkabau and, 54, 79–80, 90, 102–103, 12

middle class, 5, 297, 321–322, 343, 360

nationalism, 177, 251, 263–264, 268, 271–272, 273, 285

Orang Asli and, 5–6, 13–14, 51, 54, 141–143, 169, 188, 365, 378

NEP-NDP years and, 5, 308–312, 317–323, 354–355, 380, 380–381

piracy of, 138–140political parties and, 271–272, 283,

334, 338, 347–349 population, 5, 168, 238, 334, 372poverty of, 250, 255, 296, 297, 300,

310right wing, 349–350, 352, 360, 362,

366rulers of, 21, 29, 35, 43, 50–53, 55,

64, 71, 83, 86, 90, 96, 98–100, 104, 123, 151–152, 160–161, 167, 191–192, 205, 251–254, 270, 337, 352

secret societies and, 171, 183–184special privileges of, xii, 273,

282–283, 285–286, 287, 298, 302, 304, 305, 344–345, 351–352-353, 361, 365, 376

support opposition, 339, 350, 362–363

traders and seafarers, 17–18, 20, 23, 48–49, 121, 141, 147

Borneo states and, 292–293, 294, 297, 305, 335–336, 344, 351–352, 365–366, 376–378

Malaysia, Federation of academic freedom in, 358activism in, 361–5boundaries, 1, 20, 137–138, 195,

economy of, 4–5, 9, 298–302, 308–316, 318–324, 329–331, 353–357, 372

education in, 316–318environmental problems in, 4, 226,

331–333, 375ethnic relations in, 289, 294–298,

302–306, 309, 316, 360–361, 366–373, 378

foreign workers in, 328–329, 334. 379

formation, 2, 8, 283, 287–291, 379geography, 3–4, 17, 148, history and historiography of,

10–12, 13, 15, 16–17, 25, 28, 39, 42, 44, 85, 87–88, 122–123, 165–166, 213, 215, 260–261, 307–308, 374

human rights in, 357internet and social media in, 308,

358–359, 364, 375, 38Islam in, 340–342, 344, 348,

351–352, 365, 375, 380–381middle class in, 5, 6, 248, 297, 321,

333, 340, 343, 347, 360, 380opposition to formation, 291–292,

323Orang Asli in, 364–365politics in, 325, 333–340, 346–353,

360population figures, 3, 6–8, 381products of, 3, 16–19, 143rulers in, 336–337, 376Singapore secedes from, 293–294,

376, 378Vision 20/20 and, 324–327

Malaysia PlansFirst (1966–70), 299, 308Second (1971–5), 305, 322Third (1976–80), 311–312, 322, 323,

328Fourth (1981–5), 322–323Fifth (1986–90), 323Sixth (1990–5), 323



434 Index

Malaysia Plans (continued)Seventh (1996–2000), 325, 329, 336Ninth (2006–2010), 354

Malaysiakini, 358Malaysian Insider, 359Malingkote Revolt, 198Maluku, 48Mandailing, 188Mansur, S. of Melaka (d. 1477), 50, 56Mansur, S. of Perak, 69Mansur, S. of Terengganu (d. 1793),

93–94, 98Bugis and, 104–105, 106, 109, 111invades Kelantan, 97, 100Thais and, 110, 115–116, 128

Marcos, Ferdinand, 292Marewa, Daeng, first YDM of Riau-

Johor, 91Marshall, David, 281Mat Kilau, 177Mat Salleh, 198Maxwell, W.E., 236–237Mecca, 61, 62, 115, 116, 117, 130–131,

162, 202, 243, 341Melaka, 2, 19, 25, 41, 88, 91, 102, 105,

126, 131, 144, 376administration of, 47–49, 53Bugis and, 106, 112–114captured by Dutch, 43, 69, 71,

78–79, 80captured by Portuguese, 43, 62–63,

66, 69, 78, 84, 101Chinese in, 19, 102, 145, 146, 148,

150, 156, 220, 232, 280, 283British and, 96, 111, 117, 121,

124–125, 160, 172–173, 208, 219, 224

education in, 180, 231, 242–243established, 10, 15, 37–40, 43–45expansion of, 45–46, 55–56Islam in, 56, 59–60, 72, 368, 380kingship in, 49–50, 52legacy of, 42, 162, 263, 264, 268,

271, 295, 373, 377

Malay culture and, 32, 60, 65, 68, 69–70, 83, 86, 90, 95, 103, 114, 115, 121, 130, 378

Malayan Union and, 269–270NEP and, 323, 327nobles of, 27, 53,-54Orang Asli and Orang Laut in,

51–52, 86, 92relations with China, 24, 46rivalry with Ayutthaya, 71–73trade of, 42, 45, 46–48, 79, 88,

107–108, 155Melaka Straits, 10, 35, 46, 119, 132, 164

Anglo-Dutch Treaty and, 1, 122, 124Arab knowledge of, 11, 57piracy in, 16, 30, 139ports along, 20, 23, 24, 26, 41, 115Srivijaya and, 23, 32, 33

Melanau, 7, 136, 228, 246, 257, 334, 378‘Melayu’, concept of, 50, 51, 61, 69,

104, 283in independence proposals,

272–273, 377ketuanan Melayu (Malay

sovereignty), 366–367, 371Melayu Baru, 342–345

Malayu (place), 26, 31, 32–33, 36, 40, 41; see also Jambi

Melewar, R. of Rembau, 103Merdeka Constitution, 281–282, 295,

352, 369–370, 376, 380MH370, 359migrants, illegal, 328–329, 335Min Yuen (People’s Movement), 266,

276–277, 278, 312Minangkabau, 36, 41, 85, 87, 90, 94,

95, 96, 101, 153anti-European movement, 81, 106,

116–117, 125–126in Negeri Sembilan, 81, 102–103,

118, 155, 173–174migrate to peninsula, 55, 80, 104,

125, 131, 188, 379Raja Kecil and, 90–93, 104, 121



Index 435

Mindanao, 66, 67Miri, 229, 262Misa Melayu, 85, 96, 101, 130monsoon winds, 3–4, 16, 20, 23, 28,

30, 34, 45, 46, 47, 49, 65, 112, 118, 139, 190, 256

Mountbatten, Admiral Louis, 269Muar, 38, 39, 40, 45, 46, 56, 62, 72,

112, 126, 153, 173, 178Muhammad, R. later S. of Siak, 104,

111, 112Muhammad, S. of Selangor, 148,

155–156Muhammad I, S. of Kelantan

(d. 1837), 98, 132Muhammad II, S. of Kelantan

(d. 1886), 132, 201Muhammad IV, S. of Kelantan

(d. 1920), 204Muhammad Jiwa, S. of Kedah

(d. 1779), 94–95, 98, 105, 110–111Mukah river, 135–136, 147Multi-Purpose Holdings Bhd, 320–321Multimedia Super Corridor, 325–326,

330–331, 343, 359Muruts, 7, 66, 146, 195 198, 246Musa Hitam, 304, 320, 337Mustapha, Datu later Tun, 294, 335Mutahir, Tun of Pahang, 153–154,

175Muzaffar, S. of Melaka, 49, 55Muzaffar, S. of Perak (d. 1549), 67–68Muzaffar, S. of Perak (d. 1752), 90Muzaffar, Chandra, 339

NNakhon Sithammarat see Ligor Nalanda, 25, 30, 32Nanyang (Southern Ocean), 22, 23,

46, 97Naning (see also Negeri Sembilan), 55.

80, 81, 112, 115Naning War, 125–6

Napoleonic Wars, 119, 120

Narai, King of Ayutthaya, 76–77National Agricultural Policy (NAP),

304National Consultative Council (NCC),

304National Development Policy (NDP),

309, 314, 317, 318, 324–327, 340, 343, 345

National Equity Corporation, 312National Front, see Barisan Nasional National Language (Bahasa

Kebangsaan) see Malay language National Language Bill, 295National Operations Council (NOC),

303–306National Union of Plantation Workers,

299nation-building in Malaysia, 1942–69,

260–306 Alliance and, 282–287 communal conflict, May 1969,

302–306 economic developments and,

298–302 Emergency Regulations and,

275–279 ethnic tensions and, 295–298 Federation of Malaya and, 272–273 Federation unity and, 293–295 independence and, 279–282 Japanese Occupation and, 261–268 Malayan Union and, 268–272 Malaysia formation, 287–293 MCP and, 273–279

Nazrin, S. of Perak, 352Negeri Sembilan, 59, 103, 231, 237,

261British and, 125–6, 171–174, 178civil wars in, 155economy of, 189–190, 219–220,

322–323in the FMS, 174, 189 Minangkabau in, 55, 80–81, 155schools in, 231, 237



436 Index

Negrito, see Orang AsliNetherlands East Indies, 188, 189,

212, 222, 228, 251, 261 (see also Dutch)

New Economic Model, 355, 356 New Economic Policy (NEP), 307

economic and social restructuring under, 308–309, 322–324

eradication of poverty objective, 310–314, 324

in Borneo states, 314–316ethnicity/occupation association,

removing, 316–322, 342–343, 356non Malays and, 321, 344, 364 Islam and, 340–342

New Villages, 277–278, 301, 312Ngah Ibrahim, Menteri of Larut,

158–159, 166, 168, 170Ningkan, Stephen Kalon, 294nobat (drum of sovereignty), 56, 72,

95, 104, 119, 163, 200Non-Governmental Organizations

(NGOs), 333 (see also Civil Society Organizations)

North Borneo (see also British North Borneo Company, Sabah)

administration of, 252–3, 257Bajau and, 141Chinese in, 197, 225, 227, 262, 266Crown Colony, 269economy of, 226–228, 230, 259,

298–300 education in, 199, 245–247Japanese Occupation, 257, 262, 267,

269Malaysia, formation and, 288–97Native Chiefs’ Council in, 257Philippines and, 291–292rebellions in, 197–198

OOperation Lalang, 337Onn bin Ja’afar, Datuk, 271, 280, 283,

360

Opium, Chinese and, 145, 146, 149, 151,

152, 158, 184, 200, 228 trade in 108, 109, 112

Orang Asli, 5–6, 13–14, 51, 63, 146, 183

Government attitude towards, 313–314, 340, 364–365, 378

in Melaka, 51, 55in colonial Malaya, 188, 213Malays and, 14, 51, 55, 63, 99, 108,

141–142, 177, 182MPAJA/MCP and, 262, 266, 274,

278, 312as forest collectors, 5, 17, 45, 99,

142–143poverty and, 313–314, 354, 365slavery and, 168–169

Orang Laut (see also Sama Bajau), 6, 44, 51–52, 99, 118, 105

as collectors, 16–18piracy and, 16, 100, 104, 117–118,

138–142 in Srivijaya, 29–30, 33in Johor, 62, 64, 78–83, 86–87,

90–92drawn to R. Kecil’s family, 92, 104,

109help establish Melaka, 38, 45, 47,

51–53, 56Ord, Governor Harry, 133, 157,

161Overbeck, Baron von, 193

PPagarruyung, 80–81, 90, 102Pahang, 1–4, 136, 112, 113, 124,

Aceh and, 70, 75Bendahara of, 119, 124, 142, 157,

175breaks away from Riau-Johor, 117,

126, 127British intervention, 174–177, 178,

180, 189–90, 216



Index 437

civil war in, 153–154, 172gold in, 98, 174early history in, 12, 36, 45 in FMS, 190, 203, 204, 209, 213,

218, 249Johor and, 63, 74–75, 76, 79, 80, 90,

107Melaka and, 45, 55–56, 56, 72NEP and, 301, 322–323, 331Orang Asli in, 13, 14, 142, 177, 183Thais and, 72, 77, 128

Palembang (see also Srivijaya) 20, 48, 57, 81, 98

Islam in, 89, 114Malay links to, 52, 69, 85, 92, 94Melaka’s origins in, 37–41, 49–50,

54, 64, 82, 90, 114Orang Laut and, 86 Srivijaya and, 24–26, 30, 32, 33,

36–37palm oil, 223–224, 300, 311, 315, 322,

325, 356Pan Malayan Islamic Party see Parti

Islam Sa-Melayu (PAS)Pan Malayan Malay Congress , 250,

271Pangkor Island, 4, 69, 73Pangkor Treaty, 121, 163–164,

165–168, 170, 186, 252Paramesvara, 45, 47, 55Partai Kebangsaan Melayu Muda

(PKKM), 268, 271Parti Bansa Dayak Sarawak (PBDS),

334Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS), 335Parti Islam Sa-Melayu (PAS), 283, 303,

337–339, 341–342, 347–349, 360, 363, 367, 370–371

Parti KeADILan Nasional, 336, 338–339, 342

Parti KeADILan Rakyat (PKR), 349, 363Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu, 334Parti Rakyat Malaysia, 338Party Negara, 280–281

Pasai, 44, 46, 48, 55–56, 58–59, 61, 69Patani, 82, 93, 97, 98, 99–100, 107

early history, 26, 36, 59Islam in, 114–115, 210, 243Malay identity and, 96, 121,

130–1311902 rebellion in, 204–205,relations with Thais, 44, 56, 72–76,

77, 87, 96, 115–116, 127–130, 131, 132, 200, 204, 206

Pembela Tanah Air (PETA), 264Penan, 7, 14, 15Penang, 1, 4, 162, 250, 224, 376

British and, 115–117, 123–124, 125, 158,

Chinese in, 150–152, 157, 158, 234, 255

Indians in, 145, 245, 248intermarriage in, 130, 146, 147, 188Malayan Union and, 269–270politics in, 284, 301, 332, 338, 349,

360relations with Malay states, 128,

129, 131–132, 133, 159, 160, 200, 203–204, 219

schools in, 231, 232, 237, 244economy of, 108, 120, 323–324

Penarikan, 45, 72, 98penghulu, position of, 125, 149,

181–182, 239, 283People’s Action Party (PAP), 284,

293–294People’s Progressive Party (PPP),

302–303pepper, 55, 63, 74, 77, 80, 93, 95, 98,

102, 106, 109, 111, 118, 122, 144, 148–149, 219–220, 225, 227–228, 254

Perai, 12, 117, 125, 189, 216 see also Province Wellesley

Perak, 86, 101, 108, 177, 200, 249, 282 see also Kinta

Aceh and, 68–69, 70, 74archaeology in, 13, 18, 20, 34



438 Index

Perak (continued)British and, 116, 132, 157, 163,

166–172, 185Chinese in, 102, 129, 154, 158–159,

182, 184–185conflicts in, 95, 99, 157–159Dutch and, 69, 95–96, 98, 112education in, 231, 236–237, 241,

242, 244colonial economy of, 174, 178, 191,

200, 202, 205, 213, 220communists in, 277, 312in FMS, 179, 189–191, 252Malayan Union and, 271Melaka and, 55–56, 67–68, 95NEP and, 322–323,Orang Asli in, 51, 129, 226politics in, 302, 303, 349, 360Selangor and, 95, 103–104, 118Siam and, 44, 128–129tin in, 99–100, 218

Performance management and Delivery Unit (PEMANDU), 356

Perkasa, 349, 353, 360, 366, 367, 368, 371

Perlak, 35Perlis, 1, 2, 70, 131, 188, 200, 204,

224, 255, 261, 310, 323PERNAS (Perbadanan Nasional

Berhad) 318 PEMANDU (Performance Management

and Delivery Unit), 356 Permodalan Nasional Berhad (National

Equity Corporation), 319Philippines, 1, 14, 32, 48, 49, 65, 66,

68, 85, 291, 335claim to Sabah, 291–292, 294migrants from, 5, 7, 8, 328, 335,

351, 378Phuket (Ujung Salang), 127, 139, 200Pickering, William, 166, 184–5piracy and pirates, 16, 30, 33–34, 37,

38, 94, 100, 106, 114, 117–118, 127, 131, 134–135, 138–142, 143, 157, 160, 164, 166

Pires, Tomé, 37, 42, 46, 47, 51 plantations and estates, 6, 102, 144,

145, 148, 149, 152, 165, 216, 218, 219–221, 225, 226, 255, 262, 308, 315 (see also rubber, palm oil, Indians)

education on, 187, 231–232, 305–6

industrial estates, 311MCP and, 275–276workers on, 182, 183, 184, 185,

186–188, 199, 225, 227, 248, 262, 264, 274–275, 285, 299, 301, 312–313, 328, 364

Polo, Marco, 57pondok schools, 131, 202, 243Portuguese, 44, 64, 69, 70, 116, 151,

153, 188conquest of Melaka, 42, 61–62, 64,

66sources, 37, 43, 47, 51, 60Johor and, 63, 73, 75, 78, 79, 87

poverty, in Malaya/Malaysia, 187, 249, 255, 284, 300, 302, 309–316, 318, 324, 327–329, 344, 351, 354, 356

Prasat Thong, King of Ayutthaya, 75–75

Province Wellesley, 12, 117, 124, 125, 128, 132, 144, 158, 189, 200, 216, 220, 224

Pulau Gontong, 107, 108Pulau Tujuh, 17Putatan, 194, 197PUTERA, 273Putrajaya, 2, 326, 365

RRaffles, Thomas Stamford, 119, 121,

125, 126, 133, 139, 141, 173, 236Raffles Institution, 236railways, 189, 191, 196, , 198, 205,

216 217, 222,227, 255, 331, 349raja muda, position of

in Brunei, 134



Index 439

in Johor, 87, 89, 95in Kedah, 118in Kelantan, 97in Melaka, 68in Perak, 157–158, 159, 167, 181,

352in Selangor, 237, 255

Rawa, 188Razaleigh Hamzah, Tengku, 337Read, W.H., 135, 155, 156, 159, 160,

163 Red and White Flag societies, 151,

158, 183–184Reid Commission, 369, 281Rejang river, 3, 228Rembau (see also Negeri Sembilan)

British and, 173–174Dutch and, 106, 113disputes in, 126, 156, 172Minangkabau in, 80, 102, 103, 104,

125tin in, 98

Resident-General, 191–192, 216, 252Residential system, 122, 167, 174, 178,

179–182, 184Riau (see also Johor) 69, 80, 93, 97,

109, 118–119, 120, 126, 130, 138, 148, 153–154, 374

and Anglo-Dutch Treaty, 124attacked by Ilanun, 113attacked by R. Kecil, 90becomes capital of Johor, 87Bugis in, 93, 103–107, 109–111, 118 Chinese in, 102decline of, 114, 117, 121Dutch and, 78, 111–113, 119, 132,

149 Islam in, 109, 162piracy in, 139–140temenggung family and, 119,

126–127, 161, 172, 180trade of, 87

Riau-Lingga archipelagos, 17, 23, 29, 39, 57, 78

Orang Laut of, 56, 62, 80, 87, 92rice, 127, 151 181

in Kedah, 34, 95, 200–201, 225, in Sarawak and Sabah 137, 198,

228–229Malays and, 224–227, 310, 312

Ridley, H.N., 221riots of May 1969, 8, 260, 303–304,

307, 309, 312, 358, 372Rokan, 80, 86rubber, 4, 6, 190, 214, 217, 224, 225,

245, 256, 278, 283, 298Borneo and, 190, 199, 226, 227,

230–232, 247, 300, 315Chinese and, 220, 222European capital and, 217–219,

221growth of, 221–223plantation labour and, 187, 275,

312, 364in post-war economy, 299, 322–323smallholders, 222, 225, 250, 278,

300, 308, 310–311, 313, 315Rukunegara (Articles of Faith of the

State), 304, 306, 308rulers, Malay

constitution and, 352, 366control over resources, 97–98Chinese and, 101, 149, 151, 211Dutch and, 79colonialism and, 191–192, 251–256,

258, 367Malayan Union and, 270, 379position debated, 160–161, 337, 380relations with British Residents,

191–192, 205, 208subjects and, 52–53, 83, 100, 142,

209Thais and, 71–76, 115–116,

129–132, 201, 377Rundum Revolt, 198Rural and Industrial Development

Authority (RIDA), 277Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa), 48



440 Index

SSabah (see also North Borneo)

archaeology in, 12Christians in, 350economy of, 3, 4, 323, 332demography of, 6–7, 8, 15, 141, 334Malaysia and, 290–291, 292–293,

294, 297, 305, 352, 365–366, 376–378

migration and, 328–329, 351nineteenth-century British interest

in, 137–138, 193–194politics in, 294, 334–336, 344, 349,

350, 352rebellion in, 197–198sources on, 85, 123, 215under NEP, 314–316, 329sago, 135, 147, 228

Sambanthan, V.T., 280, 285Samudera (see also Pasai), 46, 58, 62,

368Sandakan, 193, 194, 195, 196, 226,

270Sarawak (see also Ibans, Bidayuh)

administration of, 137, 180, 196–197, 257–258

archaeology in, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 22, 35

Britain and, 135–136, 165, 193, 199, 213, 269–270

Charles Brooke and, 136, 192, 195–197, 198

Chinese in, 135, 146–147, 150, 152, 183, 235, 265, 314

demography of, 6–7, 8, 14–15, 17, 378

economy of, 142–143, 228–230, 298, 300, 315, 332

education in, 245–246, 289, 297ethnic roles in, 136–137, 257, 366,

379expansion of, 88, 138, 143, 192,

194–195,James Brooke and, 134–136

Japanese Occupation and, 262Malaya/Malaysia and, 2–3, 288–291,

305, 336, 344, 352, 376NEP and, 316, 323politics of, 250, 251, 334–335, 352sources for, 85, 123, 214, 215

Sarawak Communist Organization (SCO), 314

Sarikat Islam, 212sea products, 24, 41, 45, 48, 52, 92,

139, 196secret societies (see also Ghee Hin, Hai

San, Ho Hup Seah, Ho Seng, Toh Peh Kong, Red and White Flag), 150–152, 155, 156, 163, 171, 183–184, 211, 216

Sejarah Melayu (History of the Malays) 33, 37–38, 40, 43, 55, 68, 79, 125

describes Thai campaigns, 72–73Melaka and, 38–39, 45, 47, 54,

62–63ideas of kingship in, 41–42, 49,

50–53Islam in, 58, 61

Selangor (see also Kelang), 2, 12, 55, 69, 85–86, 99, 108, 109, 176, 178, 181, 201

Alliance and, 281, 303becomes independent from Johor,

103–104, 110, 121British policy towards, 157, 166,

169, 171, 174, 178, 181, 254, 270Chinese in, 102, 151, 154, 156–157,

182–183Bugis in, 81, 88, 90–92, 95, 105, 116civil war in, 155–157colonial economy and, 178, 180,

188–190, 202, 218, 220education in, 237, 239, 241FMS and, 191, 203, 210–211, 213,

249Kedah and, 89, 110–111NEP and, 323, 329, 340



Index 441

politics in, 350relations with Dutch, 112–113Thais and, 118, 129tin mining in, 98, 160

Semai, 6, 129 (see Orang Asli)Semangat 46, 337Semantan, Orang Kaya of, see

Bahaman, DatoSenoi, 6, 13 see Orang AsliSeri Teri Buana, 39, 45, 49, 52, 85Setul, 131, 200, 204shifting agriculture, 220, 313, 315Siak, 55, 56, 68, 79, 80, 90–91, 92, 101

civil wars in, 100, 104–105, 118Dutch and, 102–107, 112–113prosperity of, 114Terengganu and, 97, 109–111

Siam see under ThailandSiantan, 92, 99, 114Sidang Injil Borneo (Borneo

Evangelical Mission), 316Sikh police, 177, 186, 202, 216Sime & Darby, 217Singapore, 65, 98, 138, 140, 186, 190,

221, 236, 293, 296, 297, 304Borneo and, 134–135, 142,-143, 147,

155, 193, 195, 227–228, 230, 258British and, 84, 119–120, 122–123,

124, 163, 165, 260capital of Straits Settlements, 125 Chinese in, 144, 145–147, 148, 183,

232, 234, 239, 255, 262, 265, 376Husain, Sultan of, 50, 126, 139Islam in, 188, 213, 244, 250–251Japanese capture, 260, 261, 264, 266Communists in, 266, 274, 288–289Malaya/Malaysia and, 1, 268–269,

273, 281, 288–291, 293–294, 302, 306, 331, 349, 378

Melaka and, 38–40, 56merchants of, 124, 135, 136, 144,

149–150, 154–155, 164, 222Orang Laut in, 31, 33–34, 51–52,

141, 142

Peninsular Malay states and, 153, 156–157, 158, 160, 166, 169–170, 174–179, 191–192, 200, 207–208, 216, 218, 253, 256

secret societies in, 150–152, 184Siam and, 203, temenggung of, 117, 126–127, 155,

161–162, 172–173trade of, 120, 127, 129, 140, 143

Singh, Karpal, 338Singora (Songhkla), 116, 127–128,

131Sisters in Islam (SIS), 339, 371Slavery and slaves, 70, 73, 134, 135,

139, 146, 168–169, 175, 176, 180, 182, 183, 199

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), 354–355

Soekarno, 291–2Spain, Spanish, 67, 84, 137–138,

193–194Speedy, Captain T.C.S., 166, 169–170spice trade, 20, 48, 57–58, 61–6, 67,

88, 98, 109spice cultivation, 144Sreenevasan, Ambiga, 361, 362 Sri Lanka (see also Ceylon), 6, 186,

188Sri Menanti Confederacy, 173–174Srivijaya

evidence for, 20influence of, 28links with Melaka, 33–7, 52, 78,

337Orang Laut and, 29relations with China, 25, 31, 33,

66relations with Java, 28, 29rise of, 25–28trade of, 24–25, 29weakness of, 28–33

Stephens, Donald (Tun Haji Muhammad Dato Fuad), 290, 294

Stevenson Scheme, 222–223



442 Index

Straits Settlements (see also Singapore, Penang), 123, 138, 160, 161, 162, 168, 183, 184, 186, 212–213, 231, 240, 256

administration of, 125–127, 160, 240, 242, 261

Borneo and Malay states and, 136, 144, 153–159, 163–164, 170, 172–173, 195, 199–200, 202, 206, 216

Chinese in, 145–146, 150–151, 211, 218, 232, 235–236, 250, 266

government services in, 239merchants of, 124, 131, 135,

146–147, 204, 217–218Suez Canal, 144, 159, 162Sufism, 58, 70, 110, 131sugar, 217, 220, 222, 226, 228, 300, 344Sulaiman, S. of Riau-Johor, 90–93,

104–107Sulaiman, S. of Selangor, 179Sulawesi, 14, 58, 66, 81, 88

migrants from, 89, 103, 105, 121 (see also Bugis, Makassar)

Sultan Idris Training College, 242–243Sulu, 66–67, 85, 111, 140, 196, 198,

292British North Borneo Company and,

137–138, 193–194raiding from 113, 118–119, 139–140

Suma Oriental, 37, 38, 43Sumatra (see also Minangkabau and

under specific areas)east coast of, 82, 85, 96migration to Malay peninsula from,

75, 183Sun Yat Sen, 211Sungai Ujung (see also Negeri

Sembilan),British and, 166–167, 172–173,

174Chinese in, 146, 151, 183Minangkabau in, 55, 80–81, 125disputes in, 155, 171

Swettenham, Sir Frank, 166–167, 169, 171, 173–175, 179, 190–191, 201, 204–205, 207, 209, 213, 216, 271

views of Malays, 182, 238, 240syahbandar (harbour master), 48, 53

TTaiping (Larut), 189, 237Taksin, Phraya, 110Takuapa, 20Tamils, 20, 47, 101, 145

Jaffna, 186, 188, 237, 285, 287Hindraf and, 354labour, 286, 288, 332, 248, 262, 275,

312language, 8, 286, 305MIC and, 285nationalism, 265, schools, 8, 231–232, 313

Tan Cheng Lock, 235, 268–269, 273, 279, 280, 281, 284

Tan Hiok Nee, 149Tan Kim Cheng, 155, 156, 159 Tan Siew Sin, 285 tapioca, 144, 201, 219, 220, 222, 226,

255Tawi Sli, 294tax farms, 149, 151, 158, 159, 182,

184, 200tea, 97–98, 144, 220, 228teachers, 239, 297, 304

Chinese, 232–236, 273–4Indian, 291, 232Malay, 123, 209, 237, 240–242,

245–246, 250, 283, 298Muslim, 58, 60, 70, 115, 130, 162,

202, 243–244, 245, 371women as, 242–243, 317

technology, under NEP, 319, 323, 325–327, 343

Telegu, 187, 231 Teluk Anson, 189Temasek (see Singapore), 39



Index 443

temenggung, position of, 104, 107, 128

in Melaka, 48, 53, 51–54, 104of Singapore (see also Abu Bakar;

Ibrahim, Temenggung of Singapore), 117, 119 , 126–127

Temiar, 6, see also Orang AsliTempler, Sir Gerald, 278–279Temuan, 6, 51 see also Orang AsliTenom, 198Teochew, 6, 8, 102, 145, 149, 150, 152,

184, 185, 23 Terachi, 173Terengganu, 3, 18, 57, 69, 108, 130,

138, 178, 190, 213, 214, 249, 377British in, 154, 176, 207Chinese sources and, 26, 34, 35, 224gas and oil in, 318, 323Haji Drahman revolt, 226, 256independent kingdom, 90, 121 in eighteenth century, 93–107,

109–112, 114Islam in, 162, 202, 212NEP and, 322, 324PAS in, 284, 338, 340poverty in, 255, 310–311relations with Thais, 73–74, 87, 116,

127, 129, 132–133, 154, 200–202, 204–207, 262

Terengganu Stone, 12, 57, 59Ternate, 60, 63Thailand

Ayutthaya and Malay states, 36, 44, 56, 67, 69, 70, 71–77, 84, 86–87, 95–96, 110, 115

British and, 129, 132, 133, 153, 157, 163, 173, 188, 216, 225, 255

Communists and, 312during World War II, 261, 264,migrations of, Siam and Malay states, 69, 74, 87,

109, 112, 115–117, 118, 121, 127–133, 140, 166, 177, 199–208, 238, 243, 377

wars with Burma, 73, 75, 95–96, 109–110, 115, 127

workers from, 328timber, 17, 44, 45, 102, 133, 176, 196,

222–3, 226–227, 230, 289, 300, 315, 316, 322, 335, 356

tin mining, 4, 19, 68, 80, 81, 92, 95–96, 99–100, 118, 144–145, 158, 174, 222, 225–226, 256

Chinese and, 102, 122, 146, 148, 152, 154–159, 165–166, 182–183, 218, 234,248, 262, 278, 308

development of, in British Malaya, 189–200, 216–219

Dutch and, 69, 103, 107Europeans and, 97–98, 129, 14, 160post-war decline, 298, 300, 322

Tin Control Scheme, 219Tioman, Pulau, 27, 57, 92To’ Janggut, 210To’ Kenali, 243–244tobacco, 108, 144, 196, 226–227, 228Toh Peh Kong society, 150, 158–159tourism, 4, 314, 355, 356, 367trade (see also Portuguese, Dutch,

British, Malays, specific places and products)

Arabs and, 101Chinese and, 22–24, 28–29, 33,

35–37, 45, 65, 67, 97, 102, 137early, 11, 15–19, 28–31, 34, 58free trade, 120, 123, 135, 256, 311Indians and, 20–22, 95, 98, 101Islam and, 44, 56–60, 66, 70Melaka and, 45–55, 58native, declining, 105–106, 135,

140–141Orang Asli and, 99, 139, 142shifts in, 141–142, 164, 298trans-peninsular, 45, 71–72, 98

trade unions, 274, 275, 284–285, 302, 304, 358

Treacher, William, 193–194Trusan river, 195



444 Index

Tuhfat al-Nafis, 85, 87, 90, 94, 105, 109, 139, 140

T’ung Meng Hui, 211Turkey, 59, 70, 171, 207

UUjung Salang see PhuketUmar, Baginda, of Terengganu,

132–133, 138, 154, 162Umar, Sayid, 107unemployment (see also poverty), 214,

248, 249, 262, 276, 300–301, 312, 314–316, 329–330, 346, 351

Unfederated Malay States (see also Johor; Kedah; Kelantan; Perlis; Terengganu), 206, 208, 213, 215, 235, 242, 249, 252

during World War II, 261Islamic education in, 243–244Malay influence in, 249, 255

Ungu, R. of Patani, 75United Malays National Organization

(UMNO)1969 elections and, 303–305Alliance and, 278, 279, 280,

283–298, 321Barisan Nasional and, 2, 325–329,

333–334, 336, 340, 371Borneo states and, 335, 344, 351established, 271–273Islam and, 340–342, 369, 371Mahathir and 309, 325, 330,

336–338, 343, 346, 349Malays and, 301, 304, 308–309, 324,

347, 348, 356, 360, 367–368, 379Najib and, 350, 352–353, 358–359,

363opposition to, 359–360, 361Perkasa and, 349, 366, 367Singapore and, 288, 293Wanita UMNO (Women’s Branch),

319United People’s Party of Sabah, see

Berjaya

United Sabah National Organization (USNO), 335

urban poverty, 328Utusan Melayu, 250

VVictoria Institution, 237Vietnam, 13, 18, 48, 65, 87, 109, 136,

173, 193, 312Vijayapura, 27Vision 20/20, 324–327, 331, 380VOC, see Dutch East India Company

WWahhabi movement, 130Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, Dr, 338, 339Wan Mohamed Abdul Saman, 200Weld, Sir Frederick, 173–176, 178, 182,

195, 240Whampoa (Hoo Ah Kay), 146Wilkinson, R.J., 213, 238, 239,

241–242Wilson, Sir Samuel, 253Winstedt, R.O., 174, 209, 239, 242,

246, 271wolfram, 206women, 130, 147, 113, 124, 198

as queens and royal wives, 38, 39, 65, 68, 70, 75, 82, 86, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 104, 107, 110, 169

as slaves or captives, 116, 166, 169,Chinese, 37, 183, 234, 266education, 211, 242, 243, 246–247,

297, 317, 327 employment of, 59, 124, 311, 319,

323, 338European, 166, 210Indian, 187, 265Islam and, 327, 340, 341, 371intermarriage, 51, 101, 108, 379NEP and, 323, 327Orang Asli, 313–314, 328political involvement of, 271, 283,

314, 334–340



Index 445

World War I, 206, 223, 225, 252, 299World War II, 215, 244, 251, 258,

261–26; see also Japanese occupation

Yyang dipertuan agung, 2, 281, 304yang dipertuan besar,

in Johor, 91in Negeri Sembilan , 125, 155

yang dipertuan muda (yamtuan muda), as Bugis title, 91, 105, 112, 118

Yap Ah Loy, Chinese captain, 152, 156, 183

Yiqing, 24, 27, 29, 30Yunnan, 18, 147Yusuf, R. later S. of Perak, 158,

167–168, 170, 171, 172

ZZa ‘ba (Zainal Abidin bin Ahmad),

249, 250Zainal Abidin, S. of Terengganu

(d. 1733), 93Zainal Abidin, S. of Terengganu

(d. 1918), 201, 206



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